Mathematics HandBook

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VECTORS

1. Physical quantities are broadly divided in two categories viz (a) Vector
Quantities & (b) Scalar quantities.
(a) Vector quantities :
Any quantity, such as velocity, momentum, or force, that has
both magnitude and direction and for which vector addition is
defined and meaningful; is treated as vector quantities.
(b) Scalar quantities :
A quantity, such as mass, length, time, density or energy, that
has size or magnitude but does not involve the concept of
direction is called scalar quantity.
2. REPRESENTATION :
Vectors are represented by directed straight line
Q
segment
r r a
magnitude of a = a = length PQ
r P
direction of a = P to Q.
3. (a) ZERO VECTOR OR NULL VECTOR :

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A vector of zero magnitude i.e. which has the same initial &
r
terminal point is called a ZERO VECTOR . It is denoted by O .
(b) UNIT VECTOR :
r
A vector of unit magnitude in direction of a vector a is called
r
r a
unit vector along a and is denoted by â symbolically â = r .
|a|
(c) COLLINEAR VECTORS
Two vectors are said to be collinear if their supports are parallel
disregards to their direction. Collinear vectors are also called
Parallel vectors. If they have the same direction they are named
as like vectors otherwise unlike vectors.
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r r
Symbolically two non zero vectors a & b are collinear if and
r
only if, ar = Kb , where K Î R
(d) COPLANAR VECTORS
A given number of vectors are called coplanar if their supports
are all parallel to the same plane.
Note that “TWO VECTORS ARE ALWAYS COPLANAR ”.
(e) EQUALITY OF TWO VECTORS :
Two vectors are said to be equal if they have
(i) the same length,
(ii) the same or parallel supports and
(iii) the same sense.
(f) Free vectors : If a vector can be translated anywhere in space
without changing its magnitude & direction, then such a vector
is called free vector. In other words, the initial point of free
vector can be taken anywhere in space keeping its magnitude
& direction same.
(g) Localized vectors : For a vector of given magnitude and
direction, if its initial point is fixed in space, then such a vector
is called localised vector. Unless & until stated, vectors are
treated as free vectors.
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4. ADDITION OF VECTORS :
(a) It is possible to develop an Algebra of Vectors which proves
useful in the study of Geometry, Mechanics and other branches
of Applied Mathematics. r
r
(i) If two vectors a & b are C
® ®
B
represented by OA & OB , OB
r r +
then their sum a + b is a OA
®
vector represented by OC A
, where OC is the diagonal O
of the parallelogram OACB.
r r r r
(ii) a + b = b + a (commutative)
r r r r r r
(iii) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (associativity)
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(b) Multiplication of vector by scalars :
r r r r r r
(i) m(a) = (a)m = ma (ii) m(na) = n(ma) = (mn)a
r r r r r r r
(iii) (m + n)a = ma + na (iv) m(a + b) = ma + mb

5. POSITION VECTOR : B
y
Let O be a fixed origin, then the position
b
®
A
vector of a point P is the vector OP . If
r r a
a & b are position vectors of two O x
point A and B, then,
® r r
AB = b - a = pv of B – pv of A.

6. SECTION FORMULA :
r r
If a & b are the position vectors of two points A & B then the p.v.
of a point which divides AB in the ratio m : n is given by :
r r
r na + mb
r= .
m+n

7. VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE :

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r
Parametric vector equation of a line passing through two point A(a)
r r r r r
& B(b) is given by, r = a + t(b - a) where t is a parameter. If the
r r
line pass through the point A(a) & is parallel to the vector b then
r r r
its equation is r = a + tb , where t is a parameter..

8. TEST OF COLLINEARITY OF THREE POINTS :

r r r
(a) Three points A, B, C with position vectors a , b , c respectively
are collinear, if & only if there exist scalars x, y, z not all zero
r r r
simultaneously such that ; xa + yb + zc = 0 , where x + y + z = 0
(b) Three points A, B, C are collinear, if any two vectors
uuur uuur uuur
AB, BC, CA are parallel.
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9. SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS (DOT PRODUCT):
r r r r r r
(a) a.b =|a ||b| cos q (0 £ q £ p) , q is angle between a & b .
v r
Note that if q is acute then a.b > 0 & if q is obtuse then
r r
a.b < 0
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
(b) a.a =|a|2 = a2 , a.b = b.a (commutative) a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c
(distributive)
r r r r r r
(c) a.b = 0 Û a ^ b ; (a, b ¹ 0)
ˆ ˆ = 1 ; ˆi .ˆj = ˆj.kˆ = kˆ .iˆ = 0 a
(d) ˆi .ˆi = ˆj.ˆj = k.k

r a.b r r
r
(e) Projection of a on b = r .
|b| Projection of a on b b

Note :
r r
(i) The vector component of a along b i.e.
r r
r æ a.b ö r a
a2
a1 = ç r ÷ b and perpendicular
è b2 ø

