2 Biological

Classification

NCERT Topicwise Analysis of Previous

Years'NEET NEET Last Three
Questions Years'Weightae
Year
NCERT Topic
[Link]
2021
2.3 Kingdom
Fungi 1 (%

2.1Kingdom
Monera
2022

1
QuestionS
2.2 Kingdom of
Protista

No.
2023

2021 2022 2023

NCERT ØNoles
2.0 Introduction
>Biological classification is the scientific way of
orderly arranging
similarities and differences in certain
organisms into groups on the
easily observable basis of their
but fundamental
Aristotle was the earliest characterS.
toattempt a more
scientific basis for
characters to classification of organisms.
classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs. He used simple morphological
red blood (enaima) and He also divided animals
those that did not (anaima).
into two groups, those which
had
Linnaeus gave a two
kingdom system of classification : Kingdoms Plantae and
plants and animals respectively. Animalia that included
This system
()eukaryotes and prokaryotes, (ii) unicellular
was used
and
till very recently. This system did not distinguish between
all

the:
multicellular organisms and (i)
non-photosynthetic (fungi) photosynthetic (green algae) and
organisms. Hence, the two kingdom

+:
classification used for a long time was found inadequate.
Haeckel introduced three kingdom system with
Kingdoms Plantae, Protista and
Animalia.
Copeland gave four kingdom
system having Kingdoms
Monera, Protista, Plantae and Animalia.

R.H. Whittaker (1969)

HD
proposed a five kingdom
named Monera, Protista, system of [Link]
Fungi, Plantae and kingdoms defined by him were
Animalia. It is the most
criteria for
classification used by him includes accepted system of classification.
cell structure,
The main
phylogenetic
body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction
relationships. and

Table:Characteristics of the five kingdoms

Characters
Five Kingdoms
Monera
Cell Protista
type Prokaryotic Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell wall Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Non-cellulosic (Polysaccharide + amino acid) Present
Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Nuclear in some Present (with chitin)
Absent Present (with cellulose)Absent
membrane Present
Present
Present |Present
 Biology | Biological Classification
19
Body Cellular

organisation eCellular Multicellular/ Tissue/organ Tissue/organ/

loose tissue
Mode of Autotrophic organ system
(chemosynthetic and
nutrition and photosynthetic)|Autotrophic
heterotrophic |Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(saprophytic/parasitic)
|(photosynthetic)(saprophytic/ (photosynthetic) (holozoic/
and heterotrophic parasitíc)
saprophytic, etc.)
Mode of Conjugation
Fusion of
Fertilisation Fertilisation
reproduction |Fertilisation
gametes and

conjugation

Viruses have not been included in five kingdom system of classification.

The three-domain system has also been proposed that divides the Kingdom Monera into two domains,
leaving the
remaining eukaryotic kingdoms in the third domain and a
thereby six kingdom classification.
Earlier classification systems included bacteria, blue green algae, fungi, mosses,ferns,
gymnosperms and the angiosperms
all under Plants". All these organisms have cell wall. It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the blue green
algae with other groups which were eukaryotic. It also grouped together the unicellular and the multicellular organisms,
e.g., Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed together under algae.

Fungiwhich are non-photosynthetic had been grouped as plants (autotrophs), though they also showed a characteristic
difference –
in their walls composition the fungi had chitin in their cellwalls while the green plants had a cellulosic cell

wall. When these characteristicS were considered, the fungi were placed in a separate kingdom - Kingdom Fungi.

All prokaryotic organisms were grouped together under Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic
organisms were placed in Kingdom Protista. Kingdom Protista has brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella

(earlier placed in algae within plants and both having cellwalls) with Paramecium and Amoeba(which were earlier

placed in the animal kingdom which lack cell wal). It has put together organisms which, in earlier classifications, were
placed in different kingdoms.

Progressively, an attempt has been made [Link] a classification system which reflects not only the morphological,

physiological and reproductive similarities, but also phylogenetic, ie., based on evolutionary relationships.

