Chapter 9:

Supporting Your Ideas

1. Deploying Supporting Materials

Types of Supporting Materials

There are many types of supporting materials, some of which are better
suited for logical appeals and some for emotional appeals.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using different types of

supporting materials

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Scientific evidence includes all factual information. It is necessary

and particularly useful for logical appeals.
 Testimonials, personal experience, intuition, and anecdotal
evidence are all great for emotional appeals.
 Non-scientific supporting materials may be useful, but are not
necessarily reflective of broader truths.

Key Terms

 anecdote: An account or story which supports an argument, but

which is not supported by scientific or statistical analysis.

There are a number of types of supporting materials, each of which has its
own advantages and disadvantages. Not every type of supporting material
is useful or effective in every situation, but each has its own niche.

Scientific Evidence

Scientific evidence is evidence which serves to either support or counter a

scientific theory or hypothesis. Such evidence is expected to be empirical
and in accordance with scientific method. Standards for scientific evidence
vary according to the field of inquiry, but the strength of scientific evidence
is generally based on the results of statistical analysis and the strength of
scientific [Link] broadly, scientific evidence can be any statistic or
fact that has been proven to be true through rigorous scientific methods.
Facts and figures are necessary for logical appeals.
Scientific Evidence: Statistics are a type of scientific evidence that can
bolster arguments.

Personal Experience

Personal experience is the retelling of something that actually happened to

the speaker. Personal experience is useful for emotional appeals, but is not
always good for more scientific arguments.

Anecdotal Evidence

Anecdotal evidence is evidence from anecdotes (stories). Because of the

small sample, there is a larger chance that it may be unreliable due to
cherry-picked or otherwise non-representative samples of typical cases.
Anecdotal evidence is considered dubious support for a claim; it is
accepted only in lieu of more solid evidence. However, it is particularly
useful for making emotional appeals.
Intuition

Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without inference or the use of

reason. Intuition provides us with beliefs that we cannot justify in every
case. For this reason, intuition is not a particularly strong supporting
material.

Testimonial

A testimonial is when someone speaks on behalf of another idea, product,

or person. For example, weight loss commercials often utilize testimonials.
The power lies in how convincing the person giving the testimonial is.

Using Supporting Materials

Supporting materials bolster arguments and can make them more

persuasive to audience members.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Identify reasons to use supporting materials and which types of materials

are appropriate in a given situation

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Scientific evidence is used to prove that a set of facts exist in the

world.
 Non-scientific evidence is often used to create emotional
connections with the audience, which can make them more
receptive to the argument.
 Misused supporting materials can ruin your perceived reliability as
a speaker and cause the audience to stop taking your argument
seriously.

Key Terms

 scientific evidence: Empirical, true facts or figures.

Supporting materials are necessary to turn an opinion into a persuasive

argument. Being able to say something and have others immediately
accept it as truth is a privilege afforded few speakers in few settings. In the
vast majority of cases, audiences will not just want to hear the view you
are asking them to accept, but also why they should accept it.
Supporting materials come in many different forms, from scientific
evidence to personal experiences. Each is useful in different situations, but
all are used to cause the audience to stop rejecting your idea as foreign
and instead internalize it as truth.

Not all supporting evidence, however, is created equally. For example,

scientific evidence is absolutely necessary in settings such as an exam.
Appealing to the emotions of the professor is unlikely to yield a positive
result, while articulating and analyzing the correct facts is. Scientific
evidence is used to prove that a set of facts or conditions is present in the
world.

Scientific Evidence: In most subjects, exam questions test the

individual’s grasp of empirical evidence (scientific evidence).

In other instances, more experiential evidence will help you connect to the
audience on a personal level. Personal experiences and anecdotes are
great for establishing an emotional connection with the audience. Being
able to connect emotionally helps to mitigate some of the boredom that
often accompanies appeals that are just facts.

Using non-scientific evidence comes with some dangers, however. Non-

scientific information is not often generalizable. That is, just because there
is a story (or series of stories) does not mean that they necessarily
represent the broader truth. Some audiences are skeptical of non-scientific
supporting materials for this very reason. Using an anecdote of a boat
sinking, for example, is unlikely to persuade most audiences that all boats
sink. Attempting to use this type of evidence can actually weaken the
appeal by decreasing your perceived reliability as a source.
Using Supporting Materials Effectively

Supporting materials are effective only if they help persuade the audience.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Name elements to be considered when deciding what type of supporting

materials to deploy

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Regardless of the type of supporting material used, they are

effective only if they fulfill the speaker’s burden of proof.
 Supporting materials must exist in order to be used; not all types
exist for all arguments.
 The supporting evidence used depends on the idea being
supported. Some ideas are more effectively supported by certain
types of materials.
 Not all types of supporting materials are effective for every appeal.
Speakers should select the materials that make their specific
appeal most effective.
 The type of supporting material used also depends on the
audience. If the audience cannot comprehend the material, it is not
effective.

