Basic Electrical Engineering by Prof. Prajwal. R.

Kale

Unit-V : Electrical Machines

Part: A - Single Phase Transformer

Syllabus
 Single Phase Transformer Construction
 Working ( No load & On load)
 EMF Equation
 Losses, Efficiency, Regulation
 Phasor diagram.

What is a Transformer?

A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering

the voltage of an AC supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.

The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Figure below.

Fig.3-1
Principle of Operation
A transformer in its simplest form will consist of a rectangular laminated magnetic structure
on which two coils of different number of turns are wound as shown in Figure 3.2a.

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The winding to which AC voltage is impressed is called the primary of the

transformer and the winding across which the load is connected is called the secondary of the
transformer.

Fig.3-2b

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an alternating
emf (E2) is induced in the secondary. This induced emf (E2) in the secondary causes a
secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load. If V2 >
V1, it is called a step up-transformer. On the other hand, if V2 < V1, it is called a step-down
transformer.
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux Φ is set up in
the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces emfs E1 and E2 in them
according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The emf E1 is termed as primary
emf and emf E2 is termed as Secondary emf.

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The following points may be noted carefully:

(i) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagneticinduction.

(ii) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
(iii) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the samefrequency as
the input power.

Can DC Supply be used for Transformers?

The DC supply cannot be used for the transformers. This is because

the transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one coil
must change [Link] DC supply is given, the current will not change due to constant
supply and transformer will not work

There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very largecurrent from the
supply when connected to DC.

Thus DC supply should not be connected to the transformers.

Construction
We usually design a power transformer so that it approaches the characteristics of an ideal
transformer. To achieve this, following design features are incorporated:
(i) The core is made of silicon steel which has low hysteresis loss and high
permeability. Further, core is laminated in order to reduce eddy current loss. These
features considerably reduce the iron losses and theno-load current.
(ii) Instead of placing primary on one limb and secondary on the other, it is a usual
practice to wind one-half of each winding on one limb. This ensures tight coupling
between the two windings. Consequently, leakage flux is considerably reduced.

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(iii) The winding resistances are minimized to reduce Copper loss and
resulting rise in temperature and to ensure high efficiency.

Transformers are of two types: (i) core-type transformer (see Fig.3-3) and
(ii) shell-type transformer (see Fig.3-4).

Core-Type Transformer: In a core-type transformer, half of the primary winding and half
of the secondary winding are placed round each limb to reduce the leakage flux.

Fig.3-3

Shell-Type Transformer: This method of construction involves the use of a double

magnetic circuit. Both the windings are placed round the central limb to ensure a low-
reluctance flux path.

Fig.3-4

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Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transforms

Core Type Shell Type

The winding encircles the core. The core encircles most part of the windin
It has single magnetic circuit It has double magnetic circuit
The core has two limbs The core has three limbs
The cylindrical coils are used. The multilayer disc or sandwich type
coils are used.

The winding are uniformly distributed on two The natural cooling does not exist as the
limbs hence natural cooling is effective windings are surrounded by the core.
Preferred for low voltage transformers. Preferred for high voltage transformers.

Cooling of Transformers
When transformer supplies a load, two types of losses occur inside the transformer. The iron
losses occur in the core while copper losses occur in the windings. The power lost due to
these losses appears in the form of heat. This heat increases the temperature of the
transformer. To keep the temperature rise of the transformer within limits, a suitable
coolant and cooling method is necessary.

The various cooling methods are designated witch depended upon: A: cooling

medium used and B: type of circulation employed.

The various coolant used such as Air, Gas, Mineral oil, and water.

One of cooling method system is shown in figure below which is called Oil Forced Water
Forced cooling system;

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EMF Equation of a Transformer

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary as shown in
Fig. 3-2b. The sinusoidal flux Φ produced by the primary can be represented as:

Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

From the above equations of induced emf, we have,

The constant K is called voltage transformation ratio. Thus if K = 5 (i.e. N2/N1 = 5),

then E2 = 5 E1.

Concept of Ideal Transformer

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A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties:

i) It has no losses.
ii) Its windings have zero resistance.
iii) Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100 % flux produced by primary links withthe
secondary.
iv) Permeabitity of core is so high that negilgiblc current is required toestablish
the flux in it.
NOTE:
For an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V1 is same as theprimary induced
emf E1 as there are no voltage drops.

For ideal transformer:

Volt-Ampere Rating
Transformer rating is specified as the product of voltage and current and called
KVA rating.