2.1 Kingdom Monera

Bacteria are the sole members of Kingdom Monera. Kingdom Monera consists of prokaryotic organisms only.

extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow

Bacteria occur almost everywhere. They are present in soil, live in

torms can survive, sSome as parasites.

and deep oceans where very few other lite live

the spherical coccus cocci), the rod-shaped

Bacteria are divided into four categories based on their shape: (pl.:

the comma-shaped vibrium (pl.: vibrio) and the spiral spirillum (pl.: spirilla).
bacillus (pl.: bacilli),

Flagellum
Spore

Spirilla

Cocci Bacilli Vibrio

Fig.: Bacteria of different shapes

organisms, bacteria
complex in behaviour. Compared to many other
is very simple, they are very
The bacterial structure
(synthesise food from
metabolic diversity. Some bacteria
are autotrophic
as a group show the most extensive or on
(they do not synthesise food but depend on other organisms
substrates). Majority are heterotrophs
inorganic
food).
dead organic matter for
by peptidoglycan and teichoic acid.
cell wall is characterised
Bacterial fimbriae
to the cell wall are glycocalyx or capsule, flagella,

cell structures that are present external Nucleoid

The bacterial cytoplasm, etc.
plasma membrane, mesosome,
nucleoid,
internal to the cell wall include
andpili. The structures

the genetic material of bacteria.

represents
 bdsed on the nature of atyour
Hingertips
staining
Gram +ve (single (developed by
layered,
Christian Gram, 1884,
consisting teichoic
termed Gram
layered, no teichoic acid acid and
retain Gram
staining),
bacteria may be
and do not retain
stain) e.g.,
Bacillus
due to high stain) e.g., subtilis or Gram
Is
lipid Escherichiacoli. -ve (three
of cell wallcontent Washing of the stain
then decolourises which gets in Gram
-ve bacteria
dissolved in organic
the newly solvents like
exp0sed acetone, alcohol, etc.
other hand, have peptidoglycan layer by Alcohol
thick removing crystal violet
peptidoglycan layer which dye. Gram +ve
prevents washing of bacteria on the
crystal violet stain.
IWo major groups of
Monera include :
ISof further two Archaebacteria (ancient
types; bacteria
and bacteria) and Eubacteria
cyanobacteria. Some other (true bacteria). Eubacteria
actinomycetes. groups of monerans are
mycoplasma, rickettsiae and

Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria are a group of the most primitive
major types : prokaryotes found in most harsh habitats.
methanogens, halophiles and Archaebacteria are of three
thermoacidophiles.
several ruminant animals like cows
and buffaloes.
Methanogens are obligate
These anaerobes found in gut of
from the dung of these bacteria are responsible for production
animals. Halophiles are of methane
very high salt "salt-loving bacteria" as they are found (biogas)
concentration. to live in
Thermoacidophiles are found in hot environments with a
Archaebacteria differ from other suiphur springs.
bacteria in having a different cell
of archaebacteria. wall structure.
This feature is Peptidoglycan is absent in
responsible for their survival the cell wall
in extreme
condition.
Eubacteria
Eubacteria are characterised by the presence of rigid cell wall and a flagellum (if motile).
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)have chlorophyll a, similar to green plants and
are photosynthetic
autotrophs. The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial
filamentous. The or
colonies are generally surrounded by
gelatinous They
form blooms in polluted
sheath. often Heterocyst
water bodies. Some of these organisms can fix
nitrogen in specialised atmospheric
cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
Bacteria show both autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
can be Autotrophic bacteria
Mucilagenous sheath
chemoautotrophic (e.g., nitrifying
and photoautotrophicbacteria)
(e.g., purple bacteria, green sulphur bacteria).
Heterotrophic bacteria can be
saprotrophic (saprophytic bacteria), symbiotic
(e.g., Rhizobium, Frankia,
etc.)
and parasitic (e.g., Vibrio cholerae).

Chemosyntheticautotrophic bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances Fig.: A filamentous

such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the
blue-green algae-Nostoc
released energy for their ATP
[Link] play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and sulphur.
Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant in
nature. The majority are important decomposers.
making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing
They are helpful in
nitrogen in legume roots, etc.
Some are pathogens causing damage to human
beings, crops, animals,
are well known diseases
etc. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker
caused by different bacteria.
Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission. Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions, they Cell
produce spores. They also reproduce by a sort of
membrane
sexual reproduction by adopting a
wall
DNA Cell

+
primitive type of transfer from one bacterium to the other.