Key Terms

 comprehensible: Able to be comprehended; understandable.

Using Supporting Materials Effectively

Supporting materials are the difference between an opinion and a

convincing argument. Supporting materials are effective only if they help
to persuade the audience. The type of supporting materials that should be
deployed depend on the following:

 Available supporting material: not all types of supporting materials

exist for all arguments. If there is no evidence, it obviously cannot
be used.
 The idea being supported: if you are trying to explain that your
favorite ice cream is chocolate, then scientific evidence about the
molecular composition of chocolate ice cream is not as effective as
personal accounts.
  The type of appeal: emotional and logical appeals tend to be
supported by different types of materials. All types of supporting
material can be used for emotional appeals, but providing data
may not be as effective as providing anecdotes for connecting with
the audience. For logical appeals, all types can again be used,
though the most effective support is scientific evidence, because it
is empirical and true.
 The audience: different audiences respond differently to different
types of supporting evidence. It is the speaker’s job to determine
what supporting materials will be most comprehensible and
effective.

Gathering Evidence: An individual must have enough supporting

material (evidence) in order to write a convincing speech.

Regardless of the type of supporting material used, they are effective only
if they fulfill the speaker’s burden of proof. If the supporting materials are
not delivered in a way that advances that goal, they are not deployed
effectively.

For example, if you are speaking in front of a large crowd, and use a chart
printed out on a sheet of paper, it doesn’t really matter what the chart
says. If the audience cannot see the chart, then it will not be understood or
effective. The same goes for other types of supporting materials; they are
only effective if they can convince the audience.
 2. Using Examples

Types of Examples: Brief, Extended, and Hypothetical

Brief, extended, and hypothetical examples can be used to help an

audience better understand and relate to key points of a presentation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

List the three types of examples

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Examples include specific situations, problems or stories intended

to help communicate a more general idea.
 Brief examples are used to further illustrate a point that may not
be immediately obvious to all audience members but is not so
complex that is requires a more lengthy example.
 Extended examples are used when a presenter is discussing a
more complicated topic that they think their audience may be
unfamiliar with.
 A hypothetical example is a fictional example that can be used
when a speaker is explaining a complicated topic that makes the
most sense when it is put into more realistic or relatable terms.

Key Terms

 Hypothetical: A fictional situation or proposition used to explain a

complicated subject.

There are many types of examples that a presenter can use to help an
audience better understand a topic and the key points of a presentation.
These include specific situations, problems, or stories intended to help
communicate a more general idea. There are three main types of
examples: brief, extended, and hypothetical.

Brief Examples

Brief examples are used to further illustrate a point that may not be
immediately obvious to all audience members but is not so complex that is
requires a more lengthy example. Brief examples can be used by the
presenter as an aside or on its own. A presenter may use a brief example
in a presentation on politics in explaining the Electoral College. Since many
people are familiar with how the Electoral College works, the presenter
may just mention that the Electoral College is based on population and a
brief example of how it is used to determine an election. In this situation it
would not be necessary for a presented to go into a lengthy explanation of
the process of the Electoral College since many people are familiar with
the process.

Extended Examples

Extended examples are used when a presenter is discussing a more

complicated topic that they think their audience may be unfamiliar with. In
an extended example a speaker may want to use a chart, graph, or other
visual aid to help the audience understand the example. An instance in
which an extended example could be used includes a presentation in
which a speaker is explaining how the “time value of money” principle
works in finance. Since this is a concept that people unfamiliar with finance
may not immediately understand, a speaker will want to use an equation
and other visual aids to further help the audience understand this
principle. An extended example will likely take more time to explain than a
brief example and will be about a more complex topic.

Extended Example: An equation is an extended example that’s used as a

visual aid to help the audience understand a complicated topic.

