Onto, One-to-One, and Standard Matrix

If T : Rn → Rm is a linear mapping, the matrix

 
A = T(e1 ) T(e2 ) · · · T(en )

is called the standard matrix of T. In words, the columns of A are the images of the
standard unit vectors e1 , e2 , . . . , en under T. The punchline is that if T is a linear mapping,
then to derive properties of T we need only know the standard matrix A corresponding to
T.

Example 8.15. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear  mapping that

 rotates every vector by an
1 0
angle θ. Use the standard unit vectors e1 = and e2 = in R2 to write down the
0 1
matrix A ∈ R2×2 corresponding to T.

Tθ (e2 ) b e2
b b
Tθ (e1 )

θ b

e1

Solution. We have " #

  cos(θ) − sin(θ)
A = T(e1 ) T(e2 ) =
sin(θ) cos(θ)

Example 8.16. Let T : R3 → R3 be a dilation of factor k = 2. Find the standard matrix

A of T.
Solution. The mapping is T(x) = 2x. Then
           
1 2 0 0 0 0
T(e1 ) = 2 0 = 0 , T(e2 ) = 2 1 = 2 , T(e3 ) = 2 0 = 0
0 0 0 0 1 2

Therefore,  
  2 0 0
A = T(e1 ) T(e2 ) T(e3 ) = 0 2 0
0 0 2
is the standard matrix of T.

After this lecture you should know the following:

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 Lecture 8

• the relationship between the range of a matrix mapping T(x) = Ax and the span of
the columns of A
• what it means for a mapping to be onto and one-to-one
• how to verify if a linear mapping is onto and one-to-one
• that all linear mappings are matrix mappings
• what the standard unit vectors are
• how to compute the standard matrix of a linear mapping

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Onto, One-to-One, and Standard Matrix

74
 Lecture 9

Lecture 9

Matrix Algebra

9.1 Sums of Matrices

We begin with the definition of matrix addition.

Definition 9.1: Given matrices

   
a11 a12 · · · a1n b11 b12 · · · b1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   b21 b22 · · · b2n 
   
A =  .. .. .. ..  , B =  .. .. .. ..  ,
 . . . .   . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm1 bm2 · · · bmn

both of the same dimension m × n, the sum A + B is defined as

 
a11 + b11 a12 + b12 ··· a1n + b1n
 a21 + b21 a22 + b22 ··· a2n + b2n 
 
A+B= .. .. .. .. .
 . . . . 
am1 + bm1 am2 + bm2 · · · amn + bmn

Next is the definition of scalar-matrix multiplication.

Definition 9.2: For a scalar α we define αA by

   
a11 a12 · · · a1n αa11 αa12 · · · αa1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   αa21 αa22 · · · αa2n 
   
αA = α  .. .. .. ..  =  .. .. .. ..  .
 . . . .   . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn αam1 αam2 · · · αamn

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Matrix Algebra

Example 9.3. Given A and B below, find 3A − 2B.

   
1 −2 5 5 0 −11
A = 0 −3
 9 , B =  3 −5 1 
4 −6 7 −1 −9 0
Solution. We compute:
   
3 −6 15 10 0 −22
3A − 2B =  0 −9 27 −  6 −10 2 
12 −18 21 −2 −18 0
 
−7 −6 37
= −6 1 25
14 0 21

Below are some basic algebraic properties of matrix addition/scalar multiplication.

Theorem 9.4: Let A, B, C be matrices of the same size and let α, β be scalars. Then

(a) A + B = B + A (d) α(A + B) = αA + αB

(b) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (e) (α + β)A = αA + βA
(c) A + 0 = A (f) α(βA) = (αβ)A

9.2 Matrix Multiplication

Let TB : Rp → Rn and let TA : Rn → Rm be linear mappings. If x ∈ Rp then TB (x) ∈ Rn
and thus we can apply TA to TB (x). The resulting vector TA (TB (x)) is in Rm . Hence, each
x ∈ Rp can be mapped to a point in Rm , and because TB and TA are linear mappings the
resulting mapping is also linear. This resulting mapping is called the composition of TA
and TB , and is usually denoted by TA ◦ TB : Rp → Rm (see Figure 9.1). Hence,

(TA ◦ TB )(x) = TA (TB (x)).

