CANARA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

MODULE 1
BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Contents- Carbohydrates (cellulose based water filters, PHA & PLA bioplastics), Nucleic Acids
(DNA vaccine for Rabies and RNA vaccine for Covid19, Forensics-DNA fingerprinting) ,
Proteins( proteins as a food-whey protein and meat analogs, plant based proteins),
Lipids(Biodiesel, cleaning agents/detergents), Enzymes (glucose – oxidase in biosensors,
lignolytic enzyme in bio-bleaching.

BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS:

Biomolecule, also called biological molecule, any of numerous substances that are produced
by cells and living organisms.
Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of functions.
The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
Among biomolecules, nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA, have the unique function of
storing an organism’s genetic code—the sequence of nucleotides that determines the amino
acid sequence of proteins, which are of critical importance to life on Earth.
Carbohydrates, which are made up primarily of molecules containing atoms of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, are essential energy sources and structural components of all life, and
they are among the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are built from four types of
sugar units— monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Lipids, another key biomolecule of living organisms, fulfil a variety of roles, including serving
as a source of stored energy and acting as chemical messengers. They also form membranes,
which separate cells from their environments and compartmentalize the cell interior, giving rise
to organelles, such as the nucleus and the mitochondrion, in higher (more complex) organisms.
The main applications of biomolecules are: The biomolecules may involve in several processes
such as energy storage (carbohydrates), catalyzing the biochemical reactions (hormones),
storing/transmitting the genetic codes (RNA/DNA), or altering biological and neurological
activities (neurotransmitter/hormones).
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CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are sugar molecules. Along with proteins and fats, Carbohydrates are one of
three main nutrients found in foods and drinks. Body breaks down carbohydrates into Glucose.
Glucose or blood sugar, is the main source of energy for your body’s cells, tissues and organs.
Glucose can be used immediately or stored in the lever and muscles for later use.

(carbohydrates)

There are three main types of Carbohydrates

1. Sugars: They are also called as simple- carbohydrates because they are in the most
basic form. They can be added to foods, such as the sugar in candy, desserts, processed
foods, and regular soda. They also include the kinds of sugar that are found naturally in
fruits, vegetables and milk.

2. Starches: They are complex carbohydrates, which are made up of lots of simple sugars
strung together. Your body needs to break starches down into sugars to use them for
energy. Starches include bread, cereal and pasta. They also include certain vegetables
like potatoes, peas and corn.

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3. Fiber: It is also complex Carbohydrate. Our body cannot breakdown most fibers, so
eating foods with fiber can help you feel full and make you less likely to overeat. Diets
high in fiber have other health benefits. They may help prevent stomach or intestinal
problems, such as constipation. They may also help lower cholesterol and blood sugar.
Fiber is found in many foods such as fruits and vegetables.

CELULLOSE : It is a complex carbohydrate , or polysaccharide, consisting of 3,000 or more

glucose units.
It is extremely abundant, easily renewable and biodegradable. Due to inter- and intramolecular
hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl groups of the neighbouring cellulose chains, cellulose
is insoluble in water, despite being hydrophilic and is difficult to dissolve with common organic
solvents.

Taking benefit of these advantages of cellulose, we have a best application of cellulose that is
Cellulose based water filters.

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The interest in the use of biobased filters for water purification has increased in recent years,
as such have the potential to be affordable, lightweight and biodegradable. Research has been
focused on creating biobased membranes for micro and ultrafiltration from cellulose
nanofibrils (CNFs).
Filters based on cellulose pulp filters do usually have large pores that facilitate water
percolation but they do not sufficiently remove bacteria through size exclusion; other
techniques are therefore needed to achieve a bacteria-reducing effect. Several groups have
addressed this issue by incorporating antibacterial metal nanoparticles into cellulose-based
water filters, both silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), and copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) are known
to have good antibacterial effects.
An alternate method to physically remove bacteria from water, while keeping the filter pore
size larger than bacteria, is to use positively charged filters that adsorb negatively charged
bacteria onto the surfaces of the filters.
This allows negatively charged particles much smaller than the filter pore size to be efficiently
removed from water and this is an interesting approach for removing bacteria from water
without adding any toxic chemicals or reducing the flow by reducing pore size. Both Gram-
positive and gram-negative bacteria have a negative net surface charge on the cell envelope,
due to peptidoglycans, liposaccharides and proteins in the cell wall, and this makes their
removal non-selective and efficient for most types of bacteria.