Sexual reproduction is not true DNA

sexual reproduction but is limited to mere genetic
recombination mainly by three methods: transformation (absorption of DNA
segment from surrounding medium), transduction (transfer of genetic material
by agency of bacteriophages)and conjugation (between donor cell having sex
pili and F-factor and recipient cell lacking both). Fig.:A dividing
bacterium

Mycoplasma, the smallest monerans, are pleomorphic (flexible in shape as they lack cell walI) and are called PPLOs
(Pleuro-pneumonia like organisms). Ihese are insensitive to antibiotics that affect cell wall synthesis like penicilin
because cell wall is absent. Mycoplasma can suvive without oxygen. Ihey can live as saprotrophs or are parasitic on
humans, plants and animals.
Biology |
Biological Classification
21

Mycoplasma is also known as 'Jokers of Plant Kingdom".

2.2 Kingdom Protista

All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Kingdom Protista. This kingdom forms a connecting link with the others
dealing with plants, animals and fungi. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. Being eukaryotes, the protistan cel body
contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia. Protists reproduce
and by

+
asexually sexually a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation.

Mode of nutrition may be parasitic, ingestive, photosynthetic, saprophytic, mixotrophic, etc.

This group includes photosynthetic phytoplanktons, non-photosynthetic zooplanktons and disease causing

parasites.

Food reserve is starch, glycogen, paramylon, chrysolaminarin and fat.

Chrysophytes, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, slime moulds and protozoans are included under Kingdom Protista.

Chrysophytes
Chrysophytes includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments.

They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton). Majority of them are photosynthetic. Diatoms are the

chief 'producers' in the oceans.

shells, which fit together like a soap box. The walls are enclosed with silica
In diatoms, the cellwalls form two thin overlapping
They pile up at the bottom of water reservoirs and forms big heaps called diatomaceous
and so the walls are indestructible.

earth'. Being gritty, this soil is used in polishing,filtration of oils andsyrups.

Dinoflagellates
yellow, green,
Dinoflagellates are mostly marine and photosynthetic. They appear
in their
of various pigments present
brown,blue or red due to change in proportion

on the outer surface. Most of them have

cell. The cell wall has stiff cellulose
plates

transversely in a furrow between

one lies longitudinally and the other
two flagella;

the wall plates.

and make
multiplication
Red dinoflagellates (e.g., Gonyaulax) undergo rapid
by such numbers may even
larqe
appears red (red tides). Toxins released
the sea
as fishes. They show bioluminescence due to
such
kill other marine animals Some Dinoflagellate
They are also known as night light. Fig.:

granules in cytoplasm.
photogenic
are taken as food by mussels.
species of dinoflagellates

Euglenoids
stagnant water. They have
a protein
organisms found in
Euglenoids are fresh water body flexible.
of a cel wall which makes their
pellicle, instead
rich layer called in the
photosynthetic
a short and a long one. They are
They have two flagella,
like heterotrophs
by
of sunlight they behave Euglena
presence of sunlight, when deprived are similar to
Fig.:

euglenoids
organisms.
The pigments of
on other smaller
predating
plants. Example: Euglena.
those present in higher

Slime Moulds The body moves

called fungus animals.
protists, also suitable
Slime moulds are saprophytic organic materials. Under
engulfing
twigs and leaves which may grow
along decaying plasmodium
called
they form an
aggregation
Conditions, conditions, the plasmodium
During untavourable
feet.
and spread over
several tips. The spores
spores at their
forms fruiting bodies bearing
Slime mould
differentiates
and for many years, even Fig.:
resistant and survive

true walls.
They are extremely E.g., Physarum.
possess by air currents.
The spores are dispersed
under adverse conditions.
 22
mitG Objective NCERT at your
Protozoans Fingertine

All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.

the basis of locomotory They are called primitive
organelles, relatives of animals. o
protozoans are divided into four major groups.
Amoeboid protozoans :These organisms live in fresh
are parasites. water, sea water or moist
They move and capture their food by
soil. Some of them such as
pseudopodia (false Entamoeba
shells on their feet) as in [Link] forms have silica
surface.

