Unit IV

Quarks: -Quark flavor and color, Quark model of

hadrons, Cabbibo theory, Strangeness oscillation,
CP non-conservation in K0 decays, Regeneration
phenomenon, Basic idea about the standard model.

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CP non-conservation in K0 decays

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James Cronin and Val Fitch

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14.5: Quarks
◼ We are now prepared to discuss quarks and how they form the
many baryons and mesons that have been discovered
experimentally.
◼ In 1961 Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne’eman independently
proposed a classification system called the eightfold way that
separated the known particles into multiplets based on charge,
hypercharge, and another quantum number called isospin
◼ Isospin is a characteristic that can be used to classify different
charged particles that have similar mass and interaction
properties.
◼ The neutron and proton are members of an isospin multiplet we
call the nucleon. In this case the isospin quantum number (I) has
the value ½, with the proton having the substate value +½ (“spin
up”) and the neutron having −½ (“spin down”). Isospin is
conserved in strong interactions, but not in electromagnetic
interactions.
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Quarks
◼ After the eightfold way was developed, it was noticed
that some members of the multiplets were missing.
Because of physicists’ strong belief in symmetry,
experimentalists set to work to find them, a task made
easier because many of the particles’ properties were
predicted by the theoretical model.
◼ The Ω− was detected in 1964 at Brookhaven National
Laboratory (see Figure 14.10 and Example 14.5) in this
manner, a discovery that confirmed the usefulness of the
eightfold way.

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Quarks
◼ However, as other particles were discovered it soon became
clear that the eightfold way was not the final answer. In 1963
Gell-Mann and, George Zweig independently proposed that
hadrons were formed from fractionally charged particles
called quarks. The quark theory was unusually successful in
describing properties of the particles and in understanding
particle reactions and decay.
◼ Three quarks were proposed, named the up (u), down (d),
and strange (s), with the charges +2e/3, −e/3, and −e/3,
respectively. The strange quark has the strangeness value of
−1, whereas the other two quarks have S = 0.
◼ Quarks are believed to be essentially point-like, just like
leptons.

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Quarks, Antiquarks, and Charm
◼ With these three quarks, all the known hadrons could be specified
by some combination of quarks and antiquarks.
◼ A fourth quark called the charmed quark (c) was proposed to
explain some additional discrepancies in the lifetimes of some of
the known particles.
◼ A new quantum number called charm C was introduced so that the
new quark would have C = +1 while its antiquark would have C =
−1 and particles without the charmed quark have C = 0.
◼ Charm is similar to strangeness in that it is conserved in the strong
and electromagnetic interactions, but not in the weak interactions.
This behavior was sufficient to explain the particle lifetime
difficulties.

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 Quark Properties
◼We can now present the given quark properties and see how they are used to
make up the hadrons. In Table 14.5 we give the name, symbol, mass, charge,
and the quantum numbers for strangeness, charm, bottomness, and topness.
The spin of all quarks (and antiquarks) is 1/2.

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Quark Description of Particles
◼ A meson consists of a quark-antiquark pair,
which gives the required baryon number of 0.
Baryons normally consist of three quarks.
◼ We present the quark content of several
mesons and baryons in Table 14.6. The
structure is quite simple. For example, a π −
consists of , which gives a charge of
(−2e/3) + (−e/3) = −e, and the two spins couple
to give 0 (−1/2 + 1/2 = 0).
◼ A proton is uud, which gives a charge of (2e/3)
+ (2e/3) + (−e/3) = +e; its baryon number is 1/3
+ 1/3 + 1/3 = 1; and two of the quarks’ spins
couple to zero, leaving a spin 1/2 for the proton
(1/2 + 1/2 − 1/2 = 1/2).

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Quark Description of Particles
◼ What about the quark composition of the Ω−,
which has a strangeness of S = −3? We look
in Table 14.6 and find that its quark
composition is sss. According to the
properties in Table 14.5 its charge must be
3(−e/3) = −e, and its spin is due to three
quark spins aligned, 3(1/2) = 3/2. Both of
these values are correct. There is no other
possibility for a stable omega (lifetime ~10−10
s) in agreement with Table 14.4.