(cellulose based water filter)

Methods used for the same are:

• LBL (Layer By Layer) MODIFICATION
• NITROGEN ANALYSIS
• SEM ( Scanning Electron Microscope)
• FLOW RATE FOR FREE FLOW FILTERATION
• BACTERIAL REMOVAL EFFICIENCY FOR FILTERATION
• FILTERATION OF NATURAL WATER SAMPLES

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• FLOURESCENCE MICROSCOPY
Cellulose filter papers are versatile and diverse tools for micro filteration, that work by trapping
particulates within a random matrix of cellulose fibers. Cellulose filter papers can be
categorized as quantitative or qualitative, depending on their application.

(cellulose based nanomaterials for water treatment)

POLY LACTIC ACID [PLA] AND POLY HYDROXY ALKANOATES [PHA] :

Just like, how we introduced biodegradable water treatment plant from cellulose, we also have
a replacement for toxic, non-biodegradable plastics which we are using in our daily life. That
is bioplastics.
Bioplastics are one type of plastic which can be generated from natural resources such as
starches and vegetable oils. Bioplastics are basically classified as bio based and/or
biodegradable. Not all bio-based plastics are biodegradable and similarly not all biodegradable
plastics are bio based. Bioplastics are referred to as bio based when the focus of the material is
on the origin of the carbon building block and not by where it ends up at the end of its cycle
life. Bio plastics are said to be biodegradable if they are broken down with the effect of the
right environment conditions and microbes which in turn use them as a food source. The
bioplastics are considered compostable if within 180days, a complete microbial assimilation of
the fragmented food sources takes place in a compost environment.
Based upon this, we have PHA and PLA.

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PLA: It is both biobased and biodegradable under industrial composting conditions ( at high
temperature around 580c). Because of its good mechanical properties, processability,
renewability, and non-toxicity, PLA is considered today as one of the most commercially
promising bioplastics. When compared with most other biodegradable polymers, PLA has
better durability, transparency and mechanical strength.
PHAs: These are a significant polymer family that are 100% bio-based and bio-degradable.
PHAs are microbiologically produced polyesters that have tunable physical and mechanical
properties. This is accompanied by low environmental impact due to their biodegradability and
non-toxicity nature. Therefore, they are promising candidates for a sustainable future
manufacturing. Ranging from brittle thermoplastics to gummy elastomers, PHAs properties
can be altered by the selection of bacteria, fermentation conditions and substrate. Due to their
flexible properties, PHAs can eventually substitute PP, Polyethylene (PE), and
polystyrene(PS), which are the main polymers of todays global polymer market.

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(Steps in producing bioplastic from PHA and PLA.)

NUCLEIC ACID
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, macromolecules, essential to all known forms of life. They are
composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon
sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. The two main classes of nucleic acids are
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). If the sugar is ribose, the polymer
is RNA. If the sugar is the ribose derivative deoxyribose the polymer is DNA.
Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serves as the primary
information- carrying molecules in cells and make up the genetic material. Nucleic acids are
found in abundance in all living things, where they create, encode, and then store information
of every living cell of every life-form on earth. In turn, they function to transmit and express
that information inside and outside the cell nucleus to the interior operations of the cell and
ultimately to the next generation of each living organism. The encoded information is contained
and conveyed via the nucleic acid sequence, which provides the “ladder -step” ordering of
nucleotides within the molecules of RNA and DNA. They play an especially important role in
directing protein synthesis.
Strings of nucleotides are bonded to form helical backbones- typically, one for RNA, two for
DNA-and assembled into chains of base-pairs selected from the five primary, or canonical,
nucleobases, which are: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine and uracil. Thymine occurs only
in DNA and uracil only in RNA.
The two main acids are DNA and RNA, which is the fundamental unit of any living organisms.
Based on these factors, there are many applications for the same of which are explained below:

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(DNA and RNA structure.).

