Unit-4

Energy from water:-

Hydropower, or hydroelectric power, is a renewable energy source that utilizes the energy of
moving water, like in rivers and streams, to generate electricity.

OTEC: OTEC stands for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, a technology that harnesses
the temperature difference between the warm surface waters and cold deep waters of the ocean to
generate electricity.

OTEC Power Plant or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is an energy technology, which uses
the ocean’s natural temperature gradient to drive a turbine, which is connected to a generator. It
is desirable that the temperature difference between the warm surface water and the cold deep
water in sea should be at least 20°C (68°F).

Basic principle:
OTEC Power Plant systems rely on the basic relationship between pressure (P), temperature (T)
and volume (V) of a fluid, which can be expressed by the following equation:

PV/T= Constant where pressure, temperature and the volume of a fluid can be closely
controlled by manipulating the other two variables. Hence the differential in temperature of the
 fluid can be used to create an increase in pressure in another. The increase in pressure is utilized
to generate mechanical work.

Most of the sun’s radiation is absorbed by sea water. Thus warm water on the ocean’s surface
flow from tropics towards poles. Cold water circulates at the ocean bottom from poles to the
tropics. Hence, in the tropical regions the water temperature is around 5°C at a depth of 1000 m,
where as at the surface, it remains almost constant at 25°C.

Thus, we can employ a closed Rankine cycle to generate power between these two steady
temperatures. Such plants are called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Plants (OTEC).
These systems would be located offshore on large floating platforms or inside floating bulls. The
warm surface water is used for supplying the heat input in the boiler, while the cold water
brought up from the ocean depths is used for extracting the heat in the condenser.

OTEC Power Plant works on a closed cycle Rankine cycle and use lower boiling point working
fluid like propane, ammonia, R-12, etc., This system can be located off shore i.e on large floating
platforms. To supply heat input to boiler, warm surface water is used and for extracting heat in
condenser, cold water is brought up from depths of the ocean.

The efficiency of the rankine cycle will be low due to small temperature difference between hot
and cold streams. This system allows only small temperature drop of 4 to 5°C across the boiler
and condenser. OTEC system is attractive because both the collection and storage of energy is
done automatically by nature.

Types of OTEC Power Plant:

There are basically three types of OTEC systems developed that can utilise sea water
temperature differentials.

 Closed cycle
 Open cycle
 Hybrid cycle
Closed-cycle OTEC System:
The closed-cycle system uses a working fluid, like ammonia, pumped around a closed loop,
which has three components: a pump, turbine and heat exchangers (evaporator and condenser).
Warm seawater passing through the evaporator converting the ammonia liquid (4) into high-
pressure ammonia vapour at (5).

The high-pressure vapour at (1) is then fed into an expander where it passes through and rotates a
turbine connected to a generator. Low-pressure ammonia vapour leaving the turbine (2) is passed
through a condenser, where the cold seawater cools the ammonia, returning the ammonia back
into a liquid (3).
Open-Cycle OTEC system:
The open-cycle system is generally similar to the closed-cycle system and uses the same basic
components. The open-cycle system uses the warm seawater as the working fluid. The warm
seawater passing through the evaporator (2) is converted into steam (3), which drives the
turbine/generator. After leaving the turbine (5), the steam is cooled by the cold seawater to form
desalinated water. The desalinated water is pure fresh water for domestic and commercial use.

Hybrid OTEC System:

The hybrid system uses parts of both open-cycle and closed-cycle systems to produce electricity
and desalinated water. In this arrangement, electricity is generated in the closed-cycle system and
the warm and cold seawater discharges are passed through the flash evaporator and condenser of
the open-cycle system to produce fresh water.
 Advantages of OTEC Power Plant:
 It is clean form of energy conversion.
 It does not occupy land areas.
 No payment for the energy required.
 It can be a steady source of energy since the temperature are almost steady.
Disadvantages:
 About 30% of power produced will be used to pump water.
 The system should to withstand strong harmful effects of sea water. (hurricane, debris, fishes)
 The material used should withstand corrosive atmosphere.
 Very high investment is required.
 Plant size is limited to 100 MW due to large size of components.

