Pat’s Corner

An Introduction to
Fundamentals of Design
For Formula SAE

Pat Clarke Sydney, 2015

This presentation is specifically designed to introduce students involved in Formula SAE for the
first time to the practical aspects of designing a suitable car.
It does not tell you how to design the vehicle, nor does it attempt to influence your design
decisions.
The intent is to help guide teams to build a safe car, one that will pass through tech and will
permit the team to take part in all events, both static and dynamic, in a workmanlike manner.

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First Question.

What are we trying to achieve?

Before you start your FSAE project, you need a plan!

This is where a team must face its limitations. There is no point trying to achieve more than
the teams capabilities!
That is a sure fire path to disappointment!

The Intent of Formula SAE

FSAE was introduced to enhance the skills of young

graduate engineers by giving them a ‘Real Life’
challenge.

It is a Design Competition
not a Racecar Competition.
It is Part of Your Education!

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Words of Wisdom.

Carroll Smith, famous race car

engineer said...
“We are seeing engineers who
can calculate all the stresses and
strains in a threaded fastener, but
don’t know which way to turn the
wrench”!

Carroll was a race engineer most famous for preparing the Ford GTs that dominated
Le Mans in the 1960s. Later he was a champion of FSAE and recruited most of the
current crop of Chief Judges
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This is the first of many ‘Words of Wisdom’ ,

Note, all wisdom related to FSAE cars does not come from Race car engineers!

The Challenge.

 So, the challenge is to design a car for

production.
 The car is designed and then built.
 At the Competition the design is statically
judged to determine which is the best and
most suitable for production.
 The car is thoroughly inspected to ensure
it meets all safety requirements.

Underline the intent of FSAE

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The Challenge

Finally, once the car has been determined as

being safe and in compliance with the rules, it’s
performance is then demonstrated in the various
Dynamic Events.
Although all students eagerly anticipate driving
their cars, FSAE is not primarily about the
Dynamic Events.
The Dynamic Events are the Proof of Concept.

The Challenge

So, if the competition is primarily about Design,

then a Design Plan must be drawn up.
This plan and the running report on its progress
becomes the basis of the Design Report.
We will talk about the Design Report some
other time.

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Second Question

Where do you start?

The Rules

• Read the Rules!

• Understand the Rules!
• All the Rules !

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Then ...

Read the Rules AGAIN and make sure all

members of the team have done so!
If a car is taken to the event and it does not
comply with the Rules, it will simply not be
permitted to compete!
Understand this Statement!

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Project Management

The biggest single challenge in FSAE is...

Managing the Project.
If the entire project is not complete, then the year’s
work has been somewhat wasted.
Every year we see disappointed students bring an
unfinished or untested car to the competition.

Continued...

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Project management is a hugely important facet of FSAE and also in life.

It is beyond the scope of this course to cover PM, but I would urge you to pursue training in
this area.

There are several free on-line seminars teaching Project Management available.

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Project Management

Avoid the temptation to modify the design after the

‘Design Freeze’ deadline.
Every team member will learn as they go and there is a
huge temptation to add this new knowledge to the car.
Unless it can be seamlessly done,
bright new ideas should be saved for
the next car!
It takes a strong project manager to
ensure this happens.
Continued...
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Project Management

Never start a project until you are sure that all required
resources are in place! 13

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Words of Wisdom

George Santayana, Spanish

philosopher wrote...
“Those who cannot remember the
past are condemned to repeat it"

George Santayana (born in Madrid 1863; died 1952) was a philosopher, essayist,
poet, and novelist.

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Deadlines

It is imperative to set project deadlines and then to

meet them.
The car MUST be finished a month before the
competition to allow for testing and tuning and the
remanufacturing that will invariably follow!
FSAE is no place for democracy! The team leader
(singular) must be strong and decisive and respected
by the team. His word is law!
Continued...

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Dictators! Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, Idi Amin, Ghadafi, Saddam Hussein.

Team leader is not a personality competition.

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Words of Warning

I would like to introduce you to a gentleman

who will do his utmost to derail your project.
He ‘sees’ everything you do...
He never blinks... He NEVER sleeps...
He does his best work when you are at your
worst...
Only careful planning, constant vigilance, record
keeping and common sense will minimize his
efforts.
Continued...
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Murphy’s Law!

Major Ed Murphy, aerospace

engineering auditor wrote...
“Whatever can go wrong, will go
wrong!"

Edward Aloysius Murphy, Jr. (1918 – 1990) was an American aerospace

engineer who worked on safety-critical systems on the rocket sled program.
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Depending on time available, talk about the rocket sled program and Col. John Stapp

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The Early Design Stages

There are various things that MUST be

accommodated in your car.
– The power-train of your choice.
You should source a ‘Solid Model’ of this.
– The Driver! Both the ‘Percy’ manikin, the cockpit
templates and ALL your drivers.

Make a ‘Percy’ model and the cockpit

templates from the FSAE rulebook!

Continued...
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Talk about 4 cylinders vs single cylinder etc. Note, later on I advise 13” wheels for new teams.

Before You Start

Assess the importance of the various aspects of the

car, such as power, weight, C/G etc.
Weight is a critical issue!
The mass and mass distribution of your car must be
managed from the first day of the project!
Every year we see cars
grossly overweight.

This guy will help!

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How important is power?

How important is weight?
What percentage of each lap is spent at 100% throttle?

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Words of Wisdom

Ron Tauranac, Champion

Formula 1 Designer says...
“Nothing weighs less than
nothing”!

Ron Tauranac designed and built the 1996 and 1997 World championship Brabham
cars as well as innumerable championships in lower formulae won by Brabham and
RALT cars.
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Ron Tauranac is the Patron of FSAE Australasia.