1. DNA VACCINE FOR RABIES

Rabies is a preventable viral disease most often transmitted through the bite of a rabid
animal. The rabies virus infects the central nervous system of mammals, ultimately causing
disease in the brain and death. Most rabies cases reported to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) each year occur in wild animals like bats, raccoons, skunks and
foxes , although any mammal can get rabies.
A DNA Vaccine, using a pCl-nco plasmid encoding the glycoprotein gene of a Mexican
isolate of rabies virus, was developed to induce long-lasting protective immunity against
rabies virus in dogs. The worldwide incidence of rabies and high rates of therapy failure,
despite availability of effective vaccines indicate the need of timely and improved
prophylactic approaches. DNA vaccination based on optimized formulation of lysosome-
targeted glycoprotein of the rabies virus provides potential platform for preventing and
controlling rabies. A range of parameters including physical , physiological, clinical
,immunological, hematological along with histopathology profiles of target organs was
monitored to assess the impact of vaccination. There were no observational adverse effects
despite high dose administration of the DNA vaccine formulation. Thus, this study indicates
the safety of next generation of vaccines as well as highlights their potential application.

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(DNA Vaccine Production)

2. RNA VACCINE FOR COVID:

Coronavirus disease (Covid-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
Messenger RNA, or mRNA technology, instructs cells to make a protein that generates an
immune response in the body, thus producing the antibodies that provide protection against
a disease. It is the basis for the Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna covid 19 vaccines being used
by governments worldwide, and in the UN-supported COVAX global vaccine solidarity
initiative. Messenger ribonucleic acid(mRNA) is a molecule that provides cells with
instructions for making proteins. mRNA vaccines contain the instructions for making the
SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. This protein is found on the surface of the virus that causes
COVID-19.
The mRNA molecule is essentially a recipe, telling the cells of the body how to make the
spike protein. COVID-19 mRNA vaccines are given by injection, usually into the muscle
of the upper arm. After the protein piece is made, the cell breaks down the instructions and

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gets rid of them. The mRNA never enters the central part(nucleus) of the cell, which is
where our DNA (genetic material) is found. Your DNA can’t be altered by mRNA vaccines.
The cell then displays the protein piece on its surface. Our immune system recognizes that
the protein doesn’t belong there and begins building an immune response and making
antibodies.

(RNA Vaccine for covid 19

3. FORENSIC-DNA FINGERPRINTING:
DNA fingerprinting is also called DNA typing, DNA profiling, genetic fingerprinting,
genotyping, or identify testing, in genetics, method of isolating and identifying variable
elements within the base-pair sequence of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid).
The procedure for creating a DNA fingerprint consists of first obtaining a sample of cells,
such as skin, hair, or blood cells, which contains DNA. The DNA is extracted from the cells
and purified, the DNA was then cut at specific points along the stand with proteins known
as restriction enzymes. The enzymes produced fragments of varying lengths that were
sorted by placing them on a gel and then subjecting the gel to an electric current
(electrophoresis): the shorter the fragment, the more quickly it moved toward the positive
pole(anode).

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The sorted double-stranded DNA fragments were then subjected to a blotting technique in
which they were split into single strands and transferred to a nylon sheet. The fragments
underwent autoradiography in which they were exposed to DNA probes- pieces of synthetic
DNA that were made radioactive and that bound to the minisatellites. A piece of X-ray film
was then exposed to the fragments, and dark mark was produced at any point where
radioactive probe had become attached. The resultant pattern of marks could then be
analyzed. The DNA testing process is comprised of four main steps, including extraction,
quantitation, amplification and capillary electrophoresis.
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to determine the probable identify of a
person based on the nucleotide sequences of certain regions of human DNA that are unique
to individuals. Forensic genetic fingerprinting can be defined as the comparison of the DNA
in a person’s nucleated cells with that identified in biological matter found at the scene of
a crime or with the DNA of another for the purpose of identification or exclusion. The
application of these techniques introduces new factual evidence to criminal investigations
and court cases.