Wave Energy:
Wave energy is a form of renewable energy that can be utilized from the motion of the waves.
As waves are formed in the ocean, they create kinetic energy or movement. It is used to power
turbines and create energy that can be converted into electricity and power. Wave power is the
capture of energy of wind waves to do useful work – for example, electricity generation,
desalination, or pumping water. A machine that exploits wave power is a wave energy
converter.

There are three main categories; oscillating water columns that use trapped air pock- ets in a
water column to drive a turbine; oscillating body converters that are floating or submerged
devices using the wave motion (up/down, forwards/ backwards, side to side) to generate
electricity.

Formula,
The amount of energy can be measured in joules (J) of work, calories (c) of heat, or kilowatt-
hours (kWh) of electricity. The standard measurement of energy in science is the joule. The
amount of energy in a wave depends on its height and wavelength as well as the distance over
which it breaks.

Advantage: Wave power is renewable since no fuel is needed. All that's needed is wind and
water. Wind and water are free, natural, and we have an infinite supply. It is clean as there is no
pollution generated.

Waves are moving, so they contain kinetic energy. That kinetic energy can be used to drive
movement in special devices that are placed on or just below the surface of the ocean, such as:

 Point absorber buoys

 Oscillating water columns

 Overtopping devices

Types of wave energy devices: Wave energy devices are the tools that allow us
to effectively harness wave energy by transforming the kinetic energy of waves into usable
electricity. These devices, like point absorber buoys, oscillating water columns (OWCs), and
overtopping devices, each have unique mechanisms for capturing and converting wave energy.
Let’s examine these devices in more depth, uncovering the process through which they convert
ocean waves into a renewable energy source.

1. Point absorber buyos: Imagine a buoy bobbing in the ocean, rising and falling with
the waves. This is more than just a floating device; it’s a point absorber buoy, a device designed
to generate electricity by harnessing the energy of ocean waves.

These buoys use a floating cylinder to capture the vertical movement of waves, which is then
harnessed through a cable anchored to the seabed. This up and down motion is subsequently
transformed into electricity via converters such as alternators, linear generators, or hydraulic
systems.

[Link] water columns (OWCs)

Another intriguing wave energy device is the Oscillating Water Column (OWC), a device that
uses wave power to generate electricity. These devices use the rise and fall of waves to compress
air, which then drives a turbine to produce electricity. As the waves rise and fall, the air in the
column is forced to move, creating a strong air flow that can power turbines.

Tidal Energy: Tidal energy is a renewable energy source that harnesses the power of the
ocean's tides to generate electricity. It's a clean energy source that doesn't contribute to global
warming or acid rain.

1) Single Basin tidal systems: A single basin tidal power plant uses one large basin enclosed
by a dam or barrage to capture the energy of the tides. During high tide, the basin fills, and
during low tide, the water flows back through turbines, generating electricity. This system is
simpler than double-basin plants but only operates during ebb tides, limiting power generation.

The above figure shows a general arrangement of single basin tidal power plant (double cycle
system). Such plants generally use reversible water turbines so that power is generated on low
tide as well high tide.
The operation of the plant is as follows:
When the incoming tide sea level and tidal-basin level are equal, the turbine way is closed. When
the sea level rises, the turbine valves are opened and the sea water flows into the basin through
the turbine runner generating power. This also raises the level of water in the basin. The turbine
continues to generate power until the tide passes through the turbine. Bypass valve then quickly
opens to let water into the basin to gain maximum level. When sea and basin water level are
equal, the valves are closed as well as the turbine conduit. The basin level then stays constant
while the tide continues to go out. After sufficient head has developed, the turbine valves are
again opened and water now flows from basin to the sea, thereby generating power. The plant
continues to generate power till the tide reaches its lowest level.

2) Double Basin tidal systems: A single basin plant cannot generate power continuously,
though it might do so by using a pumped storage plant if the load it supplies fluctuates
considerably.