Hypothetical Examples

A hypothetical example is a fictional example that can be used when a

speaker is explaining a complicated topic that makes the most sense when
it is put into more realistic or relatable terms. For instance, if a presenter is
discussing statistical probability, instead of explaining probability in terms
of equations, it may make more sense for the presenter to make up a
hypothetical example. This could be a story about a girl, Annie, picking 10
pieces of candy from a bag of 50 pieces of candy in which half are blue and
half are red and then determining Annie’s probability of pulling out 10 total
pieces of red candy. A hypothetical example helps the audience to better
visualize a topic and relate to the point of the presentation more
effectively.
Communicating Examples

Examples help the audience understand the key points; they should be to
the point and complement the topic.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Use examples to help your audience understand the message being

presented

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Examples are essential to a presentation that is backed up with

evidence, and they help the audience effectively understand the
message being presented. An example is a specific situation,
problem, or story intended to help communicate a more general
idea.
 One method of effectively communicating examples is by using an
example to clarify and complement a main point of a presentation.
 A speaker should be careful to not overuse examples, as too many
examples may confuse the audience and distract them from
focusing on the key points that the speaker is making.

Key Terms

 abstract: Difficult to understand; abstruse.

 phenomenon: A fact or event considered very unusual, curious, or
astonishing by those who witness it.

Communicating Examples

Examples are essential to a presentation that is backed up with evidence,

and they help the audience effectively understand the message being
presented. An example is a specific situation, problem, or story intended to
help communicate a more general idea. Examples are most effective when
they are used as a complement to a key point in the presentation and
focus on the important topics of the presentation.
Giving an Example: An example can make an abstract idea clearer.

Using Examples to Complement Key Points

One method of effectively communicating examples is by using an

example to clarify and complement a main point of a presentation. If an
orator is holding a seminar about how to encourage productivity in the
workplace, he or she might use an example that focuses on an employee
receiving an incentive (such as a bonus) to work harder, and this improved
the employee’s productivity. An example like this would act as a
complement and help the audience better understand how to use
incentives to improve performance in the workplace.

Using Examples That Are Concise and to the Point

Examples are essential to help an audience better understand a topic.

However, a speaker should be careful to not overuse examples, as too
many examples may confuse the audience and distract them from
focusing on the key points that the speaker is making.

Examples should also be concise and not drawn out so the speaker does
not lose the audience’s attention. Concise examples should have a big
impact on audience engagement and understanding in a small amount of
time.

3. Using Statistics

Understanding Statistics
Statistics can be a powerful tool in public speaking if the speaker
appropriately explains their use and significance.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Use appropriate statistics in your speech in a way that is easy for your
audience to understand

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Understanding statistics requires creating a persuasive narrative

that explains the data and an adequate explanation of why a
statistic is being used, what it means and its source.
 The persuasive use of statistics is one of the most powerful tools in
any rational argument, especially in public presentations.
 There are many ways to interpret statistics, however a public
speaker should be mindful that they are presenting a statistic in an
accurate way and not misleading the audience through a
misrepresentation of a statistic.

Key Terms

 statistics: A systematic collection of data on measurements or

observations, often related to demographic information such as
population counts, incomes, population counts at different ages,
etc.

Understanding Statistics

Using statistics in public speaking can be a powerful tool. It provides a

quantitative, objective, and persuasive platform on which to base an
argument, prove a claim, or support an idea. Before a set of statistics can
be used, however, it must be made understandable by people who are not
familiar with statistics. The key to the persuasive use of statistics is
extracting meaning and patterns from raw data in a way that is logical and
demonstrable to an audience. There are many ways to interpret statistics
and data sets, not all of them valid.

Guidelines for Helping Your Audience Understand Statistics

 Use reputable sources for the statistics you present in your speech
such as government websites, academic institutions and reputable
research organizations and policy/research think tanks.
  Use a large enough sample size in your statistics to make sure that
the statistics you are using are accurate (for example, if a survey
only asked four people, then it is likely not representative of the
population’s viewpoint).
 Use statistics that are easily understood. Many people understand
what an average is but not many people will know more complex
ideas such as variation and standard deviation.
 When presenting graphs, make sure that the key points are
highlighted and the graphs are not misleading as far as the values
presented.
 Statistics is a topic that many people prefer to avoid, so when
presenting statistical idea or even using numbers in your speech be
sure to thoroughly explain what the numbers mean and use visual
aids to help you explain.

Common Uses of Statistics in a Speech

Some common uses of statistics in a speech format may include:

 Results from a survey and discussion of key findings such as the

mean, median, and mode of that survey.
 Comparisons of data and benchmarking results—also using
averages and comparative statistics.
 Presenting findings from research, including determining which
variables are statistically significant and meaningful to the results
of the research. This will likely use more complicated statistics.