He is the most pragmatic of engineers.

What does Ron T. mean?

What he is saying is, that if something serves no good
function on the car, then leave it off!
We so often see things on cars that contribute nothing
but mass.
That includes structures that
are either too large, over
engineered or simply
unnecessary...

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The Early Design Stages

• Tire choice and tire & wheel size

• Power-train choice
• The cockpit and foot-well templates
• The frontal impact structure
• The side impact structure
• The steering wheel
• The steering rack position

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How to Interpret the Rules

The Rules documents are easy to read. They are not

written to make your life difficult and there is logic
behind every rule.
Understanding what they say is another matter.
Some rules are obvious, like a minimum of 2” clearance
above the helmet, and must be met. Your health is
being protected.

Continued...

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What does the 2” wheel travel rule mean?

Does it mean a minimum of 1” ground clearance?
Maybe... !?
Ground clearance should be set at the minimum that
avoids ground contact and 1”+ is a sensible setting.

Continued...
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Discuss this more later in the presentation.

It is as important to see what the rules do NOT say as what they do say.

Sometimes the rules will give you a hint to where some

performance may be gained!
But before you can determine this, you must
understand what the Rules are all about!
FSAE rules are not like the Road Rules.
Finally... although they are simple to understand on
the surface, there are advantages to be had by fully
understanding the rules!

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The FSAE Task Reduced to Basics

In its most basic form, the solution to designing a fast

race car is reduced to a simple physics problem.
Think of it like this...

“Using only the forces generated at the tire contact

patches, accelerate a mass (the car) from here, back to
here via the race course, in the shortest time possible”!

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Words of Wisdom

Sir Isaac Newton outlined three

Laws of Motion that all Engineers
should be familiar with and all
relate to ‘Accelerating that Mass
around the race course’.

Who can tell me Newton’s 1st Law of Motion?

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A fundamental understanding of Newton’s laws is absolutely necessary.

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Newton’s First Law

“The velocity of a body remains constant unless the

body is acted upon by an external force”
Paraphrased, this relates to our car as follows:
“The car will continue in a straight line unless we apply
some force to turn it” or...
“The car will fly off the road in the corner unless we
apply some force to prevent it”

Add the braking and acceleration examples and of course, the car will remain stationary until
we apply some force to move it!

Newton’s Second Law

The acceleration ‘a’ of a body is parallel and directly

proportional to the net force ‘F’ and inversely
proportional to the mass ‘m’.
This is usually expressed as: F = ma.
Regarding our car, this means that to increase the ‘a’,
we must either reduce the ‘m’, increase the ‘F’ or
preferably, do both.

Add the braking and acceleration examples. e.g., Power divided by weight equals
acceleration!

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Newton’s Third Law

“The mutual forces of action and reaction between two

bodies are equal, opposite and collinear”.
This is usually written “Every action has an equal and
opposite reaction”.
Relating to our car, this means...
“The harder we push it (remember ‘F’ in the last slide)
and the lighter it is, the faster it will go”!

Tire Choice

What do we push against in order to make our car go,

stop and turn?
Ignoring aerodynamic devices for the moment, the only
thing we can push against is the force generated by
gravity applied at the four tire contact points!

So, what is the most important single decision when

designing your car?

What is the most important decision to make about your car?

Answer... The tire choice! Again, a topic I would beat on. A poor tire choice condemns the
team to a mediocre performance.

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A Quick Review

• Read the Rules

• Understand what Sir Isaac has to tell us
• Reduce the ‘m’
• Increase the ‘F’

Verbal review of what has been spoken about so far.

Revisiting F=ma

‘F’ Comes from the tire grip. We will revisit tires soon,
but right now we will talk about ‘m’ or mass.
Undeniable Fact! Nothing weighs less than nothing!
If a component does not need to be on the car, then
delete it!
Do everything you can to reduce the mass!

Continued...
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Engine Choice

The power-train choice in FSAE is usually between a

600cc 4 cylinder engine and a 450cc or 500cc single
cylinder engine.
The 600cc option is the most powerful, but power is not
everything in FSAE!
A 450cc engine can save 100lbs in total vehicle mass.
Engine choice should be determined very early in the
design stage.

An ad hoc discussion about power-train choice. The team will probably have made this choice,
or had it made for them.

F=ma also applies within the car...

In order to reduce the moment of inertia in yaw, mass
within the car should be centralized as much as
possible.
The next slide shows a practical exercise showing the
effect of changing the polar moment.
Both barbells weigh the same, but the lower one has
a lower PMI.

Continued...
9

Demonstrate the barbell experiment. This is the clearest example I know of a ‘Polar moment’
demonstration. You might need some ‘show and tell’.

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Polar Moment of Inertia

Moving the balls towards the center reduces the
PMI and makes the barbell easier to control.

High PMI

25lbs 25lbs

Low PMI
25lbs 25lbs
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Notice, we haven’t spoken yet about designing the

chassis! Chassis design actually comes very late in the
design process!
So...
– We have a power-train to accommodate.
– We have a driver to accommodate.
– We have the cockpit templates to accommodate.
We should have CAD Models of all these.
If not, either source or generate them!
Continued...
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I keep mentioning the chassis in order to underline it comes late in the process.

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Many teams have started their chassis design by

modelling a structure using plastic conduit.
There is nothing wrong with this, but it is a clumsy,
slow way to design the chassis. Small changes are
difficult and invariably, the first model made is
deemed satisfactory, when in reality it is far from
optimum.
It is better to construct a 3D CAD model and develop
further with that!

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Time to Talk about Tires!