r r a1 b
r r r æ a.b ö r r r r
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to b i.e. a2 = a - çç r 2 ÷÷ b (a = a1 + a2 )
è b ø
r r
(ii) The angle f between a & b is given by
rr
a.b
cos f = r r 0 £ f £ p
| a || b |
r r
(iii) If a = a1ˆi + a2ˆj + a 3 kˆ & b = b1ˆi + b2ˆj + b3 kˆ then

r r
a.b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a 3 b3
r r 2 2 2
2 2
a = a1 + a 2 + a 3
2
, b = b1 + b2 + b3
r r r r r r
(iv) - |a||b|£ a.b £|a||b|
r r r r r ˆˆ
(v) Any vector a can be written as, a = (a.ˆi)iˆ + (a.ˆj)jˆ + (a.k)k
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(vi) A vector in the direction of the bisector of the angle between
r r
r r a b
the two vectors a & b is r + r . Hence bisector of the
|a| |b|
r r
angle between the two vectors a & b is l (aˆ + b) ˆ , where
r r
+
l Î R . Bisector of the exterior angle between a & b is
ˆ , l Î R+
l (aˆ – b)
r r r r r r
(vii) |a ± b|2 =|a|2 +|b|2 ± 2a.b
r r r r r r r r r r r r
(viii) |a + b + c|2 =|a|2 +|b|2 +|c|2 + 2(a.b + b.c + c.a)
10. VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS (CROSS
PRODUCT) :
r r
(a) If a & b are two vectors &
q is the angle between them,
r r r r C = A ×B B
then a ´ b =|a||b|sin qnˆ ,
q
where n̂ is the unit vector
r
perpendicular to both a & A
r r r r –C = B × A
b such that a , b & n forms

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a right handed screw system .
r r
(b) Lagranges Identity : For any two vectors a & b ;
r r r r
r r 2 r2 r2 r r 2 a.a a.b
(a ´ b) = a b - (a.b) = r r r r
a.b b.b
(c) Formulation of vector product in terms of scalar product : The
r r r
vector product a ´ b is the vector c , such that
r r2 r2 r r 2 r r r r
(i) c = a b - (a.b) (ii) c.a = 0; c.b = 0 and
r r r
(iii) a , b , c form a right handed system
r r r r r r
(d) a ´ b = 0 Û a & b are parallel (collinear) (a ¹ 0, b ¹ 0)
r r
i.e. a = Kb , where K is a scalar
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r r r r
(i) a ´ b ¹ b ´ a (not commutative)
r r r r r r
(ii) (ma) ´ b = ax(mb) = m(a ´ b) where m is a scalar..
r r r r r r r
(iii) a ´ (b + c) = (a ´ b) + (a ´ c) (distributive)
(vi) ˆi ´ ˆi = ˆj ´ ˆj = kˆ ´ kˆ = 0
ˆ ˆj ´ kˆ = ˆi, kˆ ´ ˆi = ˆj
ˆi ´ ˆj = k,
r r
(e) If a = a1ˆi + a2ˆj + a 3 kˆ & b = b1ˆi + b2ˆj + b3 kˆ then

ˆi kˆ
ˆj
r r
a ´ b = a1 a2
a3
b1 b2
b3
r r
(f) Geometrically |a ´ b| = area of
a×b b
the parallelogram whose two adjacent
r r
sides are represented by a & b . a
r r
(g) (i) Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a & b is
r r
a ´ b
n̂ = ± r r
|a ´ b|
(ii) A vector of magnitude ‘r’ & perpendicular to the plane of
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r r
r r r(a ´ b)
a & b is ± r r
|a ´ b|
r r
r r |a ´ b|
(iii) If q is the angle between a & b then sin q = r r
|a||b|
(h) Vector area :
r r r
(i) If a, b & c are the pv’s of 3 points A, B & C then
1 r r r r r r
the vector area of triangle ABC = éa ´ b + b ´ c + c ´ a ù .
2 ë û
r r r r r r
The points A, B & C are collinear if a ´ b + b ´ c + c ´ a = 0
r r
(ii) Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are d1 & d2
1 r r 1 r r
is given by d1 ´ d2 . Area of D = |a ´ b|
2 2
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11. SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES :
Lines which do not
A
intersect & are also a L p
not parallel are
called skew lines. In
p× q
other words the
lines which are not
q
coplanar are skew M
B b
lines. For Skew lines
the direction of the
shortest distance vector would be perpendicular to both the lines.
The magnitude of the shortest distance vector would be equal to that
®
of the projection of AB along the direction of the line of shortest
® r r
distance, LM is parallel to p ´ q
® ® ®
i.e. LM = |Projection of AB on LM|
® r r
= |Projection of AB on p ´ q |
® r r r r r r