Because (TA ◦ TB ) : Rp → Rm is a linear mapping it has an associated standard matrix,

which we denote for now by C. From Lecture 8, to compute the standard matrix of any
linear mapping, we must compute the images of the standard unit vectors e1 , e2 , . . . , ep under
the linear mapping. Now, for any x ∈ Rp ,

TA (TB (x)) = TA (Bx) = A(Bx).

Applying this to x = ei for all i = 1, 2, . . . , p, we obtain the standard matrix of TA ◦ TB :

 
C = A(Be1 ) A(Be2 ) · · · A(Bep ) .

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 Lecture 9

Rm
Rp TB Rn TA
b b

x b TB (x) TA (TB(x))

(TA ◦ TB )(x)

Figure 9.1: Illustration of the composition of two mappings.

Now Be1 is
 
Be1 = b1 b2 · · · bp e1 = b1 .

And similarly Bei = bi for all i = 1, 2, . . . , p. Therefore,

 
C = Ab1 Ab2 · · · Abp

is the standard matrix of TA ◦ TB . This computation motivates the following definition.

 
Definition 9.5: For A ∈ Rm×n and B ∈ Rn×p , with B = b1 b2 · · · bp , we define the
product AB by the formula
 
AB = Ab1 Ab2 · · · Abp .

The product AB is defined only when the number of columns of A equals the number of
rows of B. The following diagram is useful for remembering this:

(m × n) · (n × p) → m × p

From our definition of AB, the standard matrix of the composite mapping TA ◦ TB is

C = AB.

In other words, composition of linear mappings corresponds to matrix multiplication.

Example 9.6. For A and B below compute AB and BA.

 
  −4 2 4 −4
1 2 −2
A= , B =  −1 −5 −3 3 
1 1 −3
−4 −4 −3 −1

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Matrix Algebra

Solution. First AB = [Ab1 Ab2 Ab3 Ab4 ]:

 
  −4 2 4 −4
1 2 −2
AB =  −1 −5 −3 3 
1 1 −3
−4 −4 −3 −1

2
=
7

2 0
=
7 9

2 0 4
=
7 9 10
 
2 0 4 4
=
7 9 10 2

On the other hand, BA is not defined! B has 4 columns and A has 2 rows.

Example 9.7. For A and B below compute AB and BA.

   
−4 4 3 −1 −1 0
A =  3 −3 −1  , B =  −3 0 −2 
−2 −1 1 −2 1 −2

Solution. First AB = [Ab1 Ab2 Ab3 ]:

  
−4 4 3 −1 −1 0
AB =  3 −3 −1   −3 0 −2 
−2 −1 1 −2 1 −2

−14
=  8
3

−14 7
=  8 −4
3 3
 
−14 7 −14
= 8 −4 8 
3 3 0

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 Lecture 9

Next BA = [Ba1 Ba2 Ba3 ]:

  
−1 −1 0 −4 4 3
BA =  −3 0 −2   3 −3 −1 
−2 1 −2 −2 −1 1

1
= 16

15

1 −1
=  16 −10
15 −9
 
1 −1 −2
=  16 −10 −11 
15 −9 −9

On the other hand:  

−14 7 −14
AB =  8 −4 8 
3 3 0
Therefore, in general AB 6= BA, i.e., matrix multiplication is not commutative.

An important matrix that arises frequently is the identity matrix In ∈ Rn×n of size
n:  
1 0 0 ··· 0
0 1 0 · · · 0
 
In =  .. .. .. .. 
. . . · · · .
0 0 0 ··· 1
You should verify that for any A ∈ Rn×n it holds that AIn = In A = A. Below are some
basic algebraic properties of matrix multiplication.

Theorem 9.8: Let A, B, C be matrices, of appropriate dimensions, and let α be a scalar.

