HISTORY ASSIGNMENT
topic 1
The Industrial Revolution was a period of profound societal and economic transformation, starting in Britain in
the late 18th century, characterized by the introduction of machinery, factories, and new manufacturing
processes
This led to increase production and sufficiency, lower prices, more goods, improved wages, and
migration from rural to urban areas.
during the time of the industrial revolution many inventions that forever changed the way people in
Europe, the United States and the rest of the world, live and work, from the spinning jenny to the
steam engine were brought to the forefront of society
Inventions of the Industrial Revolution
Spinning and weaving
The spinning jenny. About 1764 James Hargreaves, a poor uneducated spinner and weaver living
in Lancashire, England, conceived a new kind of spinning machine that would draw thread from eight
spindles simultaneously instead of just one, as in the traditional spinning wheel.
The water frame. So called because it was powered by a waterwheel, the water frame, patented in
1769 by Richard Arkwright, was the first fully automatic and continuously operating spinning
machine. It produced stronger and greater quantities of thread than the spinning jenny did. Because
of its size and power source, the water frame could not be housed in the homes of spinners, as earlier
machines had been. Instead, it required a location in a large building near a fast-running stream.
Arkwright and his partners built several such factories in the mountainous areas of Britain.
Steam engine
Watt’s steam engine. In Britain in the 17th century, primitive steam engines were used to pump
water out of mines. In 1765 Scottish inventor James Watt, building on earlier improvements,
increased the efficiency of steam pumping engines by adding a separate condenser, and in 1781 he
designed a machine to rotate a shaft rather than generate the up-and-down motion of a pump. With
further improvements in the 1780s, Watt’s engine became a primary power source in paper mills,
flour mills, cotton mills, iron mills, distilleries, canals, and waterworks
The steam locomotive. British engineer Richard Trevithick is generally recognized as the inventor
of the steam railway locomotive (1803), an application of the steam engine that Watt himself had once
dismissed as impractical. Trevithick also adapted his engine to propel a barge by turning paddle
wheels and to operate a dredger. Trevithick’s engine, which generated greater power than Watt’s by
operating at higher pressures, soon became common in industrial applications in Britain, displacing
Watt’s less-efficient design.
generating electricity
Electric generators and electric motors. In the 1820s and ’30s British scientist Michael
Faraday demonstrated experimentally that passing an electric current through a coil of wire between
two poles of a magnet would cause the coil to turn, while turning a coil of wire between two poles of a
magnet would generate an electric current in the coil (electromagnetic induction). The first
phenomenon eventually became the basis of the electric motor, which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy, while the second eventually became the basis of the electric generator, or dynamo,
which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electric railways and tramways. The first electric railway, intended for use in urban mass transit,
was demonstrated by German engineer Werner von Siemens in Berlin in 1879. By the early 20th
century, electric railways were operating within and between several major cities in Europe and the
United States.
The incandescent lamp. In 1878–79 Joseph Swan in England and later Thomas Edison in the
United States independently invented a practical electric incandescent lamp, which produces
continuous light by heating a filament with an electric current in a vacuum (or near vacuum).
Agricultural sector
The steel plow. Invented by John Deere in 1837, the steel plow was a major improvement over
earlier iron and wooden plows, as it was lighter and stronger and able to break up dense prairie soil in
the American Midwest. The plow’s sharp point and smooth surface reduced friction and enabled
farmers to cultivate more acres per day with less draft power, contributing to increased crop yields
and allowing farming to expand westward into new territories
The mechanical reaper. Developed by Cyrus McCormick in 1831, the mechanical reaper greatly
increased harvesting efficiency, compared with handheld scythes. McCormick's horse-drawn machine
used a cutting bar to cut ripe grain, a platform to carry the cut stems, and a reel to pull them onto the
platform for bundling. By automating the cutting and threshing processes, the reaper enabled farmers
to quadruple the amount of grain harvested per day, displacing the handheld scythe which had been in
use for over 5,000 years.
Innovations during the industrial revolutions
Eli Whitney and the cotton gin
Eli Whitney was born and raised in Massachuse5s but his inven7on, the co5on gin, saw its greatest use
in the southern part of the United States. Producing co5on was not very lucra7ve in the late eighteenth
century. Even a@er picking it off the plant, you s7ll had to separate seeds from the co5on fibers by
hand. In 1794, Eli Whitney patented a machine that could do that second part much more efficiently. It
could process more co5on in one hour than several people could in a full day of work. As a result,
planters quickly started growing co5on across the South. Annual Co5on produc7on in the United
States went from 73,000 bales in 1800 to 2,136,000 bales in 1850.