Tires are the most important choice the team must

make at the design stage.
All aspects of vehicle performance is determined by the
interface between the tire and the track surface.
The chassis and suspension design should be aimed
towards harnessing the tire forces and to avoid
exciting the tire compound at the contact patch.

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The tire lecture!

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Tire Testing Consortium (TTC)

In 2005, a group of teams and FSAE Mentors set up the

Formula SAE TTC.
The TTC is a volunteer managed
organization who pool financial
resources to obtain high quality tire
data.
The TTC’s role is to organize and
conduct tire tests, and distribute the
data to all participating teams.
The TTC Coordinator, Dr. Ed Kasprzak
can be contacted at...
[Link]@[Link]
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There are now over 500 teams world wide who are members of the TTC!

Tire Testing Consortium (TTC)

Membership of the TTC ($500) is worth while, not just
for the information available about FSAE tires, but it is
an incredible education about how tires are made and
tested.

Continued...
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Choosing the Tires

TTC membership and/or study of the tire data will tell

you approximately at what camber and toe angles you
should run your tires.
This gives you a starting point for suspension design.

Please note:
We STILL haven’t started designing a chassis!

Continued...
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Tires

Before we leave the subject of tires...

Which diameter wheel should you use?
There are advantages and disadvantages to both
13” and 10” wheels & tires.
10” wheels & tires are smaller, lighter and have
reduced rotational inertia.
10” wheels have a smaller available range of tires
and have less space inside to accommodate brake
and suspension components.

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The big problem with a space-frame on 10” wheels is the inner pickup points end up too close
together and it is almost impossible to feed into a node. Finding room for the steering rack is
also difficult.

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Explanation of Suspension Terms

It is important to be able to ‘talk the talk’ when

discussing chassis dynamic parameters with team
mates, judges or other engineers.
The next few slides will graphically describe these
parameters and will include some comments.

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Wheelbase
Wheelbase describes the distance between the
front and rear wheels.
There is a Rules minimum for wheelbase as
FSAE cars have a short wheelbase.

Wheelbase 19

Suggested R/C heights for a new team would be 1”-2” Front and 2”-3” Rear. Both above
ground!

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Track

Track width is a design element. Usually, the rear track

is narrower than the front, but there is a Rule regarding
this difference.

Chassis

Track
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Discuss why the rear track should be narrower.

Camber (Static)

Camber describes the angle at which the tire is

presented to the ground.
In race cars, camber is always set ‘negative’, that is the
wheels are closer together at the top.
TTC tire data will help determine proper camber.
The usual camber range used in FSAE is from zero to 2°
negative.

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A recommendation would be 2 degrees negative at the front and 1 degree negative at the
rear.

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Camber (Static)
Camber angle

Chassis

This illustration shows

‘negative’ camber
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Steering Axis Inclination (SAI)

The steering axis (aka KPI) is the line about which the
stub axle steers when viewed from the front.
It is primarily a stability parameter, centring the
steering when exiting a corner.
SAI affects wheel camber in a Positive direction when
the wheel is steered.
Because of this and the light weight of a FSAE car very
little SAI is usually required.

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Point out that for manufacturing purposes, I would make the uprights ‘square’ meaning that
when installed, SAI and Camber would have the same value.

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Steering Axis Inclination (SAI)

SAI

Chassis

SAI is sometimes called KPI

(King Pin Inclination)
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The team should be aware of the negatives of SAI. It is sometimes a necessity, but should be
minimised.

Scrub Radius

Scrub radius is the offset of the center of the tire

contact patch from the extended steering axis,
measured at ground level.
Some scrub is desirable in a lightweight car to
generate steering feedback for the driver.
Scrub Radius is sometimes referred to as ‘Steering
Offset’.
I do not recommend a Negative Scrub Radius in a
FSAE car.

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Mention that with tyre distortion, scrub may go negative in cornering!

Scrub Radius

Center of

Chassis
contact
patch

Scrub Radius

Scrub Radius is sometimes

called Steering Offset
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About 1” scrub seems to work well on FSAE cars

Caster

Caster is the angle of the front upright when viewed

from the side.
Caster should always be ‘positive’, that is the top ball-
joint trails behind the bottom ball-joint.
In effect it is like SAI, but viewed from the side.
Caster is a stability parameter and a typical FSAE car
would have from 2° to 8° positive caster.
Caster will affect camber when the vehicle is steered.

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Caster

A side effect of caster is that Caster

Angle
Camber goes negative as the
wheel is steered IN and
positive as the wheel
is steered OUT.

Caster Trail

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Caster Trail

Sometimes the choice of caster angle for kinematic

reasons may have a negative effect on steering
feedback to the driver.
This action can be minimized by moving the position
of the spindle relative to the steering axis.
This is sometimes referred to as caster offset or
spindle offset.

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Caster Trail

In this example the Caster

Angle
axle has been moved
forward in the
Spindle moved
upright. forward in
This reduces the trail upright
dimension while
retaining the caster
angle.

Reduced Caster Trail

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Toe-In and Toe-Out

‘Toe’ refers to the difference between the width

measured at the front and rear of the tire 90° from the
ground.
In toe-out the front width is greater than the rear
width. Toe-in is the opposite.
It is usually expressed in mm or fractions of an inch, or
(less often) in degrees and minutes.
You should have a small amount of toe-out on the front
and toe-in on the rear wheels for stability reasons.

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Toe In and Toe Out

This example shows ‘Toe-In’.

The amount of toe-in is expressed as Dimension Y
minus dimension X
X

Y
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A good ballpark figure for initial setup would be 1/8” toe out at front and 1/8” toe in at rear.