Common Misunderstandings of Statistics

A common misunderstanding when using statistics is “correlation does not

mean causation. ” This means that just because two variables are related,
they do not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other variable
to occur. For example, consider a data set that indicates that there is a
relationship between ice cream purchases over seasons versus drowning
deaths over seasons. The incorrect conclusion would be to say that the
increase in ice cream consumption leads to more drowning deaths, or vice
versa. Therefore, when using statistics in public speaking, a speaker should
always be sure that they are presenting accurate information when
discussing two variables that may be related. Statistics can be used
persuasively in all manners of arguments and public speaking scenarios—
the key is understanding and interpreting the given data and molding that
interpretation towards a convincing statement.

Communicating Statistics

Visual tools can be an effective way of incorporating statistics in your

persuasive speech.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Illustrate your argument by incorporating accurate statistics via visual

tools.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Your audience is much more likely to believe you if you incorporate

statistics.
 Consider using visual tools such as tables, graphs, and maps to
make statistics more understandable for your audience.

Key Terms

 statistics: A systematic collection of data on measurements or

observations, often related to demographic information such as
population counts, incomes, population counts at different ages,
etc.

Using Visuals

Statistics is the study of the collection, analysis, interpretation,

presentation, and organization of data.

Because data represent facts, incorporating statistics in your persuasive

speech can be an effective way of adding both context and credibility to
your argument. Your audience is much more likely to believe you if you
incorporate statistics.

Statistics can be difficult to understand on their own, though. As a result,

consider using visual tools such as tables, graphs, and maps to make
statistics more understandable for your audience. These visuals are often
easier to understand than raw data.
Using a Map: A map, a type of visual representation, can make data
easier for the audience to understand.
4. Using Testimony

Expert vs. Peer Testimony

There are two types of testimony: expert testimony and peer testimony.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Differentiate between expert testimony and peer testimony

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 A testimony is an assertion made by someone who has experience

or knowledge of a particular matter.
 Expert testimony is testimony given by a person who is considered
an expert by virtue of education, training, certification, skills,
and/or experience in a particular matter.
 Peer testimony is given by a person who does not have expertise in
a particular matter.

Key Terms

 testimony: An assertion made by someone who has knowledge or

experience in a particular matter.
  Expert testimony: Testimony given by a person who is
considered an expert by virtue of education, training, certification,
skills, and/or experience in a particular matter.
 Peer testimony: Testimony given by a person who does not have
expertise in a particular matter.

Introduction

A testimony is an assertion made by someone who has knowledge or

experience in a particular matter.

Testimony is used in various contexts for a wide range of purposes. For

example, in the law, testimony is a form of evidence that is obtained from
a witness who makes a solemn statement or declaration of fact.

There are two major types of testimony: peer testimony and expert
testimony.

Expert Testimony

Expert testimony, as the name suggests, is testimony given by a person

who is considered an expert by virtue of education, training, certification,
skills, and/or experience in a particular matter. Because experts have
knowledge beyond that of a typical person, expert testimony carries
considerable weight. Though an expert is an authority in a particular
subject, his or her testimony can certainly be called into question by other
facts, evidence, or experts.

Providing Testimony: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Marine Gen.

Joseph F. Dunford Jr. provides testimony to the Senate Armed Services
Committee on counter-ISIL operations and Middle East strategy.
Peer Testimony

Peer testimony, unlike expert testimony, is given by a person who does not
have expertise in the subject in question. As a result, those who provide
peer testimony are sometimes referred to as “anti-authorities.”

A person who provides peer testimony might not have expertise in a

particular area, but he or she likely has personal experience with the issue
at hand. Though peer testimony can easily be challenged, it can still be a
powerful tool in persuading an audience, particularly when delivered or
provided by a well-liked celebrity.

Questions to Consider Before Using Testimony

Before incorporating testimony, ask yourself:

 Are you quoting the testimony accurately?

 Is the testimony biased? In what way?
 Is the person providing the testimony competent and/or well
respected?
 Is the testimony current?
 How will your audience respond to the testimony?

How to Incorporate Expert Testimony

Expert testimony can be incorporated after introducing a point of your

argument.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

State why it is beneficial to incorporate expert testimony into a speech

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Expert testimony should be incorporated to support, defend, or

explain the main point or subpoint of a speech.
 Limiting your main points, subpoints, and support points to three or
four points each improves the ability for your speech to
communicate with the audience.
 Noticing how professionals use the testimony of experts can
provide creative examples for how to incorporate expert testimony
into a speech.
Key Terms

 expert: A person with extensive knowledge or ability in a given

subject.
 TED: Technology Entertainment Design, a series of global
conferences.