Flagellated protozoans:
The members of this
group are either
forms cause diseases. free-living or parasitic. They have
Example: Trypanosoma flagella. The parasitic
causes sleeping
sickness.
Leishmania donovani causes
kala-azar or dum-dum fever. The parasite is
Giardia intestinalis causes giardiasis transmitted by sandfly.
disease.
Trypanosomacauses Southcruzi
American trypanosomiasis
(also called
Chagas disease).
Ciliated protozoans :
These are aquatic,
actively moving
to the presence of a organisms due
number of cilia. They
to the outside of have a cavity
the cell surface. (gullet)that opens
By the
water with food enters coordinated movement of
cilia,
qullet. Example:
Paramecium.
LCiliates show nuclear dimorphism Fig.: Parameciumo
or twotypes of nuclei,
micronucleus. larger
macronucleus (= meganucleus)
Macronucleus controls and
metabolic activities and growth. smaller
Micronucleus takes part in It is also called
reproduction. It is termed as vegetative nucleus.
reproductive nucleus.
Sporozoans: All sporozoans
are endoparasites.
have an Locomotory organs are
infectious spore-like stage in absent. They includes
their life diverse organisms
malaria,a disease
cycle. The most notorious that
is
which has a Plasmodium (malarial
staggering effect on human parasite) which causes
population.

23 Kingdom Fungi
oienid
The fungi constitute a unique
kingdom of
habitat. The heterotrophic organisms. They
common mushroom and toadstools shoW a great diversity in
Some are some examples of fungi. morphology and
unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to
e.g., white spots seen make bread and
on mustard
beer. Some fungi cause
leaves, wheat diseases in plants and animals,
Penicillium. rust-causing fungi Puccinia. Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g.,
Fungi are
cosmopolitan and occur in air, water,
soil and on animals and
places. plants. They prefer to grow in warm and humid
Except yeast which
are (unicellular),
filamentous.
fungi are
called hyphae. The Fungal bodies consist
network of hyphae of long, slender
is known as thread-like structures
mycelium. Some hyphae
multinucleated cytoplasm
these are called -coenocytic [Link]
are continuous
tubes filled with
The cell walls of have septae or
fungi are composed of cross walls in their
chitin and
Most fungi are polysaccharides. hyphae.
heterotrophic. They absorb soluble
organic matter from
Some fungi depend on living dead substrates and
hence are called
plants and animals
are called saprophytes.
with algae as lichens parasites. Some also live
and with roots of
higher plants as
mycorrhiza.
as symbionts
in association -
Mycorrhizal association is not very
the residence of
specitic. A plant can form
the fungus, assSociation with

endomycorrhizae
mycorrhizae
(endotrophic mycorrhizae).
are of two types -ectomycorrhizae (ectotrophic Depending
several fungi.
upon
mycorrhizae) and

Reproduction in
fungi can take place by
hycpores called
conidia or
vegetative means
tragmentation,fission and -
budding. Asexual
sporangiosporesor zo0spores, and reproduction is
and basidiospores. The various spores
sexual reproduction
is by
are produced in distinct oospores, ascospores
structures called fruiting bodies.
 Biology |Biological Classification

The sexual cycle 23

involves the following
three steps:
(i) Fusion of protoplasms
between twO motile or non-motile
gametes
(ii) Fusion of two nuclei called
karyogamy.
called
plasmogamy.o T
(ii) Meiosis in zygote results in haploid
spores.
When a tungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come
fungi, the fusion of two together and fuse. In some
haploid cells immediately results iniploid cells (2n). However, in
and basidiomycetes), an other fungi (ascomycetes

a dikaryon
intervening dikaryotic stage (n +n i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs. This condition is
and the phase is called
called
dikaryophase of funqus. Later, the parental
diploid. The
nuclei fuse and the cells become
fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores.
Kingdom fungi is divided into various classes depending upon the morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore
formation and fruiting bodies. The various classes of Kingdom Fungiare :
Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes
and Deuteromycetes.

