CHAPTER II

MORAL AND RELIGIOUS ASPECTS OF GANDHIAN

PHILOSOPHY

Meaning of Religion:

The word religion is used by different people in different ways. The

Oxford Dictionary defined religion as "human recognition of superhuman
controlling power and especially, of a personal God entitled to obedience,
effect of such recognition on conduct and mental attitude"

Religion is also a belief in the ultimate values which are in harmony

with the enduring structure of the universe. "Religion is a pervasive and
almost universal phenomenon in human societies".1

"Religion" says Whitehead, 'is the vision of something which

stands beyond, behind, and within, the passing flux of immediate
things; something which is real, and yet waiting to be realized,
something which is a remote posibility and yet the greatest of
present facts; something which gives meaning to all that passes
and yet eludes apprehension, something whose possession is
the good and yet is beyond all reach, something
which is the ultimate ideal and the hopeless quest" "

Radhaknshnan says that the religion is an insight into reahtv. and

though inaccessible to reason, is consistent with it. True religion should be
distinguished from mere knowledge of dogmas or rituals Religion awakens

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 ,y;

the real in man ' Religion has its basis in the discovery of the essential worth
and dignity of the individual and his relation to a higher world of reality.''

The aim of religion" says Radhaknshnan "is not reflection

or ecstasy, but identification with the current of life, and
therefore participation in its creative advance The religious
man transcends the limitations imposed on him by his material
nature or social conditions, and enlarges the creative purpose
Religion is a dynamic process, a renewed effort of the creative
impulse working through exceptional individuals, and
seeking to uplift mankind to a new level"

Gandhi and Religion

Gandhi brought down religion from the cloistered seclusion of yogic

contemplation to man's socio-economic and political plane On the other
hand, he sought to lift the political struggle to the higher level of moral and
spiritual endeavour. Religion is not a refuge from the world but a great
source of inspiration to act in this world.9

Gandhi defined religion "as a belief in the ordered and the moral
Government of the universe."10 For Gandhi religion is not sectarianism, but it
pervades everyone and binds indissolubly to truth which is a permanent
element present in human nature "

Religion and Morality:

Morality constitutes the basis of human life. The real progress of the
individuals of the society depends on morality which checks the passions and

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 :vd

impulses that retard the human progress and lead to discord and strife
Morality, on the other hand, contributes to peace, happiness and progress and
creates an atmosphere to be in harmony. In the moral context the human
conscience acts as a man's inner guide.

In the philosophical context religion and morality have to be dealt with

separately as the two concepts are basically different Moral values have
bearing on this world and determine the way of life to be led, but the religious
values have transcendental reference and determine the way of life to be led
for the life beyond. Although both religion and morality co-exist conceptually,
they are different.12 In Gandhian thought such difference does not exist

For Gandhi:

"True religion and true morality are inseparably bound

up with each other. Religion is to morality what water
is to the seed that is sown in the soil".13

Gandhi rejected unhesitatingly any religious doctrine that is in conflict

with morality. He holds that "as soon as we lose moral basis, it ceases to be
religious" Morality is not possible without religion. On the other hand.
religion contributes greatly to the growth of morality.

Gandhi took every aspect of human life only from the moral standpoint.
His main object was to equalise religion with morality in order to make
religion dynamically operative in human life.1"*1 Gandhi was prepared to reject
any religious sentiment if it is not moral.

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 :w

He declared:

"As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious.

There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality
Man for instance cannot be untruthful, cruel and incontinent
and claim to have God in his side".

Gandhi held that the great religions of the world are practically laid on
the basis of conduct and morality. He said that "true religion is identical with
morality There is no religion higher than Truth and Righteousness".1

Gandhi synthesised religion and morality for he thinks that morality

does not preclude religion.

According to DM. Dutta, every individual is a definite centre of the life

of God, manifested under particular physical and mental conditions Every
individual has to know of himself and reform himself and gradually widen his
outlook towards the Infinite Self, The vision of God becomes possible when he
considers and promotes the interest of others.

As DM. Dutta aptly puts it:

'The path to the realization of the True Self or God.

therefore, lies through the love of others and the performance
of duties towards others as such love demands Morality
thus becomes the essence of religion"

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 <1U

Morality is fused with historical action, love and truth as its linked
moments The moral approach transforms the disturbed situation into serene
situation and the pang of passion into the emblem of pity.

Krishna Murti wrote:

'The quest of a moral idea, the growth of the soul, heroic

self-sacrifice and freedom as political religion constitute
the true historical moment"

Man cannot reach truth without morality Morality is held to be the

fundamental pre-supposition to achieve the knowledge of the truth and self-
realization.20 Morality is a necessary means for achieving the right goal.

According to Gandhi, the highest moral law is that in which we should

unremittingly work for the good of manking."1 Gandhi regarded only
voluntary actions as moral. He maintained that "no action which is not
voluntary can be called moral"." Humanism believes in doing good to others
as the way of highest moral life. Religion without morality would mean a mere
escape from responsibility.'""1

Religion has to integrate various aspects of the human life and ethics is
held to be the science of ideals. Gandhi synthesised religion and ethics The
careful examination and observation helps to make the ethical concepts as
guide to the human conduct

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 •11

Gandhi pointe out:

"So long as we act like machines, there can be no question

of morality. If we want to call an action moral, it should
have been done consciously and as a matter of duty Any
action that is dictated by fear, or by coercion of any kind,
ceases to be moral. It also follows that all good deeds that
are prompted by hope of happiness in the next world
cease to be moral". ~4

Religion and Morality are interrelated and interconnected. Religion

without morality is meaningless and morality without religion is purposeless.
According to Gandhi, means and ends are inextricably bound with each other.
While morality offers means and a purpose to the human life, religion leads to
the goal. As such, both are complementary but not contradictory to each other
So Gandhi emphasised the need for the synthesis of morality and religion

Gandhi held that freedom of free-will is a necessary postulate of

morality But man is not completely free to choose his own way of life.
determined by any conditions such as laws of nature, social conditions,
traditions and human tendencies. But man has scope to assert himself and
exert his will to mould the environment, morally.