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The full load primaty and secondary currents which indicate the safe maximum values of
currents which transformer windings can carry can be given as:

Ideal Transformer on No Load

Consider an ideal transformer in Fig. 3-5. For no load I2 =0. I1 is just
necessary to produce flux in the core, which is called magnetising currentdenoted as
0
Im. Im is very small and lags V1 by 90 as the
winding is purely inductive.

According to Lenz's law, the induced [Link] the cause producing it which is supply
voltage V1. Hence E1 and E2 are in antiphase with V1 but equalin magnitude and E1 and E2
are in phase.

Fig.3-5
This can be illustrated in the phase diagram as shown below:

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Ideal Transformer on Load

Let us connect a load ZL across the secondary of an ideal transformer as shownin Figure
below:
The secondary emf E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the load:

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The Phasor diagram for the ideal transformer on load is shown in Figure (ii)above.
The secondary current I2 lags behind V2 (or E2) by Φ2. It causes a primary
current I = KI = I2 (for K=1) which is in antiphase with it.
1 2

Practical Transformer
A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The practical
transformer has (i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii) magnetic leakage, giving rise
to leakage reactance.

(i) Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy
current and hysteresis loss in it.

(ii) Winding resistances. Since the windings consist of copper conductors, it

immediately follows that both primary and secondary will have winding
resistance. The primary resistance R1 and secondary resistance R2 act in series
with the respective windings as shown below:

(iii) Leakage reactance. Both primary and secondary currents produce flux. The flux Φ
which links both the windings is the useful flux However, primary current would
produce some flux Φ which would not link the secondary winding and is called
mutual flux (for more information review Lecture Note 2) (See Fig. below).

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Practical Transformer on No Load

Consider the figure below:

The primary will draw a small current I0 to supply (i) the iron losses and (ii) a very small
amount of copper loss in the primary. Hence the primary no load current I0 is not 90° behind
the applied voltage V1 but lags it by an angle Φ0 < 90° as shown in the phasor diagram.

The no-load primary current I0 can be resolved into two rectangularcomponents:

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ii)

Practical Transformer on Load

Fig. above shows a practical transformer with the assumption that resistancesand leakage
reactances of the windings are negligible. With this assumption, V2

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= E2 and V1 = E1.
Let us take the usual case of inductive load which causes the I2 to lag V2 by Φ[Link] total
primary current I1 must meet two requirements:

Phasor Diagram: Both E1 and E2 lag behind the mutual

flux f by 90°. The current I'2 represents the primary
current to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of
secondary current I2. Now I'2 = K I2 and is antiphase with
I2. I0 is the no-load current of the transformer. The phasor
sum of I'2 and I0 gives the total primary current I1. Note
that in drawing the phasor diagram, the value of K is
assumed to be unity so that primary phasors are equal to
secondary phasors.

Transformer with resistance and leakage reactance

The total primary current I1 must meet two requirements:

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Phasor Diagram:

Note that counter emf that opposes the applied

voltage V1 is -E1. Therefore, if we add I1R1 (in
phase with I1) and I1 X1 (90° ahead of I1) to -E1,
we get the applied primary voltage V1. The
phasor E2 represents the induced emf in the
secondary by the mutual flux. The secondary
terminal voltage V2 will be what is left over after
subtracting I2R2 and I2X2 from E2.

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Assignment 5 A)
1. Explain the construction and working of single phase transformer. Also mention
various types of single phase transformers. (W-2018)
2. Draw and explain phasor diagram of single phase transformer for inductive load. (W-
2019)
3. Derive an EMF equation of transformer. (S-2019)
4. Explain the Ideal transformer on No load and On load with neat phasor diagram (S-
2019)
5. Explain the Practical transformer on No load and On load with neat phasor diagram
(S-2018)
6. What is efficiency and regulation in transformer?

Part: B – DC Motor

Syllabus
 Electromechanical Energy Conversion
 Working principle
 Construction of D.C. Motors
 Types of dc motor
 Characteristics and applications of D.C. Motors

Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles

An electromechanical energy conversion device is the device that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy or, mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electromechanical
energy conversion takes place via the medium of a magnetic field or an electric field, but
most practical converters use magnetic field as the coupling medium between electrical and
mechanical systems, this is because the electric storing capacity of the magnetic field is much
higher than that of the electric field. Electromechanical energy converters are either gross-
motion devices such as microphones, loudspeakers, electromagnetic relays, and certain
electrical measuring instruments, etc.