Bump Steer

Bump steer and Roll steer are conditions where the

wheel steers as the suspension articulates.
This is caused by incompatibility between the
suspension geometry and the steering geometry.
Bump steer makes the car difficult to control in
cornering and unstable when braking and
accelerating.

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Bump Steer
This diagram shows a steering rack length and
position incompatible with the suspension geometry.

Steering Rack

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The LH wheel will toe OUT in bump and droop, the RH wheel will toe in in Bump and droop

Steering Ackermann

Ackermann is (usually incorrectly) used to describe any

mechanism or articulation of the steering linkage to
change the front toe setting as the car is steered.
Ackermann is said to be ‘positive’ when wheels toe out
with steering and ‘negative’ when the wheels toe in
with steering.
FSAE cars usually benefit from some positive
Ackermann geometry. TTC tire data will help you
select the proper amount of Ackermann.

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Typical Ackermann Arrangement

This diagram shows a steering linkage that will

increase the toe out as the wheels are steered.

Steering Rack

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Flick back and forth between this slide and the next

Typical Ackermann Arrangement

With the steering turned to the right, the inner (right)

wheel has turned more than the outer wheel.

Steering Rack

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Rear Toe Control

Inadequate control of rear toe (toe-in or toe-out) leads

to a fundamentally poor handling car.
This is one of the design ‘mortal sins’ we see repeatedly
in FSAE cars.
Usually a ‘Z’ arm or a separate toe link is used to control
rear toe.
For this to be successful, the reaction must be spread
over as wide a base as practicable.
This is called the ‘Toe base’.

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Point out this is another reason to avoid 10” wheels for beginners.

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Rear Toe Control

‘Z’ bar (left) and a separate toe control link (right).

Either is acceptable as long as the toe base is wide
enough to resist any steering forces

Toe Base

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Poor Rear Toe Control

Examples of poor rear toe control solutions we see

often on FSAE cars. Note, the first example will cause
rear bump and roll steer.

Toe Base

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Tire Camber

Race tires generate most grip with some amount of

Negative camber, that is, the top of the tires are closer
together than the bottom.
Camber angle

Chassis

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Touch on ‘camber thrust’ here. Relate camber thrust to leaning a bike.

How Much Camber?

Radial ply tires require more negative camber than

bias ply tires.
A good starting point is -2° front and -1° rear.
This is only a suggested figure and the optimum
setting can only be determined by testing.
Remember, the camber angle will change as the
suspension operates and as the steering wheel is
turned!

42

Ask the group “Are Hoosier FSAE tires Radials or Bias ply”? They are bias ply as far as I know,
but the bias angle may make them ‘almost radials’. 10” Hoosiers certainly have very soft
sidewalls.

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Dynamic Camber Change

In this example, camber will This is the ‘pivot’ point

go more negative in bump about which the virtual
and less negative in droop. swing axle rotates.
Note, this point is
C/L dynamic and will
change with
suspension movement.

Instant Center

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Spend some time on this slide explaining camber change.

Camber Change in Bump

Excessive negative camber

gain in bump materially
affects the braking ability
C/L of the front tires (when
braking) and the traction
ability of the rear tires
(when accelerating).

Instant Center
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Camber Change in Droop

C/L

Instant Center

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Camber Compromises

The following animations show the result of an incorrect

compromise in choosing camber gain.
The geometry has been optimised for braking
performance, but see what happens when the chassis
rolls in cornering!
Repeated iterations at the design stage will avoid such
pitfalls.

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Camber Change in Bump & Droop

Camber Change in Roll

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See the Problem?

At the front, the tires should be:

 Straight up and down, when braking.
 In negative camber in turning (when the chassis
rolls).

In reality, the opposite happens!

A saving grace is the camber change caused by caster
when steering.

Continued...
4

Discuss caster steer, effect of ackermann and weight jacking. Depending on time available
and the level of knowledge of the students. Things can get very complex here,

At the rear, the wheels need to be:

 Upright when accelerating
 Go into negative camber when cornering.
There is no caster effect to help at the rear so a less
aggressive camber curve should be selected.
Usually, the rear R/C is set higher than the front
R/C.

Continued...
5

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How can we solve this dilemma?

The Rules require a minimum 2” of useable suspension

travel.
How much camber change can that limited travel
produce?
Can you keep the camber angles within the operating
parameters of the chosen tire?

Here you might also talk about Anti dive, anti squat, third springs, bump rubbers etc.
Introducing Caster steer related camber change

Roll Stiffness

There are several ways to avoid camber loss caused

by chassis roll.
1. Raise the roll axis.
2. Increase the ride spring rate.
3. Use anti roll devices.

We will discuss these issues separately.

Continued...

Stiff springs will give good roll control but poor ride quality and mechanical grip.

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Roll Center
The Roll Centers (F&R) are the
geometrically determined points around
which the sprung mass rotates when a
lateral force is applied at the C/G. This is the ‘pivot’ point
about which the virtual
C/L swing axle rotates.
Note, this point is dynamic
and will change with
suspension movement.

Roll Center Instant Center

Center of contact patch

8

Spend some time on this slide explaining camber change

Roll Axis

The Roll Axis is the geometrically defined axis around

which the vehicle will roll when a lateral load is
applied.
Usually the Roll Axis is below the vehicle C/G, causing
the vehicle to roll outwards in cornering.
The closer the axis is to the C/G, the less the chassis
will roll under any given lateral force.

Continued...
9

The roll axis is usually above the ground and slightly higher at the back. Discuss roll couples,
roll stiffnesses and diagonal weight transfer. If they want to know more, refer them to
Claude’s OptimumG seminar.