Introduction

Once you have found experts to support your ideas, you may wonder how
to incorporate their testimony into your speech. The following will give you
an idea of how to incorporate expert testimony in order to support your
argument and improve your speech.

What the Body of Your Speech Should Include

The body of your speech should help you elaborate and develop your main
objectives clearly by using main points, subpoints, and support for your
sub points. To ensure that your speech clearly communicates with your
audience, try to limit both your main points and subpoints to three or four
points each;this applies to your supporting points, as well. Expert
testimony is considered supporting point; it is used to support the main
and subpoints of your speech.

When a claim or point is made during a speech, the audience initially may
be reluctant to concede or agree to the validity of the point. Often this is
because the audience does not initially accept the speaker as a
trustworthy authority. By incorporating expert testimony, the speaker is
able to bolster their own authority to speak on the topic.

Therefore, expert testimony is commonly introduced after a claim is made.

For example, if a speech makes the claim, “Manufacturing jobs have been
in decline since the 1970s,” it should be followed up with expert testimony
to support that claim. This testimony could take a variety of forms, such as
government employment statistics or a historian who has written on a
particular sector of the manufacturing industry. No matter the particular
form of expert testimony, it is incorporated following a claim to defend and
support that claim, thus bolstering the authority of the speaker.

Example of Incorporating Expert Testimony

Search for and watch a TED talk by Barry Schwartz, Professor of Social
Theory and Social Action at Swarthmore College. Notice how Schwartz
references expert testimony in the course of his speech to justify his point
to the audience.

Barry Schwartz: Incorporating testimony from experts supports and

clarifies claims made during a speech.

Schwartz begins by showing the job description of a hospital janitor, noting

that the tasks do not require interaction with other people. However,
Schwartz introduces the expert testimony of actual hospital janitors as a
way to complicate the apparent solo nature of janitorial work. Schwartz
personalizes the experts with proper names, “Mike,” “Sharleene,” and
“Luke,” and uses their testimony to demonstrate that despite the job
description, janitors take social interaction to be an important part of their
job.

In this instance, Schwartz incorporates the expert testimony of actual

janitors as a both a foil and a support. The testimony shows that in fact
janitorial work does include interaction with other people, thus foiling the
initial presentation of janitorial work as solitary. In addition, Schwartz uses
the testimony of these experts to show that they embody the
characteristics of wisdom that Schwartz will describe in the remainder of
the speech.

5. Using Other Supporting Materials

Analogies

Analogies draw comparisons between ideas or objects that share certain

aspects or characteristics, but are dissimilar in other areas.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define analogies and how they can be used as a linguistic tool in public
speaking

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Analogies compare something new and different (the main topic of

a speech) to people, places, objects, and ideas familiar to audience
members.
 Public speakers often use analogies to strengthen political and
philosophical arguments, even when the semantic similarity is
weak or non-existent.
 Analogies that begin with phrases including “like”, “so on,” and “as
if” rely on an analogical understanding by the receiver of a
message that includes such phrases.
 Considering audience demographics, and constructing similar
rather than extreme analogies, are tactics public speakers use to
create effective analogies.

Key Terms

 homomorphism: A similar appearance of two unrelated organisms

or structures.
 iconicity: The state of being iconic (in all meanings).
 isomorphism: A one-to-one correspondence.

Analogies

Analogies draw comparisons between ideas or objects that share certain

aspects or characteristics, but are dissimilar in other areas. This cognitive
process transfers information or meaning from one particular subject (the
analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target) to infer
meaning or prove an argument. In public speaking, analogy can be a
powerful linguistic tool to help speakers guide and influence the perception
and emotions of the audience.
Using Analogies: Analogies often use the structure “A is like B.” For
example, the human eye is like a camera.

Analogies in Public Speaking

Linguistically, an analogy can be a spoken or textual comparison between

two words (or sets of words) to highlight some form of semantic similarity
between them. Thus, public speakers often use analogies to strengthen
political and philosophical arguments, even when the semantic similarity is
weak or non-existent (if crafted carefully for the audience).