Phycomycetes
These are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in Sporangiospores
moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants. The
Sporangium.
mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction takes
Columella
place by zo0spores (motile)or by aplanospores (non-motile). These
spores are endogenously produced in sporangium. Zygospores Apophysis

are formed by fusion two gametes. These gametes are similar

of

in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamousor Sporangiophore

oogamous). Sexual reproduction takes place by isogamy or

heterogamy. Heterogamous reproduction may be anisogamous
and oogamous. Some common examples are Mucor, Rhizopus Rhizoid

(bread mould) and Albugo (parasitic fungi on mustard).

Fig.: Rhizopus

Ascomycetes
as sac-fungi. They may be unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces) or multicellular, e.g.

These are commonly known

(growing on dung). Mycelium is branched
decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous
Penicilliunm. They are saprophytic,

and septate.
the special mycelium
exogenously on
The asexual spores are conidiaproduced Sexual
on germination produce mycelium.
called [Link] in sac like asci
are produced endogenously
spores called ascosporeswhich bodies
in different types of fruiting
ascus). These asci are arranged
(singular
are Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora.
called ascocarps. Some examples work. Many members
in biochemical
and genetic
Neurospora is used extensively
considered delicacies.
are edible and are Fig.: Aspergillus
like morels and
truffles

fungi
Basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket
Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes
also called club fungi. e.g., rusts and smuts.
Basidiomycetes are and in living plant bodies
as parasites,
on logs and tree stumps
or puffballs. They grow
in soil, every
pore is present in
and septate. Inbasidiomycetes,one central
The mycelium is branched dolipore septum.
is barrel-shaped due towhich it is called is
septum. This pore reproduction
by fragmentation
not found, but vegetative
are generally by fusion of two vegetative
The asexual spores is brought about

sex organs are absent but plasmogamy is dikaryotic

which
[Link] or genotypes.
The resultant structure
strains producing
of different
or somatic cells place in the basidium
Karyogamy and meiosis take basidia).
basidium. (pl.:
ultimately gives rise to produced on the
basidium Fig.: Agaricus
are exogenously members are
four basidiospores.
The basidiospores
basidiocarps.
Some common
bodies called
fruiting
arranged in
The basidia are (rust funqus).
and Puccinia
(mushroom), Ustilago (smut)
Agaricus
 24
WtG bjective NCERT at your
Fingertioe

Deuteromycetes
They are commonly known as
imperfect fungi, because only their asexual or vegetative phases are known
When perfect (sexual) stages were discovered, they
ascomycetes and
were often moved tothe classes
It is also possible that asexual and vegetative stage have been given one name (and basidiomycetes.
and the sexual stage another placed under
(and placed under another class).
When the linkages were established, deuteromycetes)
correctly identified and moved out the fungi woce
of deuteromycetes.

Deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia. The mycelium

is septate and
members are saprophytes or parasites branched, Some
while a large number of them are
decomposers of litter and help in
cycling. Some examples are Alternaria, and Trichoderma.
minersl

+
Colletotrichum

Claviceps purpurea causes ergot disease in Bajra.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is also called baker's yeast.

Agaricus is also called gill fungi.

Most delicious mushroom is Agaricus bisporus.

Red rot of sugarcane andearly blight of potato is caused by Colletotrichum falcatum and
respectively. Alternaria solani

2.4 Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryoticchiorophyll-containing
heterotrophic such as the organisms commonly called
insectivorous plants or parasites.
plants. Some are partially
plants and Cuscuta is a parasite.
Bladderwort and Venus fly trap
The plant cells have an are examples of
insectivorous
eukaryotic
cell wall. Life cycle
of plants has two
struCture with prominent
that alternate with each
distinct phases
the diploid
sporophytic and the
- chloroplasts and cellulosic

length of the haploid and

other. This
phenomenon is called
alternation of generation.
haploid gametophytic -
diploid phases is varied. Also, Among different plant groups,
The kingdom plantae these phases are
includes
free-living or dependent on
algae, bryophytes, others.
pteridophytes,
gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
2.5 Kingdom Animalia
Animal kingdom is
characterised by multicellular
directly heterotrophic,
or indirectly eukaryotic organisms that are
depend on plants for without
food. They digest their
cell wall. They
glycogen or fat. Their mode of nutrition food in an internal
is holozoic
cavity and store food
grow (by ingestion reserves as
into adults of food). They follow a
that have a definite
shape and size.
definite growth and
Most of them Higher forms show elaboratesensory and pattern
are capable of
locomotion. The sexual neuromotor mechanism.
reproduction is by
embryological development. copulation of male and female
followed by