With the introduc7on of the co5on gin, growing and cul7va7ng co5on became very profitable. But the
expansion of the co5on industry created a demand for more workers for the non-mechanized part of
the process – picking the co5on. The number of enslaved people working the fields in the American
South increased. Though Whitney’s inven7on had made processing co5on much more efficient, it led
to the demand for more people to plant, cul7vate, and harvest the crops. Co5on became so important
that it was known as “King Co5on” in the southern states, and the United States became the largest
producer in the world.
Henry Bessemer and steel
In 1856, Henry Bessemer took out a patent in England for a new process that would help purify iron to
make high quality steel. Prior to this, it was very difficult to make strong steel that would not break.
Bessemer developed an inexpensive and rapid process to produce high-quality steel at an industrial
scale. The Bessemer process removed all of the impuri7es in molten iron by blowing oxygen through it.
This process, known as oxida7on, raises the temperature of the iron so high that it burns off all the
impuri7es, like carbon and phosphorus, while keeping the metal molten. The steel that was created was
a double success because it was very high quality and could be produced much faster. By the 1870s,
Andrew Carnegie was using the Bessemer process in his steel mills in the United States. This high-
quality, mass-produced steel made miles of railroad tracks, girders in skyscrapers, machine parts, farm
equipment, and more
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Topic 2
The Constitution of India is the supreme legal document of India, and the longest written national
constitution in the world.[2][3][4][5] The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental
political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets
out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens.
Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891-1956), also known as Babasaheb, was a prominent Indian jurist,
economist, social reformer, and a key figure in India's independence movement. He is widely revered
as the "Architect of the Indian Constitution" for his instrumental role in drafting the
document. Ambedkar was a strong advocate for the rights of the marginalized, particularly Dalits, and
dedicated his life to fighting against caste discrimination and social injustice
The Indian Constitution and its drafting process are often synonymous with Ambedkar. He is often
referred to as the father of the Indian Constitution and is probably the most well-known of all
Constituent Assembly members. Ambedkar became a key figure in India’s constitution-making
process due to his offices, interventions, and speeches in the Assembly.
He was the Chairman of the Assembly’s most crucial committee – the Drafting Committee and a
member of other important Committees. As Drafting Committee Chairman, he had to defend the
Draft Constitution, which the Committee prepared, and therefore intervened in nearly every debate.
Ambedkar's birth anniversary, is celebrated as the Constitution Day or the Samvidhan Day of India. –
November 26th
ROLE OF DR AMBEDKAR IN THE CONSTITUTION
On 29th August 1947, after passing one resolution, the Constituent Assembly appointed a ‘Drafting
Committee” with seven members, including Dr. Ambedkar, to prepare a draft of the Constitution of
independent India. It is said that when the Constitution of India was drafted, Pandit Nehru and
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel thought of inviting and consulting Sir Guor Jennings an internationally
known constitutional expert of those times.
When approached for advice in the matter, Gandhiji is reported to have told them why they should
be looking for foreign experts when they had the right within India an outstanding legal and
constitutional expert in Dr. Ambedkar who ought to be entrusted with the role which they badly need
as he so richly and rightly deserved. The Law Minister, Dr. Ambedkar, was appointed the Chairman
of the Drafting Committee. The seven members, including the Chairman of the Drafting Committee,
were as follows:
1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Chairman
2. N. Goipalswami
3. Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyas
4. K.M. Munshi
5. Saijo Mola Saadulla
6. N. Madhava Rao and
7. D.P. Khaitan
Dr. Ambedkar had a charismatic personality. He was pragmatic par excellence and never allowed
himself to be swayed by abstract ideas and ideals. He strongly believed political independence could
not assure social solidarity or national integration without social justice. Being a democratic socialist,
he propagated that fundamental rights have little meaning to people in the absence of social
democracy.
Ambedkar sought to achieve certain objectives through the Constitution of India by incorporating the
following principles:
• Making the Indian constitution workable, flexible, and strong enough to hold the country
together in peace and wartime
• Providing special safeguards to minorities and certain social and educationally backward
classes
• Incorporating the principle of one man, one value, and one man, one vote
• Incorporating exceptions and qualifications to the FRs while advocating preventive detention
President of India.