Often presenters speak about topics, concepts, or places that may seem
alien or abstract for audiences. To build trust and credibility on stage,
speakers repeatedly link their main topic or argument to the values,
beliefs, and knowledge of their audience. Demonstrating how the
relationship between one set of ideas is comparable or similar to a
different set ideas helps bridge this gap in understanding for listeners
unable to formulate the relationship on their own. Likewise, analogies are
sometimes used to persuade those that cannot detect the flawed or non-
existent arguments within the speech.

The Construction and Role of Analogies in Language

Analogies that begin with phrases including “like,” “so on,” and “as if” rely
on an analogical understanding by the receiver of a message that includes
such phrases. Analogy is important not only in ordinary language and
common sense (where proverbs and idioms give many examples of its
application ), but also in science, philosophy, and the humanities.
Presenters and writers also use analogies to enhance and enliven
descriptions, and to express thoughts and ideas more clearly and
precisely.
The concepts of association, comparison, correspondence, mathematical
and morphological homology, homomorphism, iconicity, isomorphism,
metaphor, resemblance, and similarity are closely related to analogy. In
cognitive linguistics, the notion of conceptual metaphor may be equivalent
to that of analogy.

Tips for Using Analogies

 Think about audience demographics. What are their interests,

beliefs, and values? Choose a suitable analogy that the audience
will be able to connect with and relate to.
 Keep analogies short and simple. Extreme analogies can weaken
rather than strengthen an argument.
 Use analogies as a springboard rather than as the main focus of
the presentation.
 Use analogies from personal experiences to create authenticity and
credibility with the audience.

Definitions

It is easier to support your ideas when you provide definitions ensuring

that you and your audience are working with the same meaning.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

State how defining key terms creates credibility for public speakers

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Providing the definition of the key terms also works as a signal to

your audience that you know what you’re talking about.
 In order to define the key terms, you first have to bluntly state
what they are.
 Very often, you’ll use the work of somebody else to help you define
the key terms.

Key Terms

 concept: An understanding retained in the mind, from experience,

reasoning and/or imagination; a generalization (generic, basic
form), or abstraction (mental impression), of a particular set of
instances or occurrences (specific, though different, recorded
manifestations of the concept).
Introduction

During the introduction to your speech or presentation, you’ve given your

audience a promise. You’ve told them that in exchange for their attention,
you are going to deliver some information that answers the question which
spawned the presentation in the first place.

Now you are giving the main part of your speech, and your audience
expects you to deliver as promised.

There’s just one problem. Even though you’ve already decided what to
include in the answer, you realize that there are times when the listeners
may lose focus because they aren’t following you.

One way to make sure that your answer is focused is to tell your audience
what you are talking about. In other words, define your key terms. In doing
this, you do two things: First, you show that you know what you are
speaking about. Second, you avoid misunderstandings by settling on a
single understanding of the key terms. It might be that your audience
understands power in a Marxist way, and you want to approach the
presentation from a feminist point of view. By providing a brief definition,
there will be no misunderstanding. Your audience may not agree with you,
but that is not necessary to get your point across.

A definition makes sure you and your audience are talking about the same
things.

For example, you can define fruit salad as consisting of bananas,

pineapples, and yellow apples (ideally you would have a reason for this,
too). Having done so, your audience will not object when you later state
that fruit salad lacks the vital bits of red. Your definition of a fruit salad has
supported this idea.
Using a Dictionary: A dictionary is the most obvious place to find
definitions, but other sources can be used as well.

Providing Definitions

In order to define the key terms, you first have to bluntly state what they
are. Always include the key words included in the question. These have
been identified as central concepts for you, and by excluding them, you’ll
be very likely answering a different question from the one set.

There are often other key terms you want to include, and it’s usually worth
spending some time thinking about which ones are the key concept. The
number of definitions you include will depend on the length of your speech.
Sometimes it takes a bit of time to think which terms are the central ones.
This is time worth spending, because you can later use the concepts
without giving any further qualifications or comments. For this reason, you
should also define the terms carefully.

Having defined “power” in a particular way, every time you use the term in
the presentation, it will have the meaning you desire.

Providing the definition of the key terms also works as a signal to your
audience that you know what you’re talking about. By defining “power” in
a certain way, you demonstrate that you’re aware of other interpretations.
In fact, it will usually not be necessary to state what the other
interpretations are, unless the distinction is a key aspect of the argument.

It is easy to support your ideas once you’ve created credibility.

EXAMPLES
Very often, you’ll use the work of somebody else to help you define the key
terms. The following two paragraphs define the concepts “social
disadvantage” and “siblings. ” The definitions are taken from a range of
sources, and referenced accordingly. In the context of another speech or
presentation, these definitions may be too long or too short.