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Roll Axis

The Roll Axis lies on a line that joins the Front and
Rear Roll Centers.
Normally, the rear R/C is set slightly
higher than the front R/C.

R/C R/C
Roll Axis

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Suggested R/C heights for a new team would be 1”-2” Front and 2”-3” Rear. Both above
ground!

It is far better to lower the C/G than to raise the Roll

Axis.
As the roll axis rises above ground, when a lateral load
is applied, there is an increase in the force that tries to
‘pole-vault’ the car over the outer tire contact point.
This is called ‘Jacking’ or ‘Wheel Jacking’.
Jacking is very detrimental to roadholding and to driver
wellbeing.
See next slide...

11

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Old Triumph car with high rear roll center demonstrating

the jacking effect. This is 1963.
12

This is a nasty little ‘63 Triumph spitfire. Swing axles at the back and roll center above hub
height...way too high!

Remember the words of George Santayana?

“Those who cannot remember the past are
condemned to repeat it”! This is 2004.

13

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Ride Rate

The vehicle ‘ride rate’ is the spring rate multiplied (or

divided) by any linkage ratio used to activate the spring.
The ride rate will change as the suspension operates and
may be ‘Linear’ (no rate change), ‘Progressive’ (rising
rate) or ‘Digressive’ (falling rate). Linear and Progressive
are preferred.
A stiff ride rate will inhibit chassis roll but at the expense
of driver comfort and mechanical grip of the tires.

14

Discuss ‘exciting’ the tire contact patch

Anti Roll Devices

These are usually springs or torsion bars connected in

such a way as to resist chassis roll while having no
effect on suspension ride rate.
Usually they are ‘U’ shaped torsion bars, but may well
be a ‘T’ shaped torsion bar or even a spring or
compressed gas loaded mechanism.
See an example on the next slide...

15

Discuss Anti Roll bars. Why do the judges expect to see them? My usual scenario is ‘Rain when
on the dummy grid’ swap the tires and soften the ARBs.

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Anti Roll Bar

Each end of the Anti

Roll Bar is anchored
to the suspension Anti Roll Bar
members and
pivots on the chassis.
This causes the ARB
to twist, resisting roll
movement of the
chassis.

16

‘T’ Type Anti Roll Bar

The pushrods attach to the

suspension bell-cranks.
When the car rolls, the torsion bar
twists, resisting roll.

17

45
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Pitch and Squat

A car will not only roll about it’s Roll Axis, it will also
‘pitch’ about it’s pitch axis.
We see this as ‘dive’ under braking and ‘squat’ under
acceleration.
Dive and squat can be minimised by locating the C/G
as low as possible.
‘Anti Dive’ geometry can be used at the front and
‘Anti Squat’ geometry at the rear to prevent this
pitch change.

18

Anti-Dive Geometry

Anti-dive geometry can be Caster

Angle
introduced by inclining the
chassis mounts of the Front
top A arms.
This can be shimmed
for adjustment.

Instant Centrer

19

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 Pat’s Corner

Anti-Squat Geometry

Anti-squat geometry can be

introduced by inclining the
chassis mounts of the Rear
top A arms.
This can be shimmed for
adjustment.

Instant Center

20

Anti dive/squat Calculations

Front
Front I/C
100% anti squat
C/G
Rear I/C

50% anti dive

This example has 50% anti dive and 100% anti squat.

21

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T-Bar with Pitch Control

This diagram (courtesy of OptimumG) shows a

complex anti roll ‘T’ bar with pitch control by a
third spring.
Pitch is controlled
by the 3rd spring.
Roll is controlled
by twisting the leg
of the ‘T’ bar.

22

Monoshock

In this case, the anti roll bar operates the coil

spring damper unit. Roll is controlled by the anti
roll bar.
Monoshock

Anti roll bar

23

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Designing the Chassis

In this discussion, we will assume the team intends to

build a straightforward space-frame chassis with
double ‘A-arm’ suspension front and rear.
Note:
Several aspects of the chassis are laid down in the
FSAE Rules and must be complied with!

24

Mention the side impact structure, roll hoop rules, front bulkhead, rear hoop triangulation
etc.

The Basic Task

Remember, earlier we stated the basic task?

“Using only the forces generated at the tire contact

patches, accelerate the mass (the car) from here, back
to here via the race course, in the shortest time
possible and using the least amount of fuel”!

Continued...

25

Re-stating the mission statement.

49
 Pat’s Corner

Imagine this as being a 500lb mass, centered at the

C/G and a force arm extending from the CG to each
of the tire contact patches.
This simplified example allows us to visualise the
forces involved in accelerating this mass in the ‘Y’
and ‘Z’ axes.

26

We are about to introduce the ‘cannon ball on legs’ I would use an apple and four pencils as
‘show and tell’!

500lbs
Contact points

We will revisit this

‘cannon ball on legs’ later in this presentation. 27

50
 Pat’s Corner

Reducing the height of the C/G changes the reaction

angle to the contact points thereby improving stability.

500lbs

28

If we push on the mass ball in any direction, the force

will react around one or more of the contact points and
the structure will attempt to fall over.
Unless we have lots of drivers to use up, we want to
avoid this situation as far as possible.

Continued...
29

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To improve stability, we must either...

 Increase the base area (widen the track) or,
 Lower the height of the center of mass.

Because we have to fit between the cones and

get around the corners, the 1st option is limited.

30

Words of Wisdom

Champion Formula 1 Designer

Gordon Murray said...
“All things being equal, the car
with the lowest center of gravity
will win”!

Gordon Murray designed the Brabham and McLaren F1 cars that won 6 world
championship and the McLaren F1 that won the Le Mans 24 hour race twice.
31

Words spoken by a man who is 6’ 7” (204 cm) tall!