• Abolishing untouchability and forced labor to achieve the ideal of 'one man, one value, and
one man, one vote' and placing all people equally before the law
• Securing equal protection of laws for every citizen as also freedom of profession and
equality of opportunity
• Incorporating the right to constitutional remedies
Dr. Ambedkar was the first and foremost leader of the oppressed classes. The struggle of the
oppressed classes for human rights and socio-political equality from the twenties to the fifties of
the 20th century is woven around his name Being elected Chairman of the Drafting Committee, Dr.
Ambedkar played a key role in viewing the structure of the government and the forms of the
Constitution.
The contribution of Dr. Ambedkar towards formation of the Constitution of India cannot be measured. At
a time when India was passing through epoch-making events, Dr. Ambedkar had become one of the
potent forces to reckon with whether in o>ice or out of it. Endowed as he was with a towering personality,
erudition, deep insight into constitutional law with a firm grip on the intricacies of administration,
indomitable courage and fearlessness said Dr. Zakir Hussain, Former President of India. Ambedkar gave
much priority to the principles of equality, liberty and fraternity. For him, it is necessary to ensure equality
in our social and economic life at the earliest possible to solve the problem of Hindu society. Article 17 is
unique in the sense that it has given a blow to the century old practice of untouchability. It reflects the
spirit of the Constitution—the determination to restore the dignity of the individual and assure fraternity.
Untouchability is not only prohibited but it is made punishable by law for those who violate the provision.
Part IV also reflects the conceptualization of Ambedkar on democracy that is to say, a political
democracy should be accompanied with the social and political democracy. In this context, Kannabiran
(2012, p. 19) highlights some of cases of Dalit atrocities taken place after the independence ―In the case
of discrimination against Dalits, instances of collective violence have occurred. Ambedkar was
concerned not only about the community, he belonged to but for all the victims of inequality in our
country prevailing due to socio-economic conditions. Once Ambedkar had remarked about the rights of
women by saying “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have
achieved”. “Ambedkar had visions of not only a casteless society, but one in which there was gender
justice, labour justice, economic justice an equal distribution of opportunities. He stood not just for the
Dalits, but for all victims of inequity. Even today, such incidents are continued to occur in the large
numbers across the entire nation and often reported in the daily newspapers. The e>orts were made to
give the status of all section equally but equal status are not seen in the present scenario.
The journey to India's Constitution involved several key steps, culminating in the formation of the
Constituent Assembly, the drafting of the document, and its eventual adoption and
implementation. The Constituent Assembly, elected by representatives of the provincial assemblies,
deliberated extensively over a period of three years, ultimately producing a comprehensive document
that laid the foundation for India's governance.
Key Stages and Developments:
• Pre-Constituent Assembly:
Ideas about India's future constitution were debated and discussed even before the official
establishment of the Constituent Assembly. In 1928, Motilal Nehru and other Congress leaders
drafted a constitution proposal, and in 1931, the Karachi session of the Indian National
Congress outlined key features of a future Indian constitution, including universal adult
franchise, freedom, and equality.
• Formation of the Constituent Assembly:
The Constituent Assembly was formed as per the provisions of the Cabinet Mission of May
1946, with the task of drafting the constitution. Elections were held in July 1946 to elect
members of the assembly.
• Drafting and Adoption:
The Constituent Assembly, with its initial 389 members (later reduced to 299 after the partition of
India), held numerous sessions and deliberations. A Drafting Committee, chaired by
B.R. Ambedkar, played a crucial role in drafting the Constitution. The draft constitution was then
presented for public discussion, and amendments were proposed and enacted. The Assembly
finally adopted the Constitution on November 26, 1949.
• Implementation:
The Constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950.
Key Features and Principles:
• The Indian Constitution is a comprehensive document, reflecting the country's diverse history
and values.
• It establishes a federal system of government, with a division of power between the Union
and the states.
• It guarantees fundamental rights to citizens, including the right to equality, freedom, and
justice.
• It also outlines Directive Principles of State Policy, guiding the government in its actions.
• The Constitution provides for a system of checks and balances among the different branches
of government.
In essence, the path to India's Constitution was a journey of deliberation, debate, and compromise,
culminating in the creation of a document that serves as the foundation for the nation's governance
and protects the rights of its citizens