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SU3 symmetry for Quarks (Mesons)

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 Experimental support for quark hypothesis
The quark hypothesis, which proposes that protons and neutrons are not elementary
particles but are composed of smaller, fundamental particles called quarks, has been
experimentally supported by deep inelastic scattering experiments, where high-
energy electrons fired at protons and neutrons revealed point-like constituents
within them, consistent with the quark model.
Deep Inelastic Scattering (DIS) Experiments:
•In 1968, experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) used high-energy
electrons to probe the structure of protons and neutrons.
•The results showed that protons and neutrons were not point-like, but contained smaller,
point-like constituents, which were interpreted as quarks.
•The measured momentum and energy distributions of the scattered electrons matched the
predictions of the quark model, providing additional support for the existence of quarks

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Annihilation of Electrons and Positrons:
•High-energy annihilation of electrons and positrons can produce quark-antiquark pairs,
which in turn produce hadrons.
•The ratio of hadron events to muon events gives a measure of the number of "colors" of the
quarks, and the evidence points to five quarks with three colors
•Quark Confinement:
•While quarks are not observed in isolation, the strong force between them becomes
stronger as they move apart, preventing their separation.
•This phenomenon, known as quark confinement, explains why quarks are always found
bound together in hadrons (mesons and baryons).
•Discovery of New Quarks:

•The discovery of new quarks, such as the charm and bottom quarks, further solidified the
quark model.
•The heaviest and last discovered quark, the top quark, was first observed at Fermilab in
1995.

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Electron-Positron Annihilation Provides Evidence
of Three Colors for Quarks
One of the definitive experiments which supports the quark model is the high
energy annihilation of electrons and positrons. The annihilation can produce
muon-antimuon pairs or quark-antiquark pairs which in turn produce hadrons.
The hadron events are evidence of quark production. The ratio of the number
of hadron events to the number of muon events gives a measure of the
number of "colors" of the quarks, and the evidence points to five quarks with
three colors. With the more recent evidence for the top quark, these experiments
provide support for the standard model of six quarks with three colors.
The models which are evoked to explain the experimental results involve the calculated
cross-sections for the scattering events
It is helpful that the same type of scattering events, e.g., electron-positron scattering, can
yield either two muons (leptons) or a variety of hadron products, any one of which suggests
the creation of quarks.
The experimental handle is then the relative frequency of the hadron events compared to the
muon events. The calculated ratio of the products of the scattering process is the ratio of the
cross-sections, and the cross-section σ for each product is proportional to the square of its
charge.

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Therefore the ratio of the products R depends upon the ratio of the squares of the electric
charges of the products. The calculated ratio then depends upon the number of types of
quark-antiquark pairs which can be produced. So it has the form

If we use the five quarks which would be available in this energy regime assuming only one
color, the u, d, s, c and b quarks, then we get
This is obviously wrong compared to the
experiment. But when we take into account the
three colors, we obtain

This produces good agreement with

the experimental observations over a
wide range of energy when the
quantum chromodynamic corrections
are applied

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Non observations of quarks

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Non observations of quarks

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Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)

◼ Because quarks have spin 1/2, they are all fermions

and according to the Pauli exclusion principle, no two
fermions can exist in the same state. Yet we have
three strange quarks in the Ω−.
◼ This is not possible unless some other quantum
number distinguishes each of these quarks in one
particle.
◼ A new quantum number called color circumvents this
problem and its properties establish quantum
chromodynamics (QCD).

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Color

◼ There are three colors for quarks we call red (R), green (G),
and blue (B) with antiquark color antired ( R); antigreen (G)
and antiblue (B).
❑ (A “bar” above the symbol is usually used to describe the “anti-
color”).

◼ Color is the “charge” of the strong nuclear force, analogous

to electric charge for electromagnetism.