Mahatma Gandhi says:

"A mora! act must be our own act, it must spring from
our own will If we act mechanically, there is no moral
content in our act. Such action would be moral, if we think
it proper to act like a machine and do so. For doing so.
we use our discrimination. We should bear in mind the
distinction between acting mechanically and acting intentionally1' ~

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 <1 \i

For Gandhi religion and morality are convertible terms

Gandhi wrote:

"For me,morals, ethics, and religion are convertible terms

A moral life without reference to religion is like a house built
upon sand. And religion divorced from morality is like 'sounding
brass' good only for making a noise and breaking heads" "

Cardinal Virtues:

Gandhi advocated some virtues of life which are essential to lead a

pious and moral life. Traditional Indian Philosophy emphasises the need for
the observations of cardinal virtues for the reason that the world is governed
by the moral law. Every kind of action produces either good or bad effect
which has relevance at the same time. It is in accordance with the principle
"As you sow you will reap".27

There is need to develop certain basic virtues which enable individuals

to lead a righteous life. Indian ethics talk of five virtues viz., Non-violence
(ahimsa). Truthfulness (Satya). Non-stealing (asteya). Non-possession
(apangraha), and Celibacy (brahmacharya) While admitting all these. Gandhi
added some more. He interpreted all these virtues in his own fashion
depending on his won experience His idea was that these virtues must be
consistent with the up-todate needs and requirements of the time "

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 M

Gandhi followed the Indian formula in thought, word and deed to

perfectly practice the cardinal virtues. The purity of life cannot be maintained
unless the entire human life of thought, word and deed becomes pure.

Non-Violence (Ahimsa):

Gandhi gave utmost importance to non-violence as a great virtue. The

moral aspects such as tolerance and love have been manifested in this virtue
Literally speaking Non-violence means non-injury and non-killing. It is an
action based on the refusal to harm. Gandhi gave a new interpretation to the
concept of non-violence and redefined the meaning with the new perspective.
He pointed out that non-violence in the past was made to appear crude. It is
doubtless that to hurt any living being is a part of non-violence which is its
least expression. He stated that the principle of non-violence is hurt by evil
thought, undue haste, lying, hatred, wishing ill-will to anybody. On the other
hand, he made a distinction between the positive and negative meaning of non-
violence.

"Ahimsa is not merely negative state of harmlessness but it is

a positive state of love, doing good even to the evil doer. But
it does not mean helping the evil doer to continue the wrong
or tolerating it by passive acquiescence. On the contrary, love
the active state Ahimsa requires you to resist the wrong doer
by disassociating yourself from him even though it may offend
him or injure him physically".3

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 •M
He further says:

"In its positive form <\him>a means the

largest love and the greatest chanty"/'

According to Gandhi, non-violence is the law of the human race.

infinitely greater and superior to the brute force which can be wielded equally
by all. He held that non-violence as a moral virtue is law of being Gandhi
noticed that man has steadily progressed towards non-violence He referred to
the history of mankind and stated that the remote ancestors were cannibal who
were violent, but in the next stage he became a hunter, and became an
agriculturist in the later stage discontinuing hunting in which violence was
involved and adapted himself to the civilised conduct of life All these stages
are indicative of the progressing non-violence and diminishing violence in
recognition of non-violence as a great moral virtue ?1

Gandhi stated that non-violence is not merely for the nshis and saints
but it is also meant for the common people. Those that have discovered non-
violence as a great virtue established the fact that the real salvation lies in non-
violence but not in violence ? '

Non-violence as a great virtue contributes to the highest good of

mankind not only in the future days to come but also to the present "While
violence appears to do good, the good derived out of it is temporarv and the
evil it does is permanent", says Gandhi "^

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

Truthfulness (Satya)

Gandhi held that regard for truth or to be truthful is a virtue His life
was a series of experiments with truth. For him truth is the sovereign
principle, inclusive of numerous other principles. This truth is not merely
truthfulness in word, but truthfulness in thought and deed In his conception
there is relative truth and also Absolute Truth which he identified with God
As long as Absolute truth is not realised, so long must relative truth be held.
which will meanwhile be Beacon, Shield and Buckler.

Gandhi stated that for marching towards truth man has to give up anger.
selfishness, hatred etc. as otherwise it is not possible to attain Truth A man
swayed by passions may have good intentions, may be truthful in word, but
will not be truthful in deed.

'"A successful search for Truth means complete deliverance from

the dual throng such as of love and hate, happiness and misery ,v °

In his opinion the only means of realisation of truth is non-violence the

result of all his experiments reveals that a perfect vision of Truth can onlv
follow a complete realisation of non-violence."6

Gandhi stated that moral degeneration or deviation causes ignorance

and made it explicit that six deadly enemies viz.. lust, anger, greed, infatuation.
pride and falsehood are to be avoided to practice truth

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 •ii;

Asteya (Non-Stealtng):

Asteya implies the observance o\' the rule o( not taking away the
property or anything belonging to anybody unless it is given by the person
concerned. Apart from this, there is another meaning which is more rigorous
in its application which forbids holding in possession of such thing that is not
needed or required by the person concerned. Gandhi made use of this term in
17
both these senses.

Gandhi says that it is impossible for a person to steal and

simultaneously claim to know Truth. Most of the people, knowingly or
unknowingly, cautiously or uncautiously, are more or less guilty of theft. To
receive any single thing that is not needed is wrong. He said that it is theft for
any person to take any fruit that is not needed or to take it in a larger quantity
than is necessary. People are not always aware of their real needs and most of
them improperly multiply their wants, and thus unconsciously are thieves of
themsleves." By observing non-stealing, one could bring about a progressive
reduction of his wants and poverty could be alleviated to the possible extent."9
Gandhi held that it is theft to desire mentally to acquire anything belonging to
others or cast a greedy eye upon it. One who observes the principle of non-
violence, refuses to bother himself about things to be acquired in the future.40

Jainism and Buddhism, which have exerted much influence on Gandhi.

laid more stress on this virtue. Gandhi considered this as a moral virtue which
has its basis in love, free from exploitation and violence.

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 47

Aparigraha (Non-Possession):

Apangraha (non-possession) is a significant virtue allied to Asteya. For

Gandhi aparigraha is contentment to be contented with the necessities of life
without the desire for more. According to him possessing a thing which is not
originally stolen but holding it without the need of it. must nevertheless be
classified under the stolen property. Possessing implies provision for the
future. A seeker of Truth is the follower of the law of Love who cannot hold
anything against tomorrow.