Social disadvantage, to start with, refers to a range of difficulties a person

can be exposed to. According to McLanahan and Sandefur, social
disadvantages include a lower expectancy in educational attainment, lower
prospects at work, or lower status in society. Steinberg demonstrated that
social and economic disadvantages in society often come together, leading
some sociologists talking about underclasses. Social disadvantage,
however, does not necessarily have to be as extreme as that: it describes
a relative difficulty in reaching a similar position in society than people not
disadvantaged.
Siblings, finally, in the context of this presentation, refer to brothers and
sisters of the same birth family. This means that siblings are biologically
related, as well as living in the same family.

Visual Demonstrations

Visual aids are often used to help audiences of informative and persuasive
speeches understand the topic being presented.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

List the different ways visual aids add impact to a presentation

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Visual aids are often used to help audiences of informative and

persuasive speeches understand the topic being presented.
 The use of objects as visual aids involves bringing the actual object
to demonstrate on during the speech.
 Models are representations of another object that serve to
demonstrate that object when use of the real object is ineffective
for some reason (e.g., the solar system).
 Maps show geographic areas that are of interest to the speech.
They often are used as aids when speaking of differences between
geographical areas or showing the location of something.
 Drawings or diagrams can be used when photographs do not show
exactly what the speaker wants to show or explain.
Visual aids are often used to help audiences of informative and persuasive
speeches understand the topic being presented. Visual aids can play a
large role in how the audience understands and takes in information that is
presented. There are many different types of visual aids that range from
handouts to PowerPoints. The type of visual aid a speaker uses depends on
their preference and the information they are trying to present. Each type
of visual aid has pros and cons that must be evaluated to ensure it will be
beneficial to the overall presentation. Before incorporating visual aids into
speeches, the speaker should understand that if used incorrectly, the
visual will not be an aid, but a distraction.

Planning ahead is important when using visual aids. It is necessary to

choose a visual aid that is appropriate for the material and audience. The
purpose of the visual aid is to enhance the presentation.

Objects

The use of objects as visual aids involves bringing the actual object to
demonstrate on during the speech. For example, a speech about tying
knots would be more effective by bringing in a rope.

 Pro: the use of the actual object is often necessary when

demonstrating how to do something so that the audience can fully
understand procedure.
 Con: some objects are too large or unavailable for a speaker to
bring with them.

Models

Models are representations of another object that serve to demonstrate

that object when use of the real object is ineffective for some reason.
Examples include human skeletal systems, the solar system, or
architecture.

 Pros: models can serve as substitutes that provide a better

example of the real thing to the audience when the object being
spoken about is of an awkward size or composure for use in the
demonstration.
 Cons: sometimes a model may take away from the reality of what
is being spoken about. For example, the vast size of the solar
 system cannot be seen from a model, and the actual composure of
a human body cannot be seen from a dummy.

Graphs

Graphs are used to visualize relationships between different quantities.

Various types are used as visual aids, including bar graphs, line graphs, pie
graphs, and scatter plots.

 Pros: graphs help the audience to visualize statistics so that they

make a greater impact than just listing them verbally would.
 Cons: graphs can easily become cluttered during use in a speech
by including too much detail, overwhelming the audience and
making the graph ineffective.

Maps

Maps show geographic areas that are of interest to the speech. They often
are used as aids when speaking of differences between geographical areas
or showing the location of something.

 Pros: when maps are simple and clear, they can be used to
effectively make points about certain areas. For example, a map
showing the building site for a new hospital could show its close
location to key neighborhoods, or a map could show the differences
in distribution of AIDS victims in North American and African
countries.
 Cons: inclusion of too much detail on a map can cause the
audience to lose focus on the key point being made. Also, if the
map is disproportional or unrealistic, it may prove ineffective for
the point being made.

Tables

Tables are columns and rows that organize words, symbols, and/or data.

 Pros: Good tables are easy to understand. They are a good way to
compare facts and to gain a better overall understanding of the
topic being discussed. For example, a table is a good choice to use
when comparing the amount of rainfall in 3 counties each month.
 Cons: Tables are not very interesting or pleasing to the eye. They
can be overwhelming if too much information is in a small space or
 the information is not organized in a convenient way. A table is not
a good choice to use if the person viewing it has to take a lot of
time to be able to understand it. Tables can be visual distractions if
it is hard to read because the font is too small or the writing is too
close together. It can also be a visual distraction if the table is not
drawn evenly.