2.6 Viruses, Viroids,

Prions and Lichens
Viruses did not find a place in
classification since they are
organisms that are not considered truly
characterised by having an 'living'. The viruses are non-cellular
inert
cellthey take over the crystalline structure outside the
machinery of the host When they infect a living cell.
cell to
venom or poisonous replicate themselves,killing the
fluid was
by Pasteur.
given host. The name
Dmitri lvanovsky virus that
organism of the mosaic means
disease of tobacco. (1892) recognised
These were found to certain
be smaller than microbes as causal
bacteria-proof filters. M.W. bacteria
Beijerinck (1898) because they passed
cause infection in demonstrated that the extract through
healthy plantsand of the infected
named the newW pathogen plants of tobacco could
(infectious living fluid). virus and called
W.M. Stanley (1935) the fluid as
Contagium
showed that viruses could Vivum fluidum
proteins. They are inert be crystallised and
outside their specitic crystals consist
host [Link] largely of
also contain
genetic material, are obligate
that could be either parasites. In
addition to proteins,
nucleoprotein and the genetic
RNA or DNA. No virus viruses
contains both RNA and
and viruses that
material is
intectious. In general, DNA, A virus is a
infect animals viruses that infect plants
have either single or have single
double stranded RNA stranded RNA
or double stranded
DNA.
Biology |Biological Classification

25

+) Double stranded or
T,(linear),
hepatitis
dsDNA are adenovirus,
B, simian virus
herpes simplex

40(SV40), polyoma
virus, pox virus, cauliflower
mosaic, coliphage lambda,
Single stranded or (circular or cyclic).
ssDNA are coliphage MS2,coliphage fd (linear),
Single stranded or
ssRNA are
coliphage x 174 (cyclic).
poliomyelitis virus, foot and mouth
virus, disease virus, influenza
retroviruses, turnip virus, roUs sarcoma
yelow mosaicvirus, tobacco
virus (all linear). necrosis virus, TMV, potato mosaic virus, bean
mosaic

Bacteriophages are viruses that infect the

bacteria are usually
double stranded DNA viruses. The protein coat called capsid made
of small subunits Head
called capsomeres,protects the nucleic acid.
These capsomeres are arranged in helical Collar
or polyhedral Sheath
geometric
forms.

Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes, polio, RNA
measles, influenza and AIDS.
Capsid
Tail fibres
In plants, symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and
(a)
(b)
Fig.: (a)Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TM),(b) Bacteriophage
curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.

In viruses, reproduction is of two main types- phagic and pinocytic. In pinocytic reproduction, the whole virus

(exceptenvelope, if present) passes into the host cel. In phagic reproduction, only the nucleoid enters the host cel.

Phagic reproduction has two sub-types :lytic and lysogenic. In lytic cycle, the host cell undergoeslysis (die) and
in lysogenic cycle, the host cell does not get lysed.

Viroids
Diener discovered new infectious agent that was smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber
In 1971, T.O. a

It was found to be free RNA; it lacked

a the protein coat that is found in viruses, hence the name viroid.
disease.

The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.

Prions
agents. They are not affected by proteases,
which function as infectious
Prions are highly resistant glycoprotein particles
be by prions. These are
infectious neurological diseases were found to transmitted
nucleases, UV rays, etc. Certain
(BSE)
by prions are bovine spongiform encephalopathy
similar in size to viruses. The most notable diseases caused
disease (CJD).
Creutzfeldt-Jakob
cow disease in cattle and its analogous
variant
commonly called mad

Lichens The algal component is

useful
between algae and fungi.
associations,
associations, i.e., mutually respectively.
Lichens are symbiotic are autotrophic and heterotrophic,
as mycobiont, which
phycobiont and fungal component and water for its partner.
Lichens
known as
and absorb mineral
nutrients
shelter
for fungi and fungi provide
Algae prepare food areas.
they do not grow
in polluted
indicators,
are very good
pollution