Due to the ignorance or negligence in observing the Divine Law which

provides man with his daily bread in his day to day life, has given rise to
inequalities and miseries. While the rich have a store of things which they do
not need and which is superfluously neglected and wasted, millions are starved
to death for want of sustenance.4'

Perfect fulfilment of the ideal of non-possession requires that like birds,

man should have no stock of food for tomorrow. In the absolute sense of the
term non-possession, it may be impossible to observe it in life but there is need
to keep the ideal constantly in view and critically examine the possessions and
reduce them to the extent possible. Civilisation in the real sense of the term,
consists not in the multiplication but in the deliberate and voluntary reduction
of wants This alone promotes real happiness and contentment increasing
the capacity for rendering service

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 48

Gandhi realised that love and exclusive possession could never go

together Perfect love demands readiness to give up everything including the
body, stands as an ideal towards which man should progress though it cannot
be realisable completely in the human life.

Therefore Gandhi wrote:

"Theoretically when there is perfect love, there must be perfect

non-possession. The body is our last possession So a man can
only exercise perfect love and be completely dispossessed, if he
is prepared to embrace death and renounce his body for the same
of human service. But that is true in theory only. In actual life.
we can hardly exercise perfect love, for the body as a possession,
will always remain with us. Man will ever remain imperfect, and
it will always be his part to try to be perfect. So that perfection
in love or non-possession will remain an unattainable ideas as long
as we are alive, but towards which we must ceaselessly strive".45

Brahmacharya (Celibacy):

Brahmacharya has been practised as a cardinal virtue. Etymologically

speaking, it is a way of life dedicated to the practice of Brahma. In the general
context, it is a life of purity which is regarded as essential to devote oneself
exclusively for the realisation of God. All kinds of restraint have been
associated with it.

Gandhi described the root meaning of brahmacharya as the conduct

adapted to the search of Brahma, i.e.. Truth and in its special meaning it is a
control of all the senses.46

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 49

According to Gandhi, all the observances are deducible from Truth to

subserve it. Realisation of Truth through self-gratification should, after what
has been said before, appear a contradiction in terms.47 The fulfilment of non-
violence is not possible without selflessness which is a state of universal love.
It is only when the limitations of family interests are transcended, could there
be universal love. Gandhi says that Brahmacharya means control in thought,
word and action of all the senses at all times and in all places. A man or
woman who practises complete brahmacarya is absolutely free from passion.48
A person who appears to have control over his body but nurses evil thoughts in
his mind makes vain effort.49

"Brahmacharya means control of all the organs of senses. He

who attempts to control only one organ, and allows all the others
free play, is bound to find his efforts futile... He, therefore, who is
resolved to control the one must be likewise determined control the
rest. I have always felt that much has been done by the narrow
definition of brahmacharya. If we practise simultaneously
self control in all directions, this attempt will be scientific
and possible of success".50

Abhaya (Fearlessness):

Gandhi added another virtue, namely, abhaya (fearlessness) to the five

cardinal virtues. As a vow, this is important especially for the workers who
have been trained to face death and experience untold suffering in their non-
violent fight against those that are armed with deadly weapons.51

Gandhi stated that one cannot seek truth or cherish Love without
fearlessness. He quoted Pritam who says that "the path of Han (the Lord) is

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 5U

the path of the brave, not of cowards" By Han. Gandhi meant Truth and the
brave are those armed with fearlessness, but not with the sword, the rifle, etc
These arms are held to be taken up by those who are possessed by fear
According to Gandhi, "Fearlessness connotes freedom from all external fear -
fear of disease, bodily injury and death, of dispossession, of losing reputation
or giving offence, and so on".52

For Gandhi moral bravery is the highest heroism which does not consist
in striking and causing injury to others but in the readiness to sacrifice.
patiently and fearlessly everything including life for the sake of good of other
fellow beings arising out of love for them." But of the cowards he says
"cowards can never be moral'1 ... "Fearlessness is indispensable for the growth
of the other noble qualities How can one seek Truth or cherish love without
fearlessenss.,,<i4

Gandhi says that perfect fearlessness is attainable only by him who has
realised the Supreme which implies freedom from delusions. One can make
progress towards the goal with strong determination and constant endeavour,
with the cultivation of self-confidence." It is by fearing God could one cease
to fear man, 56 says Gandhi.

Universal Religion:

The study of many great religious scriptures helped Gandhi to find good
precepts contained in them which are capable of attaining a religious and

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 51

moral life Many interpretations, commentaries and practices have gone out of
each religious tradition which have no moral and rational basis.

"A study of other religions is essential for the understanding

of ones own and is a valuable constituent of one's general culture.
It is true that no one can master all the scriptures of the world
We must work for a new spiritual reconciliation and outlook in
the light of recent developments with the aim of living together
in harmony. The great prophets reveal to us the new being.57

Gandhi was of the opinion that all great religions of the world are true
and God-given. The diverse religions are similar to the branches of the same
tree, but they tend to be imperfect due to the imperfect interpretation of human
instrumentality.

i believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the

world. I believe that they are all God given, and I believe that
they were necessary for the people to whom these religions
were revealed. And I believe that, if only we could all of us
read the scriptures of different faiths from the standpoint of the
followers of those faiths, we should find that they were at bottom
CO

all one and were all helpful to one another".

Religion is marked by discipline and moral practice. The different

religions represent not truth but views or apprehensions of truth as men have
believed. Varied historical expressions of the same truth could be found
9
which is universal and timeless in its validity

Gandhi tested the different religious ideas and judged them by the lives
and experiences of those who adopted them. Although there are many

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 ,r) \i

religions. Gandhi never subscribed to the fanatical view that there must be one
religion He believed in the equality of all religions and held that all religions
in essence are one. Gandhi wanted that people should have a proper picture of
what they want before they could have something to achieve. In this picture
Gandhi visualised of equality of all religions and desired that every religion
has its full equal place.60 At the same time he strove hard to find a common
factor for the promotion of the religious tolerance and pointed out:

"Religions are different roads converging upon the same

point. What does it matter that we take different roads,
so long as we reach the same goal9"

Gandhi believed in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the

world, as they are all God-given. He believed that all those great religions
were necessary for the people to whom those religions were revealed.
According to him, people could read the scriptures of different faiths from the
standpoint of the followers of those faiths, and they could find that at the
bottom all are one and are helpful to one another.