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DNA FINGERPRINTING
So, this is all about nucleic acids, considering the two main nucleic acids, that is, DNA and
RNA, discussing about some of the most important applications of these nucleic acids.

PROTEINS
Protein is found throughout the body in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other
body part or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the
hemoglobin that carries oxygen in your blood.
Taking more about proteins based on biomolecule concept, Proteins are large biomolecules
and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins
perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic
reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, providing structure to cells and
organisms, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from
one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide
sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific 3D
structure that determines its activity.
Proteins are assembled from amino acids using information encoded in genes. Each protein
has its own unique amino acid sequence that is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the
gene encoding this protein. The genetic code is a set of three-nucleotide sets called codons
and each three nucleotide combination designates an amino acid.
The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is known as translation. The
mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time by matching each
codon to its base pairing anticodon located on a transfer RNA molecule, which carries the
amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes. The enzyme aminoacyl tRNA
synthetase “charges” the tRNA molecules with the correct amino acids. The growing

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polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain. Proteins are always biosynthesized from N-
terminus to C-terminus.
Proteins are the chief actors within the cell, said to be carrying out the duties specified by
the information encoded genes. With the exception of certain types of RNA, most other
biological molecules are relatively inert elements upon which proteins act. Proteins make
up of half the dry weight of an Escherichia coli cell, whereas other macromolecules such
as DNA and RNA make up only 3% and 20% respectively. The set of proteins expressed in
a particular cell or cell type is known as its proteome.

PROTEIN AS FOOD:
Protein is a key part of any diet. The average person needs about 7 grams of protein every day
for every 20 pounds of body weight. Because protein is found in an abundance of foods, many
people can easily meet this goal. However, not all protein “packages” are created equal.
Because food contain a lot more than protein, its important to pay attention to what else is
coming with it. Animal based foods (meat, poultry, fish, eggs and dairy foods)tend to be good
sources of complete protein, while plant-based foods(fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts and seeds)
often lack one or more essential amino acid.
Whey protein is a mixture of proteins isolated from whey, the liquid material created as a by-
product of cheese production. The proteins consist of α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, serum
albumin and immunoglobulins. Glycomacropeptide also makes up the third largest component
but is not a protein. Whey protein is commonly marketed as a protein supplement, and various
health claims have been attributed to it.
Whey is lift over when milk is coagulated during the process of cheese production, & contains
everything that is soluble from milk after the pH is dropped to 4.6 during the coagulation
process. It is a 5% solution of lactose in water and contains the wate soluble proteins of milk
as well as some lipid content. Processing can be done simple simple drying, or the relative
protein content can be increased by removing the lactose, lipids and other non-protein
materials. The primary usage of whey protein supplements is for muscle growth and
development. Eating whey protein supplements before exercise will not assist athletic
performance, but it will enhance the body’s protein recovery and synthesis after exercise
because it increases the free amino acids in the body’s free amino acid pool.

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Meat analogues find raising interest of many consumers who are looking for indulgent,
healthy, low environmental impact, ethical, cost-effective, and/or new food products. High
moisture extrusion cooking enables the production of fresh, premium meat analogues that
are texturally like muscle meat from plant or animal proteins. The appearance and eating
sensation are similar to cooked meat while high protein content offers a similar nutritional
value. This article focuses on plant-based meat analogues and covers process and product-
related aspects including ingredients and structure formation, flavour, taste and nutritional
value, postextrusion processing, packaging and shelf life, consumer benefits, and product-
related environmental impacts.
Meat analogues, can be defined as products that mimic meat in its functionality, bearing
similar appearance, texture, and sensory attributes to meat. Production of meat analogues
has been on the increase, targeted at satisfying consumers’ desire for indulgent, healthy,
low environmental impact, and ethical meat substitutes.
The factors that lead to this shift is due to low fat and calorie foods intake, flexitarians,
animal disease, natural resources depletion, and to reduce greenhouse gas emission.
Currently, available marketed meat analog products are plant-based meat in which the
quality (ie: texture or taste) are similar to the conventional meat. The ingredients used are
mainly soy proteins with novel ingredients added, such as mycoprotein and soy
leghemoglobin.

