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A compound microscope uses two lenses, an objective lens and an eyepiece lens. The total magnification
of the image is calculated by multiplying the power of the two lenses.

CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE
➔ Ultrastructure is the detail of a structure as seen using an electron microscope.

Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of light. As electrons are invisible, the images are
often converted to an image on a screen. They produce very clear images; this makes electron
microscopes ideal for observing very small structures.
❖ A transmission electron microscope (TEM) sends a beam of electrons through a thin
section of the specimen. This shows the internal structure of the specimen in great
detail.
❖ A scanning electron microscope (SEM) uses a beam of electrons to provide a surface
view of the specimen.

CELL (OR PLASMA) MEMBRANE

They are composed of phospholipids and proteins.

The phospholipids, which have a hydrophilic

phosphate group and a hydrophobic lipid
group, are arranged into double layers -
bilayers.

The phosphates are on the exposed outer surface

with the lipids in the middle.

In a membrane protein, molecules are completely or partially fixed in the phospholipid bilayer. Some are
attached to the bilayer; others are detachable and can move through the bilayer.

FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANES

❖ Retain the cell contents

❖ Recognize molecules that touch them

❖ Controls what enters and leaves the cell (semi-permeable

membrane)

❖ Give some support to the cell.

NUCLEUS
➔ The nucleus is the control centre of the cell.

A nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane with numerous nuclear pores/ these allow the controlled
entry and exit of molecules into and out of the nucleus.

The nucleus contains strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is arranged into structures called
chromosomes (humans - 46).

Genes are the structures that inform the cell how to make certain proteins. They are the units of
inheritance.
When a cell is not dividing the chromosomes are very elongated and interwoven. In this form they are
called chromatin.

Chromatic is the name given to chromosomes when they are

elongated and not dividing.

NUCLEAR PORES

Nuclear pores allow a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) called

mRNA (messenger RNA) to pass in and out of the nucleus.

NUCLEOLUS

The nucleolus (pl. nucleoli) is an area in the nucleus that

stains very darkly. The nucleolus makes ribosomes.

CYTOPLASM
➔ Many of the reactions in a cell take place in the cytoplasm - animal cell.

The cytoplasm is the jelly-like liquid in a cell that surrounds the nucleus. A number of small bodies called
organelles (such as mitochondria, chloroplast and ribosomes) are suspended in the cytoplasm.

The protoplasm is all the living parts of a cell. It is made up of the nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm
- animal cells.

MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria (mitochondrion) supply energy to the cell and are the sites of respiration.

❖ Cells with many mitochondria produce lots of energy - muscle, liver in animals, meristems in plants.
❖ Cells with few mitochondria produce less energy - fat in
humans, ground tissue in plants.

Mitochondria are surrounded by a double membrane. It is on the

inner membrane, especially the infoldings, that energy is
released.

The more infoldings that are present the greater the surface
area for cellular respiration, which results in the production of
greater quantities of energy.

Each mitochondrion has its own loop of DNA.

CHLOROPLAST
➔ Chloroplast are green structures in plants in which photosynthesis takes place.

Chloroplasts are surrounded by double membranes. They have membrane stacks, which contain the
green pigment chlorophyll. They also have a loop of DNA.

CELL WALL (PLANTS ONLY)

➔ The function of the cell wall is to support and strengthen
the cell.
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose (which is a structural
polysaccharide). Cell walls are fully permeable. This means all
molecules can pass through cell walls.

RIBOSOMES
 ➔ The function of ribosomes is to make proteins.

Ribosomes are very tiny round structures. They are made of RNA and protein. They work by combining a
sequence of amino acids to form a protein.

ANIMAL CELL & PLANTS CELL

ANIMAL:

❖ The protoplasm is all the living parts of a cell. It is made up of the nucleus and the surrounding
cytoplasm.
❖ The cytoplasm is the living material in a cell outside the nucleus.
❖ Many of the reactions in a cell take place in the cytoplasm.

PLANT:

❖ The vacuole helps to give the cell strength and shape and may also store materials.
❖ Vacuoles contain a fluid called cell sap. This is a solution of salts, sugars and pigments.

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

PROKARYOTIC CELLS do not have a nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles.

➔ Are single-celled.
➔ Have a circular loop of DNA (not surrounded by a membrane)
➔ Have small cells
➔ Do not have membrane and enclosed structures such as mitochondria and chloroplasts
➔ Include bacteria

EUKARYOTIC CELLS have a nucleus and cell organelles, all of which are enclosed by membranes.

➔ Have a nucleus
➔ May have membrane-enclosed organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts.
➔ Have large cells
➔ Include animal, plants and fungi
➔ Are more advanced than prokaryotes
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism.

An organelle is a cell component that performs specific functions for the cell.

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