"I believe in the truth of all religions of the world. And since
my youth upward, it has been a humble but persistent effort
on any part to understand the truth of all the religions of the
world; and adopt and assimilate in my own thought, word,
and deed all that I have found to be best in those religions.
The faith that I profess not only permits me to do so but
renders it obligatory for me to take the best from whatsoever
source it may come".62

Radhakrishnan emphasised the need to join in unity of the spirit

embracing for richness in which religious realities have found expressions in

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 .r) a

other faiths which are not destroyed but cherished as valued expressions of
one truth. The future of man is rewarding in the religious dimensions. He
held that no one with a knowledge of the comparative history of religion could
retain an exclusive belief in the tenets of his own sect. The need to enter into
an inter-religious dialogue, unity should be an intense reality and religion
which could be experienced is the religion of the future. "

For Gandhi religion is that which "binds man to God and man to
man "(>4 While explaining the meaning of religion, Gandhi stated that it is not
Hindu religion, which he certainly praises, above all other religions but the
religions which transcend Hinduism, and change human nature and binds
them indissolubly to the Truth and ever purifies.65

After a long study of different religions and deriving experience

thereby, Gandhi arrived at the following conclusions:

1. All religions are ture;

2. All religions have some error in them;
3. All religions are almost as dear to me as my own. Hinduism,
inasmuch as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's
own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the
same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of
conversion is possible. The aim of the Fellowship should be to
help a Hindu to become a better Hindu, a Musalman to become a
better Musalman, and a Christian a better Christian "66

In the modern context, religion has divided people instead of binding

them together. Some religions divide humanity into hostile camps instead of
uniting it by emphasising the individual significance rather than the social side

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 5-1

ot life They give undue prominence to the personal development

discouraging the growth of social sense and imagination They give utmost
importance to contemplation more than action and theory more than practice "
Any order built in the absence of moral values is immoral, irrational and
unscrupulous.

The religious conflicts have been generated because of the

misunderstanding of religious teachings. Gandhi did not believe in the
exclusive divinity of the Vedas. He also believed in the Bible, the Koran, and
the Zend Avesta which, he stated, are as much divinely inspired as the Vedas
He declined to be bound by any interpretation, though it is scholarly, if it is in
conflict with reason and morality. He tried to understand various scriptures of
the world by applying the test of ahimsa (non-violence) and truth laid down by
the scriptures for interpretation. He rejected all which is inconsistent with the
test of ahimsa, appropriating all that is consistent with it.69

The study of the New Testament, especially the Sermon on the Mount,
went straight into his heart. He compared with Gita the verses from the
Sermon on the Mount of the New Testament. "But 1 say unto you. that ye
resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on they right check, turn to him
the other also. And if any man take away thy coat let him have thy cloak
too", ° reminded him of Shamel Bhatt's popular saying: 'For a bowl of water,
give a goodly need', etc. The young mind tried to unify the teaching of the
Gita The Light of Asia, and the Sermon on the Mount Renunciation, as the
highest from of religion, appealed to Gandhi greately He found the concept
of renunciation present in all the major religions.

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 55

"I have not been able to see any difference between the Sermon on the
Mount and the Bhagavad Gita. What the Sermon describes in a graphic
manner, the Bhagavad Gita reduces to a scientific formula. It may not be a
scientific book in the accepted sense of the term, but it has argued out the law
of love - the law of abandon as I would call it - in a scientific manner. The
Sermon on the Mount gives the same law in wonderful language The New
Testament gave me comfort and boundless joy, as it came after the repulsion
that parts of the old had given me. Today, supposing I was deprived of the
Gita and forgot all its contents, but had a copy of the Sermon, I should derive
the same joy from it as I do from the Gita".72

Ends and Means:

The relevance and significance of Gandhian Philosophy lies in the

application of moral principles viz., truth and non-violence to the problems
confronted by the modern society. Throughout the life of Gandhi, he struggled
to demonstrate only the moral means as his primary consideration His
insistence on the purity of means indicates the recognition of the moral law.

History recorded many politicians who tried to accomplish their ends by

immoral and unscrupulous means. The classical, political dictum that "end
justifies means" is not compatible with the purity of means

Machiavelli sanctioned the use of immoral means to the rulers to gain

their political ends. He never doubted that moral corruption among the people

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 f)t;

would make good government impossible He offered double standard of

morals - one for the ruler and another for the private citizen, as the ruler is
empowered to do anything he likes because of the power he has and he is
above the morality. Machiavelli was indifferent to morality. He was merely
interested in a single and i.e., the political power.73 The classical political
dilemma has always been 'either to justify evil means by worthy ends or else to
risk being overwhelmed by the triumph of evil over good\ 74

The term Good is used to signify something which is not a means to an

end but something which is an end itself. Thus the term summum bonum
which means the highest good is the supreme end aimed at. To determine
the truth or falsehood of a statement with regard to the character of a person or
moral action, the terms such as vice, virtue, beauty, right, ought, good, bad,
etc . are used to pass ethical judgement.76

If the means adopted is not moral, the end can not be moral. Moral
means should be used to make man morally better as the use of immoral means
is morally not justifiable77. There has been an inseparable nexus established
between the means and ends as they should be equally pure Some people give
undue importance only to the end, but this was not acceptable to Gandhi.
According to him, means must be as moral as the end. He pointed out that the
7X
end cannot justify the means.

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 57

Gandhi stated that.

"For me, it is enough to know the means. Means and

end are convertible terms in my philosophy of life"

Gandhian dictum "menas and ends are convertible terms" means the
making of ends in the process. A true man who is committed to moral values
will not remain fixated on either means or ends for their own sake. He will not
permit himself or others to useful means with illusory justification*° While
judging of the morality or a moral action, the motive of the doer or agent has
to be taken into consideration. Whether the action is moral or immoral has to
be judged on the basis of the motive that prompts it.