Photographs

 Pros: Photographs are good tools to make or emphasize a point or

to explain a topic. For example, when explaining the shanty-towns
in a third word country it would be beneficial to show a picture of
one so the reader can have a better understanding of how those
people live. A photograph is also good to use when the actual
object cannot be viewed. For example, in a health class learning
about cocaine, the teacher cannot bring in cocaine to show the
class because that would be illegal, but the teacher could show a
picture of cocaine to the class. Using local photos can also help
emphasize how your topic is important in the audience’s area. [8]
 Cons: If the photograph is too small it just becomes a distraction.
Enlarging photographs can be expensive if not using a power point
or other viewing device.

Drawings or diagrams

Using a Diagram: Diagrams are used to convey detailed information.

 Pros: Drawings or diagrams can be used when photographs do not

show exactly what the speaker wants to show or explain. It could
 also be used when a photograph is too detailed. For example, a
drawing or diagram of the circulatory system throughout the body
is a lot more effective than a picture of a cadaver showing the
circulatory system.
 Cons: If not drawn correctly a drawing can look sloppy and be
ineffective. This type of drawing will appear unprofessional.

6. Using Life Experience (Narrative)

The Importance of Stories

Because human life is narratively rooted, incorporating story telling into

public speaking can be a powerful way of reaching your audience.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

State why effective storytelling is a key component of public speaking

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Storytelling is the conveying of events in words, sound and/or

images, often by improvisation or embellishment.
 Stories are universal in that they can bridge cultural, linguistic and
age-related divides.
 Communicating by using storytelling techniques can be a more
compelling and effective route of delivering information than that
of using only dry facts.

Key Terms

 Storytelling: The conveying of events in words, sound and/or

images, often by improvisation or embellishment.

Storytelling

Storytelling is the conveying of events in words, sound and/or images,

often by improvisation or embellishment. Stories or narratives have been
shared in every culture as a means of entertainment, education, cultural
preservation and instilling moral values.
Telling a Story: A seafarer tells the young Sir Walter Raleigh and his
brother the story of what happened out at sea.

The Power of Storytelling

Storytelling is a powerful tool, a means for sharing experiences and

knowledge. It’s one of the ways we learn. Peter L. Berger says human life is
narratively rooted, humans construct their lives and shape their world into
homes in terms of these groundings and memories. Stories are universal in
that they can bridge cultural, linguistic and age-related divides.

The Utility of Storytelling in Public Speaking

Because human life is narratively rooted, incorporating story telling into

public speaking can be a powerful way of reaching your audience. For
example, communicating by using storytelling techniques can be a more
compelling and effective route of delivering information than that of using
only dry facts.

How and When to Use Narrative

Presenters use narratives to support their points and make their speeches
more compelling.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain how to use narrative in speeches

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points
  A narrative is relayed in the form of a story.
 The greatest story commandment is to make the audience care.
 Your story should not be forced; the audience should perceive it as
natural part of your speech.

Key Terms

 narrative: The systematic recitation of an event or series of

events. (see also storytelling)

How and When to Use Narrative

Whatever the purpose of your speech, you’re going to need a way to

support your statements to prove their accuracy, but a good speech also
makes its points interesting and memorable.

The most common forms of support are facts, statistics, testimony,

narrative, examples, and comparisons. In this unit, we are going to address
narrative.

Using a Narrative: Narratives can be used to support a point that has

been made or is about to be made.

The Narrative

Narrative takes the form of a story. Presenters use narratives to support a

point that was already made or to introduce a point that will soon be
made. Narratives can be combined with facts or statistics to make them
even more compelling.

How to Use a Narrative

 Storytelling points toward a single goal. Your story should not be
forced, but should come across as a natural part of your speech. If
your audience thinks you’re telling a story just because you read
that it was a good idea to do so, your story won’t work.
 The task of a story is to make the audience care. Your narrative
should be something that your audience can easily understand and
relate to.
 Keep it short and sweet. Limit your narrative to three or four
minutes at the most. Remember, you are using it to support or
clarify your point. Once you’ve done that, move on.
 Your story is not there to replace information. It is there to put
something you have said into perspective.
 The best stories paint a picture. They allow your audience to
visualize what you are saying.
 Make sure your story builds over time and doesn’t get boring. Keep
your audience interested until the end.
 Don’t overuse stories.
 Of course, as the old adage says, “use what you know.” Stories are
not just about facts—they’re also about communicating what you
have experienced and what you personally know, and feel, to be
true.