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AB.(p ´ q) (b - a).(p ´ q)
= r r = r r
p´q |p ´ q|
r r
(a) The two lines directed along p & q will intersect only if shortest
distance = 0
r r r r r r
i.e. (b - a).(p ´ q) = 0 i.e. (b - a) lies in the plane containing
r r r r r r
(
p & q Þ é b - a p qù = 0
ë ) û
r r r
(b) If two lines are given by r1 = a1 + K1 b a2

r r r
& r2 = a2 + K 2 b i.e. they d
r r r b
b ´ (a2 - a1 ) a1
are parallel then, d = r
|b|
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12. SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT / BOX PRODUCT / MIXED
PRODUCT :
r r r
(a) The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b & c is defined
r r r r r r
as: ( a ´ b ) .c =|a||b||c|sin q cos f
where q is the angle
r r
between a & b & f

c cos f
is the angle between fc
r r r
a ´ b & c . It is also
r r r q b
defined as [a b c] , a
spelled as box product.
(b) In a scalar triple product the position of dot & cross can be interchanged
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
i.e. a.(b ´ c) = (a ´ b).c OR [a b c] = [b c a] = [c a b]
r r r r r r r r r rrr
(c) a.(b ´ c) = -a.(c ´ b) i.e. [a b c] = - [a c b]
r r r r r r r r r
(d) If a , b , c are coplanar Û [a b c] = 0 Þ a , b , c are
linearly dependent.
(e) Scalar product of three vectors, two of which are equal or parallel
r r r
is 0 i.e. [a b c] = 0
r r r r r r r r r r rrr rrr
(f) [i j k] = 1; [K a b c] = K[a b c] ; [(a + b) c d] = [a c d] + [b c d]
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(g) (i) The Volume of the tetrahedron OABC with O as origin & the
r r r
pv’s of A, B and C being a, b & c are given by
1 r r r
V = [a b c]
6
(ii) Volume of parallelopiped whose co-terminus edges are
r r r r r r
a, b & c is [a b c] .
(h) Remember that :
r r r r r r
(i) [a - b b - c c - a] = 0
r r r r r r r r r
(ii) [a + b b + c c + a] = 2[a b c]
r r r r r r
a.a a.b a.c
r r r 2 r r r r r r b.a r r r r r r
(iii) [a b c] = [a ´ b b ´ c c ´ a] = b.b b.c
r r r r r r
c.a c.b c.c
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13. VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT :
r r r r r r
Let a, b & c be any three vectors, then that expression a ´ (b ´ c)
is a vector & is called a vector triple product.
r r r r rr r rr
(a) a ´ (b ´ c) = (a.c)b - (a.b)c
r r r r rr r rr
(b) (a ´ b) ´ c = (a . c)b - (b . c)a
r r r r r r
(c) (a ´ b) ´ c ¹ a ´ (b ´ c)
14. LINEAR COMBINATIONS / LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND
DEPENDENCE OF VECTORS :
Linear combination of vectors :
r r r
Given a finite set of vectors a, b, c ,........... then the vector
r r r r
r = xa + yb + zc + ............ is called a linear combination of
r r r
a, b, c ,........ for any x, y, z ....... Î R . We have the following results :
r r r
(a) If x1 , x2 ,....x n are n non zero vectors, & k1 , k2 ,....k n are n
r r r
scalars & if the linear combination k1 x1 + k2 x2 + .....kn xn =0
Þ k1 = 0, k2 = 0......k n = 0 th en we say th at vecto rs
r r r
x1 , x2 ,....x n are linearly independent vectors
r r r
(b) If x1 , x2 ,.......xn are not linearly independent then they are
said to be linear dependen t vectors. i .e. if

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r r r
k1 x1 , k 2 x2 + .......k n x n = 0 & if there exists at least one k r ¹ 0
r r r
then x1 , x2 ,...x n are said to be linearly dependent.
r r
(c) Fundamental theorem in plane : let a, b be non zero, non
r r r
collinear vectors. then any vector r coplanar with a, b can be
r r
expressed uniquely as a linear combination of a, b i.e. there
r r r
exist some unique x, y Î R such that xa + yb = r
r r r
(d) Fundamental theorem in space : let a, b, c be non-
r
zero, non-coplanar vectors in space. Then any vector r , can
r r r
be uniquely expressed as a linear combination of a, b, c i.e.
The re exist some uniqu e x, y, z Î R s uch th at
r r r r
r = xa + yb + zc .
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15. COPLANARITY OF FOUR POINTS :
r r r r
Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b, c, d respectively
are coplanar if and only if there exist scalars x, y, z, w not all zero
r r r r
simultaneously such that xa + yb + zc + wd = 0
where, x + y + z + w = 0
16. RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS :
r r r r r r
If a, b, c & a ' , b' , c ' are two sets of non coplanar vectors such
r r r r r r
that a . a ' = b . b ' = c . c' = 1 then the two systems are called
Reciprocal System of vectors.
r r r r r
r b ´ c r r
c ´ a r a ´ b
Note : a ' = r r r ; b ' = r r r ; c ' = r r r
[a b c] [a b c] [a b c]

17. TETRAHEDRON :
(i) Lines joining the vertices of a tetrahedron to the centroids of the
opposite faces are concurrent and this point of concurrecy is called
the centre of the tetrahedron.
(ii) In a tetrahedron, straight lines joining the mid points of each pair
of opposite edges are also concurrent at the centre of the
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tetrahedron.
(iii) The angle between any two plane faces of regular tetrahedron is

1
cos -1
3

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