Then
(1) A(BC) = (AB)C
(2) A(B + C) = AB + AC
(3) (B + C)A = BA + CA
(4) α(AB) = (αA)B = A(αB)
(5) In A = AIn = A

If A ∈ Rn×n is a square matrix, the kth power of A is

Ak = |AAA
{z· · · A}
k times

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Matrix Algebra

Example 9.9. Compute A3 if  

−2 3
A= .
1 0
Solution. Compute A2 :
    
2 −2 3 −2 3 7 −6
A = =
1 0 1 0 −2 3
And then A3 :
  
3 2 7 −6 −2 3
A =A A=
−2 3 1 0
 
−20 21
=
7 −6
We could also do:
    
3 2 −2 3 7 −6 −20 21
A = AA = = .
1 0 −2 3 7 −6

9.3 Matrix Transpose

We begin with the definition of the transpose of a matrix.

Definition 9.10: Given a matrix A ∈ Rm×n , the transpose of A is the matrix AT whose
ith column is the ith row of A.

If A is m × n then AT is n × m. For example, if

 
0 −1 8 −7 −4
 −4 6 −10 −9 6 
A=  9

5 −2 −3 5 
−8 8 4 7 7
then  
0 −4 9 −8

 −1 6 5 8 

AT = 
 8 −10 −2 4 
.
 −7 −9 −3 7 
−4 6 5 7

Example 9.11. Compute (AB)T and BT AT if

 
  −2 1 2
−2 1 0
A= , B =  −1 −2 0 .
3 −1 −3
0 0 −1

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 Lecture 9

Solution. Compute AB:

 
  −2 1 2
−2 1 0
AB =  −1 −2 0 
3 −1 −3
0 0 −1
 
3 −4 −4
=
−5 5 9

Next compute BT AT :
  
−2 −1 0 −2 3
BT AT =  1 −2 0   1 −1 
2 0 −1 0 −3
 
3 −5
= −4
 5  = (AB)T
−4 9

The following theorem summarizes properties of the transpose.

Theorem 9.12: Let A and B be matrices of appropriate sizes. The following hold:
(1) (AT )T = A
(2) (A + B)T = AT + BT
(3) (αA)T = αAT
(4) (AB)T = BT AT

A consequence of property (4) is that

(A1 A2 . . . Ak )T = ATk ATk−1 · · · AT2 AT1

and as a special case

(Ak )T = (AT )k .

Example 9.13. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear mapping that first contracts vectors by a
factor of k = 3 and then rotates by an angle θ. What is the standard matrix A of T?
Solution. Let e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1) denote the standard
 unit vectors in R2 . From
Lecture 8, the standard matrix of T is A = T(e1 ) T(e2 ) . Recall that the standard matrix
of a rotation by θ is  
cos(θ) − sin(θ)
sin(θ) cos(θ)
Contracting e1 by a factor of k = 3 results in ( 13 , 0) and then rotation by θ results in
1 
cos(θ)
3
1 = T(e1 ).
3
sin(θ)

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Matrix Algebra

Contracting e2 by a factor of k = 3 results in (0, 13 ) and then rotation by θ results in

 1 
− 3 sin(θ)
1 = T(e2 ).
3
cos(θ)

Therefore, "1 #
  3
cos(θ) − 13 sin(θ)
A = T(e1 ) T(e2 ) =
1 1
3
sin(θ) 3
cos(θ)
1
On the other hand, the standard matrix corresponding to a contraction by a factor k = 3
is
"1 #
3
0
1
0 3

Therefore, " # "1 # "1 #

cos(θ) − sin(θ) 3
0 3
cos(θ) − 13 sin(θ)
= =A
sin(θ) cos(θ) 0 1 1
sin(θ) 1
cos(θ)
| {z } | {z 3 } 3 3
rotation contraction

After this lecture you should know the following:

• know how to add and multiply matrices
• that matrix multiplication corresponds to composition of linear mappings
• the algebraic properties of matrix multiplication (Theorem 9.8)
• how to compute the transpose of a matrix
• the properties of matrix transposition (Theorem 9.12)

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