DC, induction and synchronous machines are used extensively for electromechanical energy
conversion. When the conversion takes place from electrical to mechanical form, the device
is called the motor, and when the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy, the
device is called a generator. In these machines, conversion of energy from electrical to
mechanical form or from mechanical to electrical from results from the following two
electromagnetic phenomena:
1. When a conductor is allowed to move in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the
conductor.
2. When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, then a mechanical
force is experienced by the conductor.

In monitoring action, current flows through the conductors placed in a magnetic field. A force
is produced on each conductor. The conductors are placed on the rotor which is free to move.
An electromagnetic torque produced on the rotor is transferred to the shaft of the rotor and

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can be utilized to drive a mechanical load. Since the conductors rotate in the magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in each conductor. In generating action, the rotor is driven by a prime
mover. A voltage is induced in the rotor conductors. If an electrical load is connected to the
winding formed by these conductors, a current will flow, delivering electric power to the
load. Moreover, the current flowing through the conductors will interact with the magnetic
field to produce a reaction torque, which will tend to oppose the torque developed by the
prime mover.

Conservation of energy

According to the principle of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed it can only be transformed from one state to another.

In an energy conversion device, the total input energy is equal to the sum of the following
three components:

Thus, with an electromechanical conversion device, the energy balance equation can be
written as

The above equation is for motor action. For generator action, the energy balance equation is
written as

Working of DC Motor
How does DC Motor Works?
Consider a part of a multipolar DC motor as shown in the figure. When the main supply is
applied to the armature conductors and field magnets are excited, the conductors experience a
force that tends to rotate the armature.
Armature conductors under N-pole are assumed to carry current downwards and the S-poles
carry upwards. Now by applying Fleming’s Left-hand rule, the direction of the force on each
conductor can be found. This is shown by small arrow marks in the figure in each conductor .

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The force ‘F’ experienced by each conductor tends to rotate the armature in the anti-
clockwise direction. The continuous and unidirectional torque is developed by a commutator
which reverses the current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another.

Working Principle of DC Motor

The operation of D.C. The motor is based on the working principle that when a current-
carrying conductor is located in a magnetic field, it undergoes a mechanical force, guided by
Fleming’s left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by:
F = BIl newtons.
Where,
 B = Flux density in cub/m²
 I = Current through the conductor in amperes.
 l = Length of the conductor in meters.
Constructional and Parts of DC Motor
The construction of the D.C. motor is the same as D.C. Generator.

Following are the parts of a DC motor:

1. Yoke or frame
2. Field poles
3. Field winding
4. Brushes
5. End shields
6. Armature core
7. Armature winding
8. Commutator
9. Shaft
1) Yoke or Frame: It is a stationary part called a starter. The functions of Yoke are:
 It supports the field poles and field winding.

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 Provides a magnetic path to the main field flux.

 Provides protection to armature from mechanical injury.
2) Field Poles: The main functions of poles are :
 Provides support to the field winding.
 Provide slow reactance path to the main field flux.
 Distributes the main field flux uniformly all around the periphery of the armature.
3) Field Windings: They produce a magnetic field when D.C. is passed through them.
4) Brushes: They receive D.C. from the main and supply it to the armature winding through
a commutator.
5) End Shields: The main functions are:
 Supports the bearings in which armature rotates.
 Covers the armature and protects it.
6) Armature Core: It houses the windings in the slot and provides a low reactance path to
the main field flux and the armature flux.
7) Armature Windings: It produces armature flux when current is passed through them.
This flux reacts with the main field flux and produces rotation or torque.
8) Commutator: It collects D.C. from brushes, converts it into A.C., and supplies it to the
armature windings.
Shaft: The main functions are :
 It provides support to the armature, windings and commutator.
 It helps the armature to rotate.

Torque equation of DC motor

Torque is the turning moment of a force about an axis and is measured by the product of
force (F) and radius (r) at right angle to which the force acts i.e. D.C. Motors

T=Fxr

In a D.C. motor, each conductor is acted upon by a circumferential force F at a distance r, the
radius of the armature. Therefore, each conductor exerts a torque, tending to rotate the
armature. The sum of the torques due to all armature conductors is known as gross or
armature torque (Ta).