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So, let’s lower the C/G!

We can start by setting the car as low as possible.
How low can we go?
Remember, there are two Rules in play here!

32

Discuss the Rules. Wheel travel and track contact!

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 Pat’s Corner

The FSAE Rules require a suspension system.

This is to ensure a comfortable ride and good grip by the
tires. (Reduced excitation at the contact patch).
How much wheel travel should we have?
Before you answer, what is the rule regarding contact
with the track surface?
Here we are in a classic dilemma, one of many you will
discover along the way.

33

Words of Wisdom

Champion Formula 1 designer Colin

Chapman wrote...
“Any suspension can be made to
work as long as you don’t let it”!

Colin Chapman designed the Lotus cars that won the world championship
seven times as well as the Indianapolis 500 .
34

This is an interesting statement and not what it seems at first glance. Discuss.

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 Pat’s Corner

What did Chapman mean by this?

Did he mean we should have no suspension, like a
kart? That would be against the rules.
No, Chapman meant we should only use what
suspension travel is necessary.
Increased suspension travel must mean increased
ground clearance to avoid contact.
That entails raising the C/G!

35

Finally, we can start some chassis design!

The first tubes can be laid at the bottom of the car.
A ground clearance of 1¼” at normal ride height is a
good place to start.
This will give us ¼” minimum clearance if we limit the
suspension bump travel to 1”.
But why would you willingly raise the C/G by ¼”,
bearing in mind what Gordon Murray had to say?

Continued...
36

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 Pat’s Corner

There are several reasons!

• Race tracks are neither smooth nor flat.
• Tires deflect under load.
• Suspension geometry may cause a loss of clearance
when the car rolls under lateral forces, and...

...in every structure there lives a

little monster called COMPLIANCE!

37

We introduce the ‘Compliance Monster’

But, hang on!!

We don’t know where everything goes yet!
For now... Let’s just remember where that bottom tube in
the chassis goes.
We can refer to it as our ‘Reference Plane’ just like they
do in Formula 1

Reference
plane
38

The ‘reference plane’ in F1 is the basis of all regulatory measurements. It is the plane to which
the ‘plank’ is attached. All aero measurements are from the ref plane.

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 Pat’s Corner

Things Inside the Chassis

The power-train and driver are the heaviest

components we need to accommodate in the car.
Both should be carried as low as possible.
Other heavy components like the battery and fuel
tank should be mounted as low as possible (low
CG), AND as close to the vehicle center as possible
(low PMI).

39

Here we revisit polar moment of inertia.

Lowering the Driver

Where is the driver’s Center of Mass?

Drivers C/G

Continued...
40

The driver’s c/g is behind the sternum.

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 Pat’s Corner

Incidentally, this picture shows the value of a HANS device if you need to ‘break out’ to
change topic in order to retain attention.

A significant lowering of the vehicle C/G can be

achieved by reclining the driver and lowering him to
the floor.

Reference Plane

Continued...
41

Benefits of Reclining the Driver

• The height of the main roll hoop can be reduced.

• The load path to the seat belt anchors is more direct.
• A triangular space opens up behind the drivers lumbar
area where fuel or electronics can be housed.

42

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Limits to lowering the driver

• The front roll hoop must be above the steering wheel.

• The foot-well template effectively determines the
minimum size of the front roll hoop.
• The drivers eye-line must be above the top of the
front roll hoop. This must be kept in mind for all
drivers.

43

Optimising the Cockpit Area

By moving the main Roll Hoop forward and leaning it

back the permissible 10° further shortens the hoop as
well as reducing the length of tubes required in the
Side Impact Structure.

Note:
Roll hoop support
must be triangulated
back to the base of
the roll bar.

Continued...
44

Note, this also puts the critical placement of the lap harness pickup points into a strong node
at the base of the roll hoop.
The open area of the cockpit space contributes most to the loss of chassis torsional stiffness.
Reducing this area assists with stiffening the structure.

59
 Pat’s Corner

The front hoop can also be inclined forward by up to

10° to further shorten the side impact area.
The side impact structure must be constructed
according to the rules and is part of the design task.

Easier to achieve the

min 2” clearance rule.

Continued...
45

There are rules in the book relating to this stuff, but it is worth talking about. What we are
doing in ‘integrating’ the driver into the design, rather than just having him sit in it later.

The cockpit final hard point we will concentrate on is

the pedal mounting.
This must react a foot pressure of 450lbs without
deflection or failure.
Again, this is part of the design task.

Must react 450lbs

46

The geometry of the master cylinder is important. The brakes should have a linear to rising
geometry. Falling rate geometry (or a compliant pedal mounting) gives poor feedback to the
driver.

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 Pat’s Corner

Cockpit foot-well Template

The foot-well template must pass unhindered through

the chassis until 4” before the pedal face. There is a
clearance slot for the steering column.
Only the steering wheel may be removed to insert the
template.
Space which must
be kept clear for
template insertion.

4”
47

At Tech Inspection, the chassis will be tested for cockpit size by using the two templates
mentioned in the rules. If the templates can not be inserted, the car will not be permitted to
compete in the dynamic events!
This rule has a very significant effect on the design of the steering system.
Some teams have tried to use the ‘loophole’ fitting the steering rack into the 100mm
clearance allowance, but if the mechanism impedes the drivers operation of the controls (all
the drivers!) then the car will not pass technical inspection!

This is an actual design drawing from a very

successful FSAE team, illustrating the efforts made
to lower the driver.

48

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Steering Rack Placement

So, where can you place the steering mechanism?