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 Need of color in quark
• There were problems with the quark model, one of them being
hyperon. It was believed to contain three identical s quarks. (sss).
• This violates the Pauli exclusion principle, that prohibits two or more
fermions from occupying identical quantum states.
• The proton, neutron, and others with two identical quarks would violate
this principle also.
• We can regard this new property as an additional quantum number that
can be used to label the three otherwise identical quarks in the .
• If this additional quantum number can take any one of three possible
values, we can restore the Pauli principle by giving each quark a
different value of this new quantum number, which is known as colour.

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An essential component of the quark model with colour is
that all observed meson and baryon states are "colourless",
i.e., either colour anticolour combinations in the case of
mesons, or equal mixtures of R, B and G in the case of
baryons.

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Color
◼ The two theories, quantum electrodynamics and quantum
chromodynamics, are similar in structure; color is often called
color charge and the force between quarks is sometimes referred
to as color force.
◼ Earlier we saw that gluons are the particles that hold the quarks
together. We show a Feynman diagram of two quarks interacting
in Figure 14.11. A red quark comes in from the left and interacts
with a blue quark coming in from the right. They exchange a
gluon, changing the blue quark into a red one and the red quark
into a blue one.

Fig 14.11 27
Color
◼ A color and its anticolor cancel out. We call this colorless (or
white). All hadrons are colorless. In Figure 14.11 the gluon itself
must have the color in order for the diagram to work.
Quarks change color when they emit or absorb a gluon, and
quarks of the same color repel, whereas quarks of different color
attract.

Fig 14.11

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Color
◼ To finish the story we should mention that the six different kinds of
quarks are referred to as flavors. There are six flavors of quarks (u,
d, s, c, b, t). Each flavor has three colors. Finally, how many different
gluons are possible? Using the three colors red, blue, and green,
there are nine possible combinations for a gluon. They are

◼ Note in Figure 14.11 that the gluon is and not . The

combination does not have any net color change and
cannot be independent. Therefore, there are only eight independent
gluons, and that is what quantum chromodynamics predicts.
◼ Gluons can interact with each other because each gluon carries a
color charge. Note that in this case gluons, as the mediator of the
strong force, are much different from photons, the mediator of the
electromagnetic force.

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Confinement
◼ Physicists now believe that free quarks
cannot be observed; they can only exist
within hadrons. This is called
confinement.

Figure 14.12: When a high-energy gamma

ray is scattered from a neutron, a free quark
cannot escape because of confinement. For
high enough energies, an antiquark-quark
pair is created (for example, ), and a
pion and proton are the final particles.

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14.6: The Families of Matter

◼ We now have a brief review of the particle

classifications and have learned how the hadrons
are made from the quarks.
◼ In summary:
❑ We presently believe that the two varieties of fermions,
called leptons and quarks, are fundamental particles.
❑ These fundamental particles can be divided into three
simple families or generations.
❑ Each generation consists of two leptons and two quarks.
The two leptons are a charged lepton and its associated
neutrino. The quarks are combined by twos or threes to
make up the hadrons.

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The Families of Matter

Figure 14.14: The three generations (or

families) of matter. Note that both
quarks and leptons exist in three distinct
sets. One of each charge type of quark
and lepton make up a generation. All
visible matter in the universe is made
from the first generation; second- and
third-generation particles are unstable
and decay into first-generation particles.

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 The Families of Matter
◼ Most of the mass in the universe is made from the components in the
first generation (electrons and u and d quarks).
◼ The second generation consists of the muon, its neutrino, and the
charmed and strange quarks. The members of this generation are
found in certain astrophysical objects of high energy and in cosmic
rays, and are produced in high-energy accelerators.
◼ The third generation consists of the tau and its neutrino and two more
quarks, the bottom (or beauty) and top (or truth). The members of this
third generation existed in the early moments of the creation of the
universe and can be created with very high energy accelerators.