Let in a D.C. motor

r = average radius of armature in m
L = effective length of each conductor in m
Z = total number of armature conductors
A = number of parallel paths
I = current in each conductor = Ia/A
B = average flux density in Wb/m2
ɸ = flux per pole in Wb
P = number of poles Force on each conductor,
F = BIL newtons

Torque due to one conductor = F ´x r newton- metre

Total armature torque, Ta = Z F r newton-metre

=ZBILr
Now I = Ia/A,

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B = ɸ /a where a is the x-sectional area of flux path per pole at radius r.

Clearly, a = 2Πr L/P.
∅ 𝑰𝒂
𝑻𝒂 = 𝒁 𝒙 ( ) 𝒙 ( ) 𝒙 𝑳 𝒓
𝒂 𝑨

∅ 𝑰𝒂
𝑻𝒂 = 𝒁 𝒙 ( )𝒙 ( )𝒙 𝑳 𝒓
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝑳/𝑷 𝑨

𝒁 ∅𝑷𝑰𝒂
𝑻𝒂 = ( ) N– m
𝟐𝝅𝑨

𝒁 ∅𝑷𝑰𝒂
𝑻𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟗 ( ) N– m
𝑨

Since Z, P and A are fixed for a given machine

∴ 𝑻𝒂 𝜶 ∅𝑰𝒂
Hence torque in a D.C. motor is directly proportional to flux per pole and armature current.

Types of DC Motors

Following are the three main types of DC motors:

1. Separately excited dc motor
2. Permanent magnet dc motor
3. Self excited dc motor
4. Shunt-wound dc motors
5. Series wound dc motors

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6. Compound wound dc motors0

7. Cumulative compound DC motor
8. Differential compound DC motor
9. Short shunt DC motor
10. Long shunt DC motor

Characteristics Of DC Motors
Characteristics Of DC Series Motors
Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly
proportional to the product of armature current and field flux, T a ∝ ɸ.Ia. In DC series motors,
field winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. I a = If. Therefore, before magnetic
saturation of the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation
Ta α Ia2. Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia. After magnetic
saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia. Therefore, the
torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T ∝ [Link], after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia
curve becomes a straight line. The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due
to stray losses. Hence, the curve Tsh vs Ia lies slightly lower. In DC series motors, (prior to
magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature current, these motors are used
where high starting torque is required.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N ∝ Eb/ɸ
For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small
and it may be neglected. Hence, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to ɸ. As we
know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore,
when armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a
series motor should never be started without some mechanical load.
But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in
decreased back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above
two characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is
low and vice versa.

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Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant. Though at heavy
loads, ɸ decreases in a small amount due to increased armature reaction. As we are neglecting
the change in the flux ɸ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature current. Hence,
the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line through the origin.
Since heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started
on a heavy load.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back emf is also almost
constant, the speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with
increase in load. Back emf Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases
slightly. Generally, the speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a
shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor. In speed vs. armature current
characteristic in the following figure, the straight horizontal line represents the ideal
characteristic and the actual characteristic is shown by the dotted line.

Characteristics of DC Compound Motor

DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding. In a compound motor, if
series and shunt windings are connected such that series flux is in direction as that of the
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shunt flux then the motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. And if the series flux is
opposite to the direction of the shunt flux, then the motor is said to be differentially
compounded. Characteristics of both these compound motors are explained below.
(a) Cumulative compound motor
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load
is likely to be removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the
shunt winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is
suddenly removed. These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and
temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills.
(b) Differential compound motor
Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with
increase in load. Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may increase
slightly with increase in load (N ∝ Eb/ɸ). Differential compound motors are not commonly
used, but they find limited applications in experimental and research work.

Applications of DC Motors:
1. Series motor: It is used where very high starting torque and variable speed is
required, such as electrical fraction work, electric locomotives, trolleys, cranes, hoists,
conveyors. air compressors, vacuum cleaners, hair driers, sewing machines etc.
2. Shunt motors: It is where constant speed is required with low starting torque such as
for lathes, centrifugal pumps, fans, reciprocating pumps, drilling machines, boring
machines. Spinning and weaving machines etc.
3. Compound motor: It is used where sudden loads are applied or removed such as for
shears, punches, coal cutting machines, elevators, conveyors, heavy planners, rolling
mills, ice machines, printing presses, air compressors etc.

Assignment 5 B)
7. Draw and explain characteristics of DC motors.(W-2019)
8. Explain the construction of DC machines in detail. (W-2019)
9. State & explain the applications of different types of D. C. motor. (W-20218)
10. Explain different types of DC motors.
11. Explain the concept of electromechanical energy conversion.
12. Derive torque equation of DC motor.

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