A double basin scheme can provide power continuously or on demand, which is a great
advantage. The drawbacks is that the civil works become more extensive. In the simplest double-
basin scheme there must be a dam between each basin and the sea and also a dam between the
basins, containing the power house. One basin is maintained always a lower level than the other.
The lower reservoir empties at low tide, the upper reservoir is replinshed at high tide. If the
generating capacity is to be large, the reservoirs must be large which means that long dams
would be required.
 Advantages of Tidal Power Generation:
1. Tidal power is completely independent of the precipitation (rain).
2. Large area of valuable land is not required.
3. When a tidal power plant works in combination with thermal or hydroelectric system peak
power demand can be effectively met with.
4. Tidal power generation is free from pollution.
Limitations of Tidal Power Generation:
5. Due to variation in tidal range the output is not uniform.
6. Since the turbines has to work on a wide range of head variation (due to variable tidal range)
the plant efficiency is affected.
7. Machineries are corroded due to corrosive sea water.
8. It is difficult to carry out construction in sea.
9. As compared to other sources of energy, the tidal power plant is costly.
10. Sedimentation and silteration of basins.
11. The power transmission cost is high because the tidal power plants are located away from load
centres.
Small-Mini-Micro hydro system:
Small Hydro system:
Small-scale hydropower systems are those that generate between . 01 to 30 MW of electricity.
Hydropower systems that generate up to 100 kilowatts (kW) of electricity are often called
microhydro systems.
There is no international consensus on the definition of small scale hydropower. In Canada 'small
scale' can refer to upper limit capacities of between 20 and 25 MW, whereas in the United States
'small scale' can mean 30 MW. However, a value of up to 10 MW total capacity is becoming
generally accepted. Small scale hydropower can be further subdivided into mini hydro (usually
defined as <500kW) and micro hydro (<100kW). No matter how you define it one thing remains
the same, small scale hydropower is one of the most environmentally benign forms of energy
generation available to us today.
Small scale hydropower systems capture the energy in flowing water and convert it to usable
energy. Although the potential for small hydro-electric systems depends on the availablity of
suitable water flow, where the resource exists it can provide cheap clean reliable electricity. A
well designed small hydropower system can blend with its surroundings and have minimal
negative environmental impacts.

How does it work?

Hydropower systems use the energy in flowing water to produce electricity or mechanical
energy. The water flows via channel or penstock to a waterwheel or turbine where it strikes the
bucket of the wheel, causing the shaft of the waterwheel or turbine to rotate. When generating
electricity, the rotating shaft, which is connected to an alternator or generator, converts the
motion of the shaft into electrical energy. This electrical energy may be used directly, stored in
batteries, or inverted to produce utility-quality electricity. A small scale hydroelectric facility
requires that a sizable flow of water and a proper height of fall of water, called head, is obtained
without building elaborate and expensive facilities. Small hydroelectric plants can be developed
at existing dams and have been constructed in connection with river and lake water-level control
and irrigation schemes. By using existing structures, only minor new civil engineering works are
required, which reduces the cost of this component of a development.

Benefits of Small-Scale Hydropower

Hydroelectric systems provide the following general benefits:

 Hydroelectric energy is a continuously renewable electrical energy source.

 Hydroelectric energy is non-polluting - no heat or noxious gases are released.
 Hydroelectric energy has no fuel cost and with low operating and maintenance costs, it
is essentially inflation proof.
 Hydroelectric energy technology is a proven technology that offers reliable and flexible
operation.
 Hydroelectric stations have a long life and many existing stations have been in operation
for more than half a century and are still operating efficiently.
 Hydropower station efficiencies of over 90% are achieved making it the most efficient
of energy conversion technologies.

Mini & Micro Hydro System:

Micro hydro is a type of hydroelectric power that typically produces from 5 kW to 100 kW of
electricity using the natural flow of water. Installations below 5 kW are called pico hydro.