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The Families of Matter
◼ Leptons are essentially pointlike, because they have no
internal structure.
◼ There are three leptons with mass and three others with
little mass (the neutrinos).
◼ Quarks and antiquarks make up the hadrons (mesons and
baryons). Quarks may also be point like (< 10−18 m) and are
confined together, never being in a free state.
◼ There are six flavors of quarks (up, down, strange,
charmed, bottom, and top) and there are three colors
(green, red, and blue) for each flavor.
◼ Rules for combining the colored quarks allow us to
represent all known hadrons.

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The Families of Matter
◼ Bosons mediate the four fundamental forces of nature: gluons
are responsible for the strong interaction, photons for the
electromagnetic interaction, W± and Z for the weak
interaction, and the as yet unobserved graviton for the
gravitational interaction.

◼ In our study of nuclear physics we discussed the pion as the

mediator of the strong force. At a more fundamental level, we
can now say that the gluon is responsible.

◼ The gluon is responsible for the attraction between the

antiquark and quark that make up the pion, and the gluon is
responsible for the attraction between the quarks that make
up the nucleons.

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 Basic idea about the standard model
The Standard Model of particle physics describing the fundamental building
blocks of the universe (quarks and leptons) and the forces (electromagnetic,
weak, and strong) that govern their interactions, excluding gravity

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 What Standard model describes
Fundamental Particles: The Standard Model classifies all known elementary
particles into two main groups: fermions and bosons. Fermions: These are the
matter particles, including quarks (which make up protons and neutrons) and
leptons (like electrons). Bosons: These are the force-carrying particles, mediating
the interactions between fermions.
Fundamental Forces: It explains the interactions mediated by three of the four
fundamental forces: Electromagnetism: Carried by photons, responsible for
interactions between charged particles. Weak Force: Carried by W and Z bosons,
responsible for radioactive decay and some nuclear reactions. Strong
Force: Carried by gluons, responsible for binding quarks together within protons
and neutrons, forming atomic nuclei.
Higgs Boson: The Standard Model predicts the existence of the Higgs boson,
which explains why some fundamental particles have mass. The discovery of the
Higgs boson in 2012 at the Large Hadron Collider was a major confirmation of the
Standard Model.

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 Limitations of SM
•Gravity: The Standard Model does not include gravity, which is described
by Einstein's theory of general relativity.
•Dark Matter and Dark Energy: It doesn't explain the existence of dark
matter or dark energy, which are crucial for understanding the universe's
structure and expansion.
•Neutrino Mass: The Standard Model doesn't fully explain the observed
mass of neutrinos.

In essence, the Standard Model is a powerful framework that has

successfully explained a vast amount of experimental data, but it's not a
"theory of everything" and there are still many unanswered questions in
physics that lie beyond its scope

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14.7: Beyond the Standard Model

◼ Although the Standard Model has been

successful in particle physics, it doesn’t answer
all the questions. For example, it is not by itself
able to predict the particle masses.
◼ Why are there only three generations or families
of fundamental particles?
◼ Do quarks and/or leptons actually consist of
more fundamental particles?

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 Neutrino Oscillations
◼ One of the most perplexing problems over the last three decades has been
the solar neutrino problem where the number of neutrinos reaching Earth
from the sun is a factor of 2–3 too small if our understanding of the energy-
producing (nuclear fusion) is correct.
◼ Suggestions were made that other processes were going on. Neutrinos
come in three varieties or flavors: electron, muon, and tau. Researchers had
seen neutrinos generated in the Earth’s atmosphere (from cosmic rays)
changing or “oscillating” into another flavor. This could only happen if
neutrinos have mass.
◼ While the Standard Model of particle physics initially considered neutrinos as
massless, experiments have shown that they possess mass, albeit very
small
◼ The existence of neutrino mass implies that the flavor eigenstates (νe, νμ,
ντ) are not the same as the mass eigenstates. This means a neutrino
created with a specific flavor is actually a mixture of all three mass
eigenstates.
◼ As neutrinos propagate, their mass eigenstates evolve independently,
leading to a change in the probability of detecting a neutrino with a different
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flavor than the one it was created with.
Matter-Antimatter

◼ According to the Big Bang theory, matter and antimatter

should have been created in exactly equal quantities. It
appears that matter dominates over antimatter now in our
universe, and the reason for this has concerned physicists
and cosmologists for years.
◼ The tiny violation of CP symmetry in the kaon decay tilts
the scales in terms of matter over antimatter; however, the
Standard Model indicates that this violation is too small to
account for the predominance of matter.
◼ B meson decays may yield more about CP violations than
with kaons and physicists are exploring theories going
beyond the Standard Model.