Gandhi stated that if the means are taken care of, the goal could be
reached sooner or later. Means and ends are interdependent and equally
necessary. When the means adopted are wrong the goal that is end even if it is
pure, will not be reached. Even if it is reached, it cannot be realised as a pure
end.

"Immoral means must ultimately have their effect on ends.

If these desirable ends are necessary, moral means to achieve
the ends are at least as necessary".

Gandhi compared means with the seed and ends with the tree. The
unbreakable and inseparable connection between means and ends exists as
between the seed and the tree. Gandhi did not accept violent means to
achieve a goal. He did not like to bring about independence of India by violent
means

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 ,r)8

"It" violence and untruth are necessary for the advancement

of my countr>'. let my country go under I would not sacrifice
these two for all World .... I do not seek to serve India at the
sacrifice of Truth for I know that a man who forsakes Truth
can forsake his country, and his nearest and dearest ones".

For him non-violence is the means and the truth is the end.

"It is perhaps clear from the foregoing, that without ahimsa

it is not possible to seek and find truth. Ahimsa and Truth
are so inter-twined that it is practically impossible to
disentangle and separate him. They are like the two sides
of a coim, or rather of a smooth unstamped metallic disc.
Who can say, which is the obverse, and which the reverse9
Nevertheless ahimsa is the means; Truth is the end Means
to be means must always be within our reach, and so ahimsa
is our supreme duty. If we take care of the means, we are
bound to reach the end sooner or later When once we have
grasped this point, final victory is beyond question whatever
difficulties we encounter, whatever apparent reverses we
sustain, we may not give up the quest for Truth
which alone is, being God Himself.

If morality is understood as an instrument of human development, the

problem of means will not be understood. Even if a person is clear and
definite about his goal, he cannot reach there without a proper path So it is
X7

only in the context of means, the end is relevant.

' i have, therefore, concerned myself principally with the

conservation of the means and their progressive use I know
if we can take care of them, attainment of the goal is assured
I fell too that our progress towards the goal will be in exact
proportion to the purity of our means This method may
appear to be long, perhaps too long, but I am convinced
that is the shortest".

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 5\)

Scientific law states that every action will have reaction as even, cause
has its effect. The end is merely the result of a series of acts taken as means.89

According to Gandhi the means must be always within the human

reach. Gopinath Dhavan interpreted purity of means by saying that man could
only pursue or aim at, but he cannot determine the consequences which may
be influenced by other factors. It is possible to control means but not goals.90
Manu says that wealth and property gained through wrong means leads to its
total destruction.91 The opposite theory that end justifies the means leads to
arrive at the conclusion that violent means that are dangerous and ethically
unsound could be applied but this gives recourse to violence, untruth and other
evils.92 A victory won by violence and treachery will retain violence and
other evils within its bosom.

So Gandhi embarked upon a revolutionary task of enunciating the

principle of the integrity of means and ends which presupposes Truth and non-
violence as the foundation of human life and social relationship.9"' This has
bearing, on and relevance to on the human life even in this modern world

Religion and Truth

For Gandhi truth is the sovereign principle which is inclusive of

numerous other moral principles Since his childhood the passion for truth
was innate in him. The truth conceived by Gandhi signifies truthfulness in
word, thought and deed. As long as he has not realised the absolute truth, he

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 (JO

held by the relative truth as was conceived by him which meanwhile became
his beacon, his shield and buckler"1

Gandhi pointed out that one thing was deep-rooted in him which is

"the conviction that morality is the basis of things, and that

truth is the substance of all morality. Truth became my sole
objective It began to grow in magnitude everyday, and my
definition of it also has been ever widening".

The discovery of truth requires self-examination and self-purification

One cannot claim to be truthful as long as he is under the influence of what
Gandhi calls in the context of following the six deadly enemies namely, lust,
anger, greed, infatuation, pride and falsehood of the ethics of the Indian
tradition.96

Gandhi held that the word truth or "Satya" is derived from "Sat" which
implies "being". It is only truth that exists in reality and nothing else. That is
the reason why "Sat" or "Truth" is attributed to God. Gandhi pointed out that
God is Truth but later on he changed this version and stated that it would be
more appropriate and correct to say that Truth is God, rather than to say God is
Truth In his saying, transition could be found from God is Truth, to Truth is
God He maintained that the uniform experience has convinced him to state
that there is no other God than Truth.98

"To me God is Truth and love God is ethics and morality

God is fearlessness God is the source of light and life and yet
above and beyond all these God is conscience He is even the
atheism of an atheist ... He transcends speech and reason".w

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 i)\

Varrier Klwin made a correct statement about the Gandhian concept of

truth He observed that among the ultimate values of Platonism viz..
Goodness. Truth and Beaut> - (ruth is inclusive of other two values.10" The
attitude of Gandhi towards aesthetics has it basis in ethical and religious
outlook which is truth centred

While referring to the Art. Gandhi stated that there are two aspects of
things, which are outward and inward. The outward has no meaning
excepting to help the inward "All true art is thus an expression of the soul
The outward forms have value only in sofar as they are the expression of the
inner spirit of man"

Gandhi gave utmost importance to truth and said that "Truth is the first
thing to be sought for and beauty and Goodness will then be added unto
\ou'" '"" For Gandhi the purity of life is the highest and truest art

"1 see and find Beauty in truth or through Truth All Truths.
not merely true ideas, but truthful faces, truthful pictures, or
songs, are highly beautiful people generally fail to see Beauty
in Truth, the ordinary man runs away from it and becomes
blind to the beauty in it Whenever men will begin to see
beauty in Truth, then true Art will arise". 104

The nature of Realm as realised by Gandhi is Truth God could be

experienced through Truth I he existence of God is felt in thought, word and
deed Ciod exists because Truth exists The other aspects of the God head

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 G2

namel\ beauty and goodness are not appealing to Gandhi as fundamental

whereas truth for him implies beauty and goodness

Gandhi held that truth is the law of existence. There is no better duty
(dharma) than truth. Dharma is that which holds together, supports and
upholds. Dharma is stated to be the foundations of the whole universe and
upon it everything is founded. So Dharma is called the highest good.
Dharma cannot be based on untruth and the law governing the human
existence cannot be anything except Truth. In consonance with this Gandhi
It)"'

says that "nothing exists in reality except Truth".