Simply, it must be outside the template area, either
above, below or ahead of the prohibited area.
This makes a very serious challenge to design a suitable
steering system with no lost motion or ‘stiction’ and
which does not cause bump steer or roll steer.

Continued...

49

This is the real challenge with the template rules.

Terminology

• Bump Steer is the unintended steering of one or both

wheels when a bump is encountered.
• Roll Steer is the unintended steering of one or both
wheels when the chassis rolls under the influence of
lateral forces.
• Bump Steer and Roll Steer can occur at the front or the
rear of the chassis.
• ‘Stiction’ is a term combining ‘sticky’ and ‘friction’,
used to describe ‘grabby’ operation in a mechanism.

50

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Mounting the Wheels

We need to discuss three things here...

• How to mount the wheels on the chassis?
• How to react the wheel forces into the chassis?
• How to maintain appropriate wheel geometry ?

Can anyone tell me the biggest single force

acting on the chassis?

51

Discuss the forces, especially brake torque. Discuss geometry of A-Arms etc.

At the front of the chassis, the usual (and recommended)

solution is to use a double A-arm suspension system.
This is a ‘four bar’ mechanism, design of which is an
Interesting challenge for the team.
Upper A-Arm
Ball joints

Chassis pivots Steering Arm

‘Upright’
Lower A-Arm
Continued...52

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 Pat’s Corner

So, how does the designer determine the optimum

length and angles for the suspension arms?
These pictures might give you a hint...

Continued...
53

5 different cars with 5 different suspension solutions.

Did you notice something?

They are all different!
There is NO one perfect answer!

Each of the teams shown have their own idea about

how much the camber should change with wheel travel.

Continued...
1

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 Pat’s Corner

Hold on! ...

Didn’t we limit the bump travel to 1” to prevent the
chassis from bottoming?
In truth, 1” wheel travel will not give us much camber
change (camber gain) unless the ‘Virtual Swing Axle’
(VSA) length is very short.
And therein lies another problem!

A very short VSA has two major pitfalls.

1. Excessive negative camber in bump will
negatively affect braking performance
2. The angularity of the suspension arms means
the forces must be reacted at the chassis over a
very narrow vertical base.
Let’s look at some examples...

Continued... 3

Steeply angled suspension arms do not feed forces directly into the chassis structure.

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 Pat’s Corner

VSA Geometry

Infinite VSA. No camber change

in bump.

Short VSA. Some camber change

in bump.

Swing axle. Extreme camber

change in bump.
Continued...
4

Roll Center in Each Example

Some things to note:

R/C

As the VSA gets shorter, so the

R/C gets higher.

A higher R/C (closer to the C/G) R/C

resists chassis roll but increases

jacking forces.
R/C

Continued...
5

As the virtual axle length shortens, the roll center usually climbs and jacking becomes more
likely. Good engineering would have the lower suspension link horizontal, but this has a
significant effect on roll center height.
A horizontal lower link improves the load path and reduces the amount of ‘scrub’ as the
suspension moves.

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 Pat’s Corner

Jacking Force

Jacking forces are the sum of the vertical force

components experienced by the suspension links.

Lateral Force

C/G
Grip reaction

Santayana again in 2012

Continued...
6

A high rear R/C leads to Jacking in a FSE car.

Most FSAE teams design their suspension using a

specialised software program like Optimum
Kinematics from Optimum G.

An excellent visualisation tool is to make a ‘String

Computer’ as seen in a future slide.
7

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Suspension Modelling

Before computers, a popular way to design

suspension geometry was to construct what we
called the ‘String Computer’
Even today, this is a very good ‘hands on’ way for
students to see the changes in geometry that small
changes can make.

The String Computer

C/L
Thanks, Allan Staniforth.

C/G Chassis

I/C Push & Pull

to replicate
chassis roll.

R/C

Base board Continued...

9

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 Pat’s Corner

The ‘String Computer’ is constructed from cardboard

cut-outs and push pins for pivots.
Strings are run from the outer suspension pivots,
through the inner pivots, to the instant centers.
Rolling or bumping the ‘chassis’ and realigning the
strings will demonstrate the changes in Camber,
Virtual Swing Arm length and Roll Center position.

10

Before designing the suspension, the team must

understand the very large forces that will be fed into the
chassis.
This is a very important topic as failure of a suspension
component can cause a very serious accident!
Who can remind me ...
What is the greatest single force the chassis must react?

Continued...
11

Brake torque at the upright in a maximum effort stop.

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 Pat’s Corner

Front Brake Torque!

Underestimation of brake
torque caused this front
upright failure.

12

This upright is from an earlier FSAE car. Draw attention to the compliant mounting of the
steering arm.

This force, added to the weight transfer, must be

carried by the suspension components and reacted
safely into the chassis.
There is no point to carefully designing suspension
geometry if compliance in the components of the
chassis permit uncontrolled wheel movement.
Remember, compliance is a monster
that undermines your design!

13

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 Pat’s Corner

Compliant attachment of
suspension brackets to a
tubular frame.
The welding in this example
is also of questionable
integrity!
The Button head screw
attaching the clevis is no
longer permitted.

14

Defeating the Monster

One of the first rules in reducing

compliance is to ensure forces are
reacted over a suitably wide base.
The short VSA example A has a
much narrower base than
example B. 10” vs. 13” tires has a
big effect on your choices here.

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 Pat’s Corner

Remember our ‘cannon ball on legs’?

There are several lessons there regarding compliance.
The legs show the most direct route from the contact
patches to the C/G.
In other words the most direct load paths!
Any deviation from this direct path will likely
introduce some compliance...

Emphasise this point

Load Paths

The most direct load paths from the contact points to the
C/G is illustrated by the blue arrows.