Micro hydro is a type of hydroelectric power that typically produces from 5 kW to 100 kW
of electricity using the natural flow of water. Installations below 5 kW are called pico hydro.
These installations can provide power to an isolated home or small community, or are sometimes
connected to electric power networks, particularly where net metering is offered. There are many
of these installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as they can provide an
economical source of energy without the purchase of fuel. Micro hydro systems
complement solar PV power systems because in many areas water flow, and thus available hydro
power, is highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum. Micro hydro is frequently
accomplished with a pelton wheel for high head, low flow water supply. The installation is often
just a small dammed pool, at the top of a waterfall, with several hundred feet of pipe leading to a
small generator housing. In low head sites, generally water wheels and Archimedes' screws are
used.
Advantages
Microhydro power is generated through a process that utilizes the natural flow of water. [17] This
power is most commonly converted into electricity. With no direct emissions resulting from this
conversion process, there are little to no harmful effects on the environment, if planned well, thus
supplying power from a renewable source and in a sustainable manner. Microhydro is considered
a "run-of-river" system meaning that water diverted from the stream or river is redirected back
into the same watercourse.[18] Adding to the potential economic benefits of microhydro is
efficiency, reliability, and cost effectiveness.

Disadvantages
Microhydro systems are limited mainly by the characteristics of the site. The most direct
limitation comes from small sources with the minuscule flow. Likewise, flow can fluctuate
seasonally in some areas. Lastly, though perhaps the foremost disadvantage is the distance from
the power source to the site in need of energy. This distributional issue as well as the others are
key when considering using a micro-hydro system.
 Types of turbines:
 Horizontal-axis. Horizontal-axis wind turbines, the most common and widely used, follow a
design in which the rotor, equipped with 3 or more blades, rotates around a horizontal axis
perpendicular to the wind. ...
 Vertical-axis. ...
 Bladeless. ...
 Small and micro wind turbines.

Other types of turbines are:

1. Reaction turbines
2. Impulse turbines

Hydrological Analysis:
Hydrological analysis uses mathematical and statistical methods to analyze water-related
data (like rainfall and flow) to understand hydrological processes and trends, ultimately
aiding in the rational management and use of water resources.

Purpose:
Hydrological analysis aims to understand the behavior of water in the environment, including
its movement, storage, and transformation.
Data Used:
It involves analyzing data such as rainfall, streamflow, groundwater levels, and other relevant
hydrological parameters.
Methods:
 Statistical Analysis: Examining trends, patterns, and probabilities in hydrological data.
 Modeling: Creating models to simulate hydrological processes, such as rainfall-runoff,
groundwater flow, and flood inundation.
 Spatial Analysis: Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to analyze spatial relationships and
patterns in hydrological data.
 Applications:
 Water Resource Management: Assesses water availability, predicts floods and droughts, and
supports sustainable water use practices.
 Infrastructure Design: Designs drainage systems, bridges, dams, and other water infrastructure,
taking into account hydrological conditions.
 Environmental Monitoring: Monitors water quality, assesses the impact of human activities on
water resources, and identifies pollution sources.
 Disaster Prediction: Predicts flood and drought events, assesses their potential impact, and
supports emergency preparedness.

 Agriculture and Forestry: Supports irrigation planning, assesses the impact of climate change on
water availability, and manages water resources for sustainable agriculture and forestry.
Hydrological analysis is based on a digital elevation model (DEM) raster data to establish a
water system model, which is used to study the hydrological characteristics and simulation of
surface hydrological process, and make a forecast for the surface hydrological situation in the
future. The hydrological analysis model can help us to analyze the scope of the flood, position
the runoff pollution sources and predict geomorphologic change on runoff. It is widely used in
planning, agriculture forestry, disaster prediction, road design and many other industries and
fields

Basic Concepts
Hydrology analysis is based on DEM. The following concepts are important.

Water System: A water network system in the same basin. Water system includes rivers, lakes,
swamps, reservoirs, etc.
Basin: An area that receives water from lands, and this area of water system is called basin or
catchment.
Subbasin: An entire basin is composed of several subbasins.
Watershed: Watershed is usually determined by mountains or high lands.
Catchment Point: The end of a river that pours water to a larger area.