Truth is the knowledge acquired by identity or it is an integral

experience of Reality Ultimate Reality is intuitively known When truth is
experienced, all doubts and differences are removed, all discords and
discrepancies are vanished and the human life is transformed by the realisation
of truth to experience bliss. According to Gandhi, there is no true knowledge
in the absence of truth.

"Devotion to this Truth is the sole justification of our own

existence. All our activities should be centered in Truth.
Truth should be the breath of our life ... Without Truth it
is impossible to observe any principles or rules in life".10*

Philosophy does not mean the mere knowledge or wisdom about reality
hut it also implies the application o\^ such knowledge in all spheres of the
human endeavour. Theoretical knowledge which is not practicable is barren

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 M
Gandhi was pre-eminently a practical man who judged theories and
ideologies by the results they yielded in practice. This method indeed helps to
resolve the differences.la9

Radhakrishnan maintained that the real quality of religion is brought

out by man's incessant search and unending quest to know the truth of things.
There is need to keep up the pursuit of the truth until man is able to experience
it110. Truth is indivisible reality and it is the end of all kinds of discipline
Truth in its totality must be regarded as one whole. The pursuit of the truth
makes man dignified and a really civilised human being.'''

Gandhi held that truth resides in every human heart and everyone has to
be guided by truth. But no one has right to coerce others to act in accordance
with his own view of truth." 'The quest for truth is the summum bonum of
life', says Dr. Radhakrishnan."3

Gandhi attempted to understand various religions of the world by

applying the test of truth and non-violence. He rejected what is inconsistent
with that test and appropriated all that is consistent with truth." 4 The test of
truth is practical but it does not remain mere theoretical."5

A devotee of Truth may not be anything in defence to

convention. He must always hold himself open to correction
and wherever he discovers himself to be wrong, he must
confess it at all cost and atone for it." 6

Tolstoy held that the miseries experienced by men in this world are due
to the discord created for not following truth and adhering to falsehood at the

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 (M

same time All the people could be united by the truth If men seek the truth
more sincerely nearer do they approach to union. As long as people pretend to
be truthful and conceal the truth from themselves, no moral improvement can
be possible.

"That improvement can only take place when they recognize

that their welfare lies solely in the union of all men in the truth,
and are therefore ready to put above everything else the recognition
and profession of that truth which has revealed itself to them".

There is need for every man to profess truth he is aware of and practice
in his own life avoiding falsehood. The recognition of truth is the cause of all
the manifestations of human life which does not depend upon the external
phenomena but on inner qualities.119 Those who know the truth and act with
hypocrisy concealing evil injure not only themselves but also their victims.

"Hypocrisy" says Tolstoy, "in our time is supported by two

things - Pseudo-religion and pseudo-science and has reached
such colossal dimensions that were we not living in the midst
of it, it would be impossible to believe that men could reach
such a degree of self-deception. They have now reached such
a strange condition and their hearts are so hardened that though
they have eyes they see not and having ears they hear not,
neither do they understand".1"0

Tolstoy further says:

"The recognition of truth which is the cause of all the

manifestations of human life, does not depend on external
phenomena but on certain inner qualities of a man not
subject to his observation".121

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 r>r>
Man has yet to perceive always truths not so far perceived and some
truths are freshly illumined by the light of his reason demanding
• • 122

recognition

As man passes through life, he gains knowledge of a greater and greater

degree of truth and frees himself more and more from error.123 Truth brings
out the path of human life and reveals the way that man must inevitably
follow.124 Gandhi in his search of truth found non-violence as the means to
reach the truth which is the end. He felt that while the non-violence is the law
of being, violence is the law of destruction and brute. A brute tends to be
violent because of the lack of understanding and realisation of truth. The spirit
of non-violence lies dormant in the brute. He sheds his violent attitude and
realises truth if he thought of non-violence.

Religion and Politics:

Religion and Politics are held to be two separate realms between which
a gulf is fixed, each having its own standard of thought, feeling and conduct.
But people need to have faith in the inner order so that they can build a stable
order outside.125

Politicians generally do not take religion seriously in regard to the

methods they adopt for the control of one people by another, the economic

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 r>r>

exploitation of the poor and weaker sections of the community They are
clearly inconsistent with the values of religion which do not find correct
expression. But for Gandhi human life is an integral whole.12f' If a man as a
politician is not successful, it is because of the fact that he has kept religion
and politics apart, without a proper understanding of the both. But Gandhi did
not view religion apart from the rest of the human activity "

"In the acid test of experience he (Gandhi) remains, not a

Politician or a reformer, not a philosopher or a moralist,
but someone composed of them all, an essentially religious
person endowed with the highest and most human qualities
and made more lovable by the consciousness of his own
limitations and by an unfailing sense of humour'' 12x

Gandhi made it a mission in his life to revolutionise politics.

Gopalakrishna Gokhale, an economist, Parliamentarian and statesman

influenced Gandhi profoundly who taught Gandhi to spiritualize politics.
Gokhale gave the mantra that Politics must be spiritualized in India, and he
brought politics and religion together.

"Gokhale taught me" says Gandhi, "that the dream of every

Indian who claims to love his country should be not to glorify
in language but to spiritualise the political life of the country
and the political institutions of the country He inspired my
life and is still inspiring and in that I wish to purify myself
uv
and spiritualize myself. I have dedicated myself to that ideal"

According to Radhakrishnan, truly religious man lives in between the

frontiers of sacred and secular, between religion and politics, between being

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 (w

and non-being People are not called upon to leave history, and get into the
desert leading the lives of renunciation and recognition Men of sainthness
participate in the work of the world and work harder for the further progress.
There is the road to fulfilment. Quality of the human life depends upon the
religious values followed.