Mass

Load Paths. Look who is lurking!

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 Pat’s Corner

Stiffness and Strength

So, the structure must be...

 Geometrically acceptable,
 Strong enough to bear the loads,
 Stiff enough to resist deflection, and...
 Light

That is a pretty tall order!

Continued...
4

Words of Wisdom

Champion Formula 1 designer

Colin Chapman said...
“Simplify, then add lightness”

Colin Chapman designed the Lotus cars that won the world championship 5 times
as well as the Indianapolis 500 .
5

Chapman didn’t write that. He was quoting W.B. Stout, the designer of the Ford Trimotor
aircraft.

73
 Pat’s Corner

As young engineers, you should relish the task of

designing...
 A lightweight and stiff structure for the chassis,
 Light and rigid suspension links and uprights and,
 A non-compliant way of matching the suspension
to the chassis, which moves very freely (low
stiction), all while maintaining appropriate
geometry.

Triangles Are Your Friend

In Nature, the stiffest 2D structure is a triangle.

The stiffest 3D structure is a tetrahedron.
These should be used in the structure where possible if a
stiff lightweight structure is desired.

(He hates triangles)! 7

74
 Pat’s Corner

Words of Wisdom

Albert Einstein, the famous physicist

wrote...
"Everything should be made as
simple as possible, but not simpler."

Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the
theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics.
8

Don’t try to be too clever!

Keep It Simple, Stupid!

75
 Pat’s Corner

Apexes and Nodes

A ‘space-frame’ structure is the most suitable chassis

type for a FSAE car being built from steel tubing.
A true space-frame is a series of tetrahedrons and the
structure should be loaded at the apexes or ‘nodes’ of
the tetrahedrons.
Any offset in the loading complicates the load paths
and facilitates compliance.

10

Spaceframe Structure

A true space-frame, in this

case a bridge span.

A FSAE ‘space-frame’ chassis.

Note that some sections
are not triangulated!
11

It is impossible to make a true space-frame FSAE chassis because we need ‘holes’ for the
driver and the engine. Overcoming these shortcomings is part of the challenge.

76
 Pat’s Corner

Material Selection

Like most aspects of the project, the choice of chassis

material requires logical thought.
4130 tube may offer some advantages in size availability
and therefore weight, but is expensive and requires
specialised welding techniques.
1020 tube is cheaper and more easily welded. Though
possibly heavier, it is potentially a more suitable material
for a student built chassis.

12

Spend as much time as you like on materials selection and construction.

Words of Wisdom

Carroll Smith, famous race car

engineer said...
“There is no such thing as a
material failure. All failures are
human in origin”.

Carroll was a race engineer most famous for preparing the Ford GTs that dominated
Le Mans in the 1960s. Later he was a champion of FSAE and recruited most of the
current crop of Chief Judges.
13

You might need to explain what Carroll meant by this!

77
 Pat’s Corner

Suspension Components

Load paths within the suspension components are also

critical!
The Designer should have analysed the loads and made
his decisions about the material being used.
He should also have the chassis design such that the
suspension arms feed the tire forces into nodes in the
chassis structure.

Continued...

14

Rod Ends

Rod End abuse deserves a

mention at this point...
Rod Ends are a useful component
but should only be used in the correct manner.
NEVER load the threaded shank of a rod end in bending!

Never use this type of rod end!

The grease nipple hole is a stress
raiser which can cause a failure
under load.
15

78
 Pat’s Corner

How A Arms Should be Made

16

Spherical bearings are a much better solution for

compliance free control arms.

17

79
 Pat’s Corner

In closing, some more

Words of Wisdom

Words of Wisdom

Thomas Edison, the famous

inventor wrote...
“Genius is one per cent inspiration
and ninety-nine per cent
perspiration“.

Thomas Alva Edison (1847 – 1931) was an American inventor and

is remembered mostly as the inventor of the electric light globe.

19

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 Pat’s Corner

Words of Wisdom

B.B. King, Blues Musician said...

“The beautiful thing about learning is
nobody can take it away from you.”

B.B. King is an American Blues musician, born in 1925. He is famous

for his virtuosity when playing his guitar named, ‘Lucille’

20

Words of Wisdom

Sir Jackie Stewart, F1 World Champion

said...
“It is not always possible to be the best,
but it is always possible to improve
your own performance".

Sir Jackie Steward was World Champion three times, in 1969. ‘71 and ‘73. In 1996
he founded the Stewart Grand Prix team, which has morphed into Red Bull F1.
21

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 Pat’s Corner

Words of Wisdom

Finally, Mario Andretti once said:

"If everything seems under control,
you're just not trying hard enough."

Mario Andretti is widely regarded as the greatest all around American racer.
An Indy 500 winner and Champion. A Grand Prix winner and World Champion.
22

You should realise that this is a print of the presentation slides and some reminder notes for
the presenter. So if some stuff seems incomplete, don’t sweat it. Come talk with me and I will
explain it.

NOTE WELL !!

This document is a series of suggestions to a new FSAE team on how to overcome most of the
hurdles you encounter.
The suggestions herein are just that... Suggestions!

Should you decide to follow the advice given here, be aware that is your decision and Pat
Clarke will take absolutely no responsibility for your actions.

The content of this document is copyright, but I grant permission for fair dissemination of the
contents.

I do NOT want to see this document or any of its content quoted or republished in any Formula
SAE or Formula Student documentation, such as the EDR.

Points will be deducted from any team who states in DESIGN JUDGING that ‘Pat Clarke told us
to do this in his lecture notes’!

Good luck in your FSAE adventure

Pat Clarke, July 2016

82