(plant protein marketing process)

PLANT BASED PROTEINS:

Plant protein is simply a meaningful food source of protein which is from plants. This group
can include pulses, tofu, soya, tempeh, seitan, nuts, seeds, certain grains and even peas.

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Pulses are a large group of plants, which include chickpeas, lentils, beans( such as black,
kidney and adzuki beans) and split peas.
Plant proteins are highly nutritious – not only as good sources of protein, but also because
they provide other nutrients such as fibre, vitamins and minerals. Our intake of fibre tends
to be too low, however by incorporating certain plant proteins into your diet, such as pulses,
peas and nuts, you can easily boost your fibre intake.
Consumer demand for plant protein- based products is high and expected to grow
considerably in the next decade. Factors contributing to the rise in popularity of plant
proteins include,
1. potential health benefits associated with increased intake of plant-based diets.
2. consumer concerns regarding adverse health effects of consuming diets high in animal
protein (eg: increased saturated fat)
3. increased consumer recognition of the need to improve the environmental
substainability of food production.
4. Ethical issues regarding the treatment of animals.
5. General consumer view of protein as a “positive” nutrient (more is better). While there
are health and physical function benefits of diets higher in plant-based protein, the
nutritional quality of plant proteins may be inferior in some respects relative to animal
proteins.

LIPIDS
Discussing about another important biomolecule, lipids, are a broad group of naturally
occurring molecules which includes fat, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins( such as
vitamin A,D,E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids and others. The
functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of
cell membranes. Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries and in
nanotechnology.
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the
amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles,
multilamellar/ unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment.
Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical
subunits or “building-blocks” ketoacyl and isoprene groups. Using this approach, lipids
may be devided into eight categories: fatty acyls, glycerolipids, glycerenophospholipids,
sphingolipids, saccharolipids, and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl
subunits): and sterol lipids and prenol lipids ( derived from condensation of isoprene
subunits).
A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer. The formation of lipid
bilayers is an energetically preferred process when the glycerophospholipids described
above are in an aqueous environment. This is known as the hydrophobic effect.
Some of applications are: within the body, lipids function as an energy reserve, regulate
hormones, transmit nerve impulses, cushion vital organs, and transport fat-soluble

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nutrients. Fat in food serves as an energy source with high caloric density, adds texture and
taste, and contributes to society.
Lipid obtained from food waste was used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production
using both a chemical catalyst and biocatalyst. Base (KOH) catalyzed transesterification of
the lipid allowed a 100% conversion of biodiesel in 2 h; whereas Novozyme-435 yielded
90% biodiesel in 24h. So lipids are having a main application in biodiesel production.
Biodiesel demonstrates an animal fat-based or vegetable oil diesel fuel, including long
chain- alkyl (methyl, ethyl, or propyl) esters. Biodiesel is generally made by esterifying
lipids (eg: soybean oil, vegetable oil, and animal fat (tallow)) with an alcohol generating
fatty acid esters. Biodiesel is suggested to be utilized in standard diesel engines and is thus
well defined from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines.
Biodiesel can be used singly or blended with gasoline in any proportions. Biodiesel blends
can also be utilized as heating oil.

(Biodiesel Production)

Lipids also has an interesting application in cleaning agents. Considering the case of,

DETERGENTS:
The hydrophobic end of the phospholipid bilayer stays away from the water. This avoids
the dissolution of cell membrane in water. But the detergent can bind to the hydrophobic
end of the cell membrane and from a solution with water, thus breaking the cell membrane
barrier.
Detergent monomers solubilize membrane proteins by partitioning into the membrane
bilayer. With increasing amounts of detergents, membranes undergo various stages of
solubilization. The initial stage is lysis or rupture of the membrane.