Gandhi wrote:

"If I seem to take part in Politics, it is only because

politics today encircles us like the coils of a snake from
which one cannot get out, no matter how one tries I wish
to wrestle with the snake.. I am trying to introduce
religion into politics". 31

Gandhi was compelled to enter into political field as he felt that he

could not do the minimum social service without entering into politics.
According to him, the political work must be looked upon in terms of the
progress made in social and moral fields.132

Gandhi declared:

"For me politics bereft of religion is absolute dirt ever

to be shunned. Politics concern nations and that which
concerns the welfare of nations must be one of the concerns of
a man who is religiously inclined ... Therefore in politics also
we have to establish the Kingdom of Heaven" '"^

Many considered Gandhi as a professional politician who bungles at

critical moments. For some people politics is a profession The politician is

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 f>8

one who is trained to transact public business in an efficient manner and in

another sense politics is a vocation in which the politician is one who is
conscious of a mission to save the people and inspired them with faith in God
and love for humanity Gandhi is essentially a politician in arousing love of
humanity. He has found faith on humanity, and he said that we could build a
world of tomorrow without poverty and unemployment and without wars and
bloodshed.134

Gandhi held that religion should pervade every texture of the human
life For him human life is an undivided whole and life can be never drawn
between different compartments, social, political and religious, nor between
ethics and politics. All act and react upon one another.

According to Gandhi, religion does not mean exclusion of politics from

its domain. In his view politics apart from the religion is dirt. Gandhi
categorically wanted to bring religion into politics.

"For me the road to salvation lies through incessant toil in the

service of my country and of humanity. 1 want to identify myself
with everything that lives. In the language of the Gita, I want to
live at peace with both friend and foe. So my patriotism is for
me a stage on my journey to the land of eternal freedom and peace
Thus it will be seen that for me. There are no politics devoid of
religion. They subserve religion. Politics bereft of religion are
a death trap because they kill the soul."136

The central principle of Gandhian political philosophy is that the

fundamental religious and ethical values, common to all great religions, have
to be incorporated in the political philosophy. The religious basis of Gandhian

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 [][)

politics means the supremacy of the concept of the moral right of conscience in
the place of divine right of rulers.137 Basically Gandhi felt that the religious
ethics of piety, forgiveness, meakness, humility and universal tolerance should
guide the human action.

In his first letter addressed to Tolstoy, Gandhi stated that:

" a law which I and many other considered to be degrading

and calculated to unman those to whom it was applicable I
felt that submission to law of this nature was inconsistent with
the spirit of true religion".139

Further, Gandhi said:

"Politics divorced from religion, has absolutely no meaning ...

Politics are a part of our being. We ought to understand our
national institutions. We may do this from our infancy ...
But we want also the steady light, the infallible light
of religious faith".140

V P. Verma wrote that Gandhi never sanctioned any political

exploitation of religion as he was not concerned with growth of organised
churches or narrow-minded sects. His support to the Khilafat movement
during 1920-1922 was only out of the humanitarian consideration, but it was
not out of political bargaining.141 Gandhi said that social and political plans
for the modern India should be laid on the solid basis of true religious and
142
moral consciousness as Religion binds man to God and man to man On
the other hand, Gandhi declared religions are not for separating men from one
another, but they are meant to bind them.143

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 70

The religion based politics of Gandhi has laid utmost stress on the
moral values to set his politics on right action with an object to keep politics
apart from the evils such as corruption, injustice, expediency and
Machiavellian policies which separate the political expediency from morality
For Machiavelli end justifies the means and he sanctioned the use of immoral
means by the rulers to achieve their ends which indicates the double standard
of morals - one for the ruler and another for the citizens.144 But Gandhi on the
contrar>' held that the means must be as important and as moral as the end. He
pointed out that end cannot justify the means.14'

Gandhian political thought makes submission to the supreme moral law

and takes precedence over other systems. He treated all religions equal
without giving any preference to any particular religion over the other His
tendency helps to avoid the possible religious fundamentalism and upholds
religious tolerance and promotes inter-religious understanding. In the modern
times we need a religion which contributes to the national integration for the
progress and mutual cooperation and peace-keeping politics aimed at the
service of the mankind but not the religion which separates people or a religion
which supports fundamentalism resulting in bloodshed.147

"Religion is the discipline" says Radhakrishnan, "which

touches the conscience and helps us to struggle which
evil and sordidness. saves us from greed, lust and hatred,
releases moral power, and imparts courage in the enterprise
of saving the world. As a discipline of the mind, it contains the
key and the essential means of coping with evil which threatens
the existence of the civilized world. It implies the submitting
of our thinking and conduct to the truths of spirit1"

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 71

REFERENCES

1 George L. Abemethy & Thomas A. Longford, Philosophy of Religion,

p.l

2 A.N. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World, Chapter 12.

3 S Radhakrishnan, Religion in a Changing World, p. 102.

4 Ibid, p. 104.

5. Ibid, p. 106.

6. Ibid, p. 42.

7. S. Radhakrishnan, Religion and Society, p.78

8. N.K. Devaraja, Philosophy, Religion and Culture, p. 206.

9. S. Radhakrishnan, Religion in a Changing World, p. 139.

10. Harijan, 10.2.1940, p. 445.

11 Young India, 12.5.1920, p. 2.

12 Basant Kumar Lai, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, p. 125.

13 N.K. Bose (Ed.) Selections from Gandhi, p. 255.

14. Young India, 24.11.1921, p. 365.

15 KM.P. Verma (Ed). Philosophy of Religion, p. 71.

16. Young India, 24.11 1921, p. 365.

17. M.K. Gandhi, Ethical Religion, p. 19.

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 7^

IK D M DuUa. The Philosophy. Mahatma Gandhi, p. 75

19 Y.G. Krishna Murti. Gandhism will Survive, p. 7.

20 Unto Tahtinen, The Core of Gandhi s Philosophy, p. 36

21 M.K. Gandhi, Ethical Religion, p. 39.

22. Ibid., p. 40.

23 The Humanist, Vol. XII, p. 98

24 M.K. Gandhi, Ethical Religion, p. 43

25 The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. VI, p. 284

26 Harijan, 3.10.1936. p. 268.

27 B.K. Lai, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, p. 134

28 Ibid.

29. Young India, 25.8.1920, p. 2.

30 Speeches and Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 346.

31. Harijan, 11.8.1940, p. 245.

32 Young India, 11.8.1920, p. 3.

33 Young India, 21.5.1925, p. 178.

34 M.K Gandhi. The Story of My Experiments with Truth. Introduction.

[Link].