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Grand Unifying Theories
◼ There have been several attempts toward a grand unified
theory (GUT) to combine the weak, electromagnetic, and
strong interactions.
Predictions
1) The proton is unstable with a lifetime of 1029 to 1031 years.
Current experimental measurements have shown the lifetime
to be greater than 1032 years.
2) Neutrinos may have a small, but finite, mass. This has been
confirmed.
3) Massive magnetic monopoles may exist. There is presently no
confirmed experimental evidence for magnetic monopoles.
4) The proton and electron electric charges should have the same
magnitude.

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String Theory
◼ For the last two decades there has been a tremendous amount
of effort by theorists in string theory, which has had several
variations. The addition of supersymmetry resulted in the name
theory of superstrings.
◼ In superstring theory elementary particles do not exist as points,
but rather as tiny, wiggling loops that are only 10−35 m in length.
◼ Further work has revealed that they describe not just strings, but
other objects including membranes and higher-dimensional
objects. The addition of membranes has resulted in “brane”
theories.
◼ Presently superstring theory is a promising approach to unify the
four fundamental forces, including gravity.

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Supersymmetry

◼ Supersymmetry is a necessary ingredient in many of

the theories trying to unify the forces of nature.
◼ The symmetry relates fermions and bosons. All
fermions will have a superpartner that is a boson of
equal mass, and vice versa.
◼ The superpartner spins differ by ħ / 2.
◼ Presently, none of the known leptons, quarks, or
gauge bosons can be identified with a superpartner
of any other particle type.

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M-theory

◼ Recently theorists have proposed a successor to

superstring theory called M-theory.
◼ M-theory has 11 dimensions and predicts that strings
coexist with membranes, called “branes” for short.
◼ The number of particles that have been predicted from a
variety of different theories include the fancifully named
sleptons, squarks, axions, winos, photinos, zinos, gluinos,
and preons.
◼ Only through experiments will scientists be able to wade
through the vast number of unifying theories.

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14.8: Accelerators

◼ Particle physics was not able to develop fully until

particle accelerators were constructed with high
enough energies to create particles with a mass of
about 1 GeV/c2 or greater.

◼ There are three main types of accelerators used

presently in particle physics experiments:
synchrotrons, linear accelerators, and colliders.

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Synchrotron Radiation
◼ One difficulty with cyclic accelerators is that when charged
particles are accelerated, they radiate electromagnetic
energy called synchrotron radiation. This problem is
particularly severe when electrons, moving very close to
the speed of light, move in curved paths. If the radius of
curvature is small, electrons can radiate as much energy as
they gain.

◼ Physicists have learned to take advantage of these

synchrotron radiation losses and now build special electron
accelerators (called light sources) that produce copious
amounts of photon radiation used for both basic and
applied research.

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Linear Accelerators

◼ Linear accelerators or linacs typically have straight

electric-field-free regions between gaps of RF voltage
boosts. The particles gain speed with each boost, and
the voltage boost is on for a fixed period of time, and
thus the distance between gaps becomes increasingly
larger as the particles accelerate.

◼ Linacs are sometimes used as preacceleration device

for large circular accelerators.

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Colliders

◼ Because of the limited energy available for reactions

like that found for the Tevatron, physicists decided
they had to resort to colliding beam experiments, in
which the particles meet head-on.

◼ If the colliding particles have equal masses and

kinetic energies, the total momentum is zero and all
the energy is available for the reaction and the
creation of new particles.

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