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While lipids also have the same general structure as detergents – a polar hydrophilic head
group and a nonpolar hydrophobic tail- lipids differ from detergents in the shape of
monomers, in the type of aggregates formed in solution, and in the concentration range
required for aggregation.

ENZYMES:
Are another important biomolecule, which are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or
the chemical reactions in our bodies. They build some substances and break others down.
All living things have enzymes. Our bodies naturally produce enzymes. The six kinds of
enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases, transferases, ligases, and isomerases.
Enzymes perform the critical task of lowering a reactions activation energy – that is the
amount of energy that must be put in for the reaction to begin. Enzymes work by binding
to reactant molecules and holding them in such a way that the chemical bond-breaking and
bond-forming processes take place more readily.
Due to their high specificity, simplicity, and scalability, enzyme-based biosensors represent
a fast, precise and continuous monitoring of analytes. Additionally, the high specificity of
enzymes enhances the ability to detect lower analyte concentration limits. So enzymes are
used in biosensors.
Biosensors are employed in applications such as disease monitoring, drug discovery, and
detection of pollutants, disease causing micro-organisms and markers that are indicators of
a disease in bodily fluids(blood, urine, saliva, sweat). Various types of biosensors being
used are enzyme-based, immunosensors, DNA biosensors, thermal and piezoelectric
biosensors. There are wide variety of enzymes used in biosensors. One such enzyme is
glucose oxidase, mainly in amperometric glucose biosensor.

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(function of enzymes)

GLUCOSE OXIDASE IN BIOSENSORS:

Glucose oxidase (Gox) is widely used enzyme in glucose biosensor due to its better stability
and relatively inexpensive. Gox catalyses the redox reaction and transfer electrons from
enzyme active sites to electrode for glucose level analysis in blood samples. Amperometric
glucose biosensor was fabricated by immobilizing glucose oxidase (GOx), the most popular
enzyme used for glucose detection, is able to reduce oxygen to hydrogen peroxide while at
the same time transforming glucose to d-glucono-1, 5-lactone. Quantification of glucose
can be achieved based on their the detection of the hydrogen peroxide produced or the
oxygen consumed.

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LIGNOLYTIC ENZYME IN BIO BLEACHING:

Ligninolytic enzymes play a key role in degradation and detoxification of lignocellulosic
waste in environment. The major ligninolytic enzymes are laccase, lignin peroxidase,
manganese peroxidase and versatile peroxidase. Ligninolytic fungi and enzymes (ie,
laccase, manganese peroxidase, and lignin peroxidase) have been applied recently in the
production of second-generation biofuels.
White-rot fungi are the main producers of lignin-oxidising enzymes. These fungi secrete a
number of oxidative enzymes and some hitherto unknown substances (mediators) into their
environment together effecting a slow but continuous degradation. The most important
lignin- oxidising enzymes are lignin peroxidases, manganese peroxidases and laccases.
Lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase appear to constitute a major component of
the ligninolytic system.

(Ligninolytic enzyme in bio bleaching)

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QUESTION BANK MODULE 1

1. What are Biomolecules? Write different types of Biomolecules.
2. What are Carbohydrates? Briefly explain main three types of Carbohydrates.
3. What is Cellulose-Based water filters? Write different types filtration methods.
4. Distinguish between PLA and PHA bioplastics.
5. Write a note on Nucleic Acid.
6. How DNA vaccines are useful for Rabies?
7. How RNA vaccines are useful for Covid-19?
8. Briefly explain DNA fingerprinting.
9. What are Proteins? How proteins are useful for human bodies?
10. Write a short note on Whey Protein.
11. Explain Meat analogues and Plant based proteins.
12. What are Lipids? Explain the production of biodiesel from lipids.
13. Write a note on Detergents.
14. What are Enzymes? Explain Biosensors.
15. Briefly explain Glucose Oxidase in Biosensors.
16. How lignolytic enzyme are useful in Bio bleaching?

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