35 Ibid., pp. 254-255.

36 Ibid., p. 370

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 7 ,'"5

37 B K Lai. Contemporary Indian Philosophy, p. 136.

38 M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p 20

39 Ibid.

40. Ibid.,p.2\.

41. Ibid., p. 23

42 Ibid.

43. Ibid, p. 24.

44 Ibid

45 Bose, Selection from Gandhi, p. 17.

46 M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 14.

47. Ibid., pp. 10-11.

48. Koung //id/a, 5.6.1924, p. 186.

49 M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 12.

50 Speeches and Writings ofMahatma Gandhi, p. 130.

51 DM. Dutta, The Philosophy ofMahatma Gandhi, p. 102.

52 M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 21.

53 DM Dutta, The Philosophy ofMahatma Gandhi, p. 103

54 Ibid..

55 M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 28

56. Speeches and Writings ofMahatma Gandhi, p. 130.

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 7<1
57 S Radhakrishnan. Religion in the (hanging World, p. 1 34

58 Harijan, 16.2.1934. pp 5-6

59 S Radhakrishnan. Religion and Society, p 43

60 Harijan, 4.5.1940, p. 17.

61 Harijan, 16.2.1934, p. 7.

62. Ibid.

63 S Radhakrishnan, Religion in the Changing World, pp. 133-134.

64 Harijan, 4.5 1940, p. 117.

65 Young India, 12.5.1920, p. 2.

66 N.K. Bose (ed.), Selections from Gandhi (1957), pp. 258-59.

67. S. Radhakrishnan, Religion and Society, p. 50.

68. Ramjee Singh, Gandhi and the Modern World, p. 33.

69. Young India, 27.8.1925, p. 293.

70. M.K. Gandhi, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, p. 49.

71 Ibid.

72 Young India, 22.12.1927, p. 426.

73 George H. Sabain, A History of Political Theory, pp 319-210

74 Ramjee Singh, The Relevance ofGandhian Thought, p. 39

75 John S. Mackenzie. A Manual of Ethics, pp. 1-2.

76. G.E. Moore, Principa Ethica, p. 1

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

77. DM Dutta, The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, p. 84

78. M.K. Gandhi, Ethical Religion, p. 40.

79. Young India, 26.12.1924, p. 424.

80 Erik H. Enkson, Gandhi's Truth, pp. 398-99.

81 M.K. Gandhi, Ethical Religion, p. 9.

82. M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 9.

83. J.B Kripalani, The Gandhian Way, p. 354.

84. M.K. Gandhi, For Facifists, p. 25.

85 Tendulkar, D.G. Mahatma, Vol. II, p. 32.

86. M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, pp. 8-9.

87. Ramjee Singh, The Relevance of Gandhian Thought, p. 42.

88 M.K. Gandhi, Sarvodaya, p. 6.

89. Ramjee Singh, The Relevance of Gandhian Thought, p. 43.

90. Gopinath Dhavan, The Political Philosophy ofMahatma Gandhi, p. 54

91. Manusmriti, IV, p. 171.

92. Gopinath Dhavan, The Political Philosophy ofMahatma Gandhi, p. 55.

93. Ramjee Singh, The Relevance of Gandhian Thought, p. 45.

94. M.K. Gandhi, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Introduction.

p. XV.

95. Ibid., p. 25.

96. M.K. Gandhi, Hindu Dharma, p. 240.

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 7 (J

97 MK Gandhi. For Yaravda Mandir. p. 1

98. M.K Gandhi, The Story of My Experiments with 1ruth. p. 382

99. Young India. 5.3.1925, pp. 80-81.

100. Surendra Varma, The Metaphysical Foundation of Mahatma Gandhi s

Thought, p. 14.

101. Young India, 13.11.1924, p. 377.

102. Young India, 20.11.1924, p. 386.

103 Harijan, 19.2.1938, p. 10.

104. Young India. 13 11 1924, p. 377.

105. Benoy Gopal Ray, Gandhian Ethics, p. 5.

106. Bary and Hay, Sources of Indian Tradition, pp. 221 -22.

107. M.K. Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 1.

108. Ibid., p.2.

109. Gora, An Atheist with Gandhi, p. 35.

110. S. Radhakrishnan, Search for Truth, p.9

111. Ibid..p. 83.

112 Harijan. 24.11 1933. p.6.

1 1 3. S. Radhakrishnan. Religion in a Changing World, p. 67

114. Young India, 27.8.1925, p. 293.

115 S. Radhakrishnan, Religion in a Changing World, p. 27

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

1 Ui M k Ciandhi. The Story of My Experiments with Truth, p 58

I 17 Leo Tolstoy. The Kingdom of God is Within You. p 410

US Ibid

119 Ibid.p AW

12() Ibid . pp 418-19

121 Ibid. p. 423.

122 Ibid.p 425

123 //>/</. p. 425.

124 Ibid., p 426

125 S Radhaknshnan. Religion and Society, p. 50

1 26. S Radhaknshnan (Ld). Mahatma Gandhi - Essays and Re fee

His life and Work, p i

127 Ibid.p 3.

128 Ibid.p .2.

1 29 M R Ciandhi. In Search oj the Supreme. Vol 11. p 3

1 30 S Radhaknshnan. Religion in a Changing World, p 110

131 Young India. 12-5-1920. p. 2.

132 Hanjan. 6.10 1946. p. 341

1 33 Young India. 18.6.1925. p 214

134 S Radhaknshnan. The Mind ojMahatma Gandhi. Foreword,

135 Hanjan. 30.3.1947. p. 85

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

 78

! ><> M k dandhi. "A !y Mission' Young India. 3-4-1924. p 112

1 ^7 \'.P Verma. The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and

Sarrodaya, pp 71-72

138 [Link]}.

139 Letter of Gandhi addressed to Tolstoy on 1 -10-1909

140 M.K. Gandhi's speech at Madras (1916) Speeches and Writings (3rd
ed). p. 162

141 V P Verma. The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and

Sar\-odaya% p. 74

142 Harijan. 4 5 1940. p. 1 17.

143. Harijan. 8.6.1940. p. 157

144 George H Sabin. A History of Political 'Thought, p. 319

145 M.K. Gandhi, Ethical Religion, p 42

14h V.P Verma. The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and

San'odaya, p. 77.

147 Ramjee Singh (ed), Aspects ofGandhian Thought, p. 91.

148 S. Radhaknshnan. Religion and Society, p. 42

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam