Direct and Indirect

energy Conversion
• Energy conversion is the process of
changing one form of energy to
another through a single process
• There are two methods of
conversion:
– Direct - when heat energy is
converted directly into electricity
– Indirect -when heat energy is
converted into mechanical energy
first and afterwards into electricity.
 Need for Direct Energy Conversion
• In direct energy conversion system energy source directly
converted into electricity without and working fluid or steam.
• Direct conversion systems have no moving parts Need:
1. No conversion of energy into mechanical and to
electricity.
2. Less losses in conversion process.
3. More efficient process
4. Cost also reduced but technology required to improve it.
 CARNOT CYCLE

• If an engine is continually to convert thermal energy into mechanical

energy, it must operate cyclically.
• At the end of each cycle it must return to its initial configuration, so it
can repeat the process of conversion of heat into work over and over
again.
• Steam engines and automobile engines are obviously cyclic -- after one
or two revolutions, they return to their initial configuration.
• These engines are not 100% efficient.
• The condenser of a steam engine and the radiator and exhaust of an
automobile engine eject a substantial amount of heat into the
environment; this waste heat represents lost energy.
• Besides, there are frictional losses.
 Carnot Cycle
• Gases have various properties that we can observe with
our senses, including the gas pressure p, temperature T,
mass, and volume V that contains the gas.
• Careful, scientific observation has determined that
these variables are related to one another, and the values
of these properties determine the state of the gas.
• A thermodynamic process, such as heating
or compressing the gas, changes the values of the state
variables in a manner which is described by the laws of
thermodynamics.
• The work done by a gas and the heat transferred to a gas
depend on the beginning and ending states of the gas and
on the process used to change the state.
Carnot Cycle
• It is possible to perform a series of processes, in which the state is changed
during each process, but the gas eventually returns to its original state.
• Such a series of processes is called a cycle and forms the basis for understanding
engines.
• The Carnot Cycle is one of the fundamental thermodynamic cycles. We will use
a p-V diagram to plot the various processes in the Carnot Cycle.
• The cycle begins with a gas, colored yellow on the figure, which is confined in a
cylinder, colored blue.
• The volume of the cylinder is changed by a moving red piston, and the pressure
is changed by placing weights on the piston.
• We have two heat sources; the red one is at a nominal 300 degrees, and the
purple one is at 200 degrees.
• Initially, the gas is in State 1 at high temperature, high pressure, and low
volume.
 What is adiabatic and isothermal?
• The word 'isothermal' means constant
temperature.
• An isothermal process is a process
occurring at a constant temperature.
• The word 'adiabatic' means isolated
from surroundings.
• Adiabatic process means a process that
neither allows the heat to transfer inside
nor let the heat out of the system.
 Isothermal Expansion
• At first, the working substance is Isothermal - constant temperature. "iso" = a
kept in contact with the source. prefix meaning "equal"
• The piston of the cylinder is
moved outwards.
• The gas expands at constant
temperature.
• The amount of heat (Q1) is
absorbed from the source to
make the temperature constant.
• The volume increases and
pressure decreases.
• This is called thermal expansion.
• It is represented by the curve AB
in the indicator diagram.
• The first process performed on the
gas is an isothermal expansion.
• The 300 degree heat source is
brought into contact with the
cylinder, and weight is removed,
which lowers the pressure in the gas.
• The temperature remains constant,
but the volume increases. During the
process from State 1 to State 2 heat
is transferred from the source to the
gas to maintain the temperature.
• We will note the heat transfer
by Q1 into the gas.
 [Link] Expansion
• Lower Conducting side of the
cylinder is kept in contact with
the insulating stand.
• The piston of the cylinder is
moved outwards.
• The gas expands such that no
heat enters the system or
leaves from it.

• The volume increases and pressure decreases.

• The temperature decreased from T1 to T2.
• This is called adiabatic expansion. It is represented by the curve
BC in the indicator
• The second process performed on
the gas is an adiabatic expansion.
During an adiabatic process no
heat is transferred to the gas.
• Weight is removed, which lowers
the pressure in the gas.
• The temperature decreases and
the volume increases as the
gas expands to fill the volume.
• During the process from State
2 to State 3 no heat is
transferred.
• The third process performed on the
gas is an isothermal compression.
The 200 degree heat source is
brought into contact with the
cylinder, and weight is added, which
raises the pressure in the gas.
• The temperature remains constant,
but the volume decreases. During the
process from State 3 to State 4 heat
is transferred from the gas to heat
source to maintain the temperature.
• We will note the heat transfer
by Q2 away from the gas.
• The fourth process performed on
the gas is an adiabatic
compression.
• Weight is added, which raises the
pressure in the gas. The
temperature increases and the
volume decreases as the gas
is compressed.
• During the process from State
4 to State 1 no heat is
transferred.
• At the end of the fourth process, the state of the
gas has returned to its original state and the cycle
can be repeated as often as you wish.
• During the cycle, work W has been produced by
the gas, and the amount of work is equal to the
area enclosed by the process curves.
• From the first law of thermodynamics, the
amount of work produced is equal to the net heat
transferred during the process:
• W = Q 1 - Q2
 The Carnot cycle consists of the following
four processes:
I. A reversible isothermal gas expansion process. In this
process, the ideal gas in the system absorbs qin amount
heat from a heat source at a high temperature Th,
expands and does work on surroundings.
II. A reversible adiabatic gas expansion process. In this
process, the system is thermally insulated. The gas
continues to expand and do work on surroundings, which
causes the system to cool to a lower temperature, Tl.
III. A reversible isothermal gas compression process. In this
process, surroundings do work to the gas at Tl, and causes
a loss of heat, qout.
IV. A reversible adiabatic gas compression process. In this
process, the system is thermally insulated. Surroundings
continue to do work to the gas, which causes the
temperature to rise back to Th.
 Thermo Electric Materials
The good thermo electric materials should possess
• Large seebeck coefficients
• High electrical conductivity
• Low thermal conductivity
The examples for thermal electric materials
• Bismuth Telluride(Bi2Te3)
• lead Telluride(PbTe)
• Silicon Germonium(SiGe)
• Bismuth Antimony(BiSb)
The Seebeck effect is when electricity is
created between a thermocouple when the
ends are subjected to a temperature
difference between them.
 Seebeck effect
• The Seebeck effect is the conversion
of temperature differences directly
into electricity .
• It is named after german physicist
Thmas Johann Seebeck.
• In 1822 he discoverecd that a
compass needle would be deflected
by a closed loop formed by two
metals joined in two places with a
temperature difference between the
junctions .
• This was because the metals
responded differently to the
temperature difference creating the
current loop and a magnetic field.
The Peltier effect occurs when a temperature
difference is created between the junctions by
applying a voltage difference across the
terminals.
• Electric Current Producing Heating/Cooling
 Joule Thomson Effect
• Joule-Thomson effect, the change in
temperature that accompanies expansion of a
gas without production of work or transfer of
heat.
• At ordinary temperatures and pressures, all real
gases except hydrogen and helium cool upon
such expansion; this phenomenon often is
utilized in liquefying gases.
• The phenomenon was investigated in 1852 by the
British physicists James Prescott Joule and
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).
 Figure of merit
• A high electrical conductivity is necessary to
minimize joule heating and low thermal
conductivity helps to retain heat at the
junctions and maintain a large temperature
gradient.
• These three properties were later put
together and is called figure of merit.
 Thermoelectric Generators (TEG)
• A thermo electric power generator is a solid
state device that provide direct energy
conversion from thermal energy (heat energy)
into electrical energy based on the principles
of seebeck effect.
• The magnitude of voltage generated is
proportional to temperature difference and
depended on type of the conducting material
• Seebeck coefficient defined as the open circuit
voltage produced between two points on a
conductor when a uniform temperature
difference of 1k applied between those points.
 MHD (Magneto Hydro Dynamic)
Generators
• Magnetohydrodynamic power
generation provides a way of
generating electricity directly from a
fast moving stream of ionised gases
without the need for any moving
mechanical parts - no turbines and
no rotary generators.
 Working Principle
• The MHD generator can be considered to be a fluid dynamo.
• This is similar to a mechanical dynamo in which the motion of
a metal conductor through a magnetic field creates a current
in the conductor except that in the MHD generator the metal
conductor is replaced by a conducting gas plasma.
 MHD Generators-Working Principle

• When a conductor moves through a magnetic

field it creates an electrical field perpendicular
to the magnetic field and the direction of
movement of the conductor.
• This is the principle, discovered by Michael
Faraday, behind the conventional rotary
electricity generator.
• Dutch physicist Antoon Lorentz provided the
mathematical theory to quantify its effects.
 MHD Generators-Working Principle

• The flow (motion) of the conducting plasma through a

magnetic field causes a voltage to be generated (and an
associated current to flow) across the plasma ,
perpendicular to both the plasma flow and the magnetic
field according to Fleming's Right Hand Rule
• Lorentz Law describing the effects of a charged particle
moving in a constant magnetic field can be stated as
F = QvB
where
• F is the force acting on the charged particle
• Q is charge of particle
• v is velocity of particle
• B is magnetic field
 HALL EFFECT
• If an electric current flows through a
conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic
field exerts a transverse force on the moving
charge carriers which tends to push them to
one side of the conductor.
• The presence of this measurable transverse
voltage is called the Hall effect after E. H. Hall
who discovered it in 1879.
 Faraday’s Law
• Faraday's 1st Law of Electrolysis - The mass of a
substance altered at an electrode during electrolysis is
directly proportional to the quantity of electricity
transferred at that electrode. Quantity of electricity
refers to the quantity of electrical charge, typically
measured in coulomb.
• Faraday's 2nd Law of Electrolysis - For a given quantity
of D.C electricity (electric charge), the mass of an
elemental material altered at an electrode is directly
proportional to the element's equivalent weight.
OPEN CYCLE MHD SYSTEM
CLOSED CYCLE MHD SYSTEM
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN CYCLE
AND CLOSED CYCLE SYSTEM

Open Cycle System Closed Cycle System

• Working fluid after generating • Working fluid is recycled to the
electrical energy is discharged heat sources and thus is used
to the atmosphere through a again.
stack .
• Operation of MHD generator is • Helium or argon(with cesium
done directly on combustion seeding) is used as the working
products . fluid.
• Temperature requirement : • Temperature requirement : about
2300˚C to 2700˚C. 530˚C.
• More developed. • Less developed.
 Advantages :

1. The conversion efficiency of an MHD system can be around

50 per cent as compared to less than 40 per cent for the
most efficient steam plants. Still higher thermal efficiencies
(60-65%) are expected in future, with the improvements in
experience and technology.
2. Large amount of power is generated.
3. It has no moving parts, more reliable.
4. The closed cycle system produces power free of pollution.
5. It has ability to reach the full power level as soon as started.
6. The size of the plant (m2/kW) is considerably smaller than
conventional fossil fuel plants.
7. Although the costs can not be predicted very accurately, yet
it has been reported that capital costs of MHD plants will be
competitive with those of conventional steam plants.
Advantages :
8. It has been estimated that the overall operational, costs in an MHD
plant would be about 20% less than in conventional steam plants.
9. Direct conversion of heat into electricity permits to eliminate the
gas turbine (compared with a gas turbine power plant) or both the
boiler and the turbine (compared with a steam power plant). This
elimination reduces losses of energy.
10. These systems permit better fuel utilization. The reduced fuel
consumption would offer additional economic and special benefits
11. It is possible to utilize MHD for peak power generations and
emergency service (upto 100 hours per year).
12. It has been estimated the MHD equipment for such duties is
simpler, has the capability of generating in large units and has the
ability to make rapid start to full load.
 Disadvantages of MHD system
1. Suffers from reverse flow (short circuits) of
electrons through the conducting fluids around the
ends of the magnetic field.
2. Needs very large magnets and this is a major
expense.
3. High friction and heat transfer losses.
4. High operating temperature.
5. Coal used as fuel poses problem of molten ash
which may short circuit the electrodes. Hence, oil
or natural gas are much better fuels for MHDs.
Restriction on use of fuel makes the operation
more expensive.
6. Numerous technological advancement requires
prior to its commercialization.
 APPLICATIONS

• Power generation in space craft.

• Hypersonic wind tunnel experiments.

• Defense application.
FUEL CELL
• A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a
chemical reaction.
• Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one
negative, called, respectively, the anode and cathode.
• The reactions that produce electricity take place at the
electrodes.
• Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries
electrically charged particles from one electrode to the
other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the
electrodes.
• Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require
oxygen. One great appeal of fuel cells is that they generate
electricity with very little pollution–much of the hydrogen
and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately
combine to form a harmless byproduct, namely water.
• One detail of terminology: a single fuel cell generates a
tiny amount of direct current (DC) electricity. In practice,
many fuel cells are usually assembled into a stack. Cell or
stack, the principles are the same.
Different types of fuel cells
 Alkali fuel cells
• Alkali fuel cells operate on compressed hydrogen and
oxygen.
• They generally use a solution of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) in water as their electrolyte.
• Efficiency is about 70 %, and operating temperature is
150 to 200 degrees C, (about 300 to 400 degrees F).
• Cell output ranges from 300 watts (W) to 5 kilowatts
(kW).
• Alkali cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to provide
both electricity and drinking water.
• They require pure hydrogen fuel, however, and their
platinum electrode catalysts are expensive.
• And like any container filled with liquid, they can leak.
 Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
• Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use high-temperature
compounds of salt (like sodium or magnesium) carbonates
(CO3) as the electrolyte.
• Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 %, and operating temperature
is about 650 degrees C (1,200 degrees F).
• Units with output up to 2 megawatts (MW) have been
constructed, and designs exist for units up to 100 MW.
• The high temperature limits damage from carbon monoxide
"poisoning" of the cell and waste heat can be recycled to
make additional electricity. Their nickel electrode-catalysts are
inexpensive compared to the platinum used in other cells.
• But the high temperature also limits the materials and safe
uses of MCFCs–they would probably be too hot for home use.
Also, carbonate ions from the electrolyte areused up in the
reactions, making it necessary to inject carbon dioxide to
compensate.
 Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC)
• Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid
as the electrolyte.
• Efficiency ranges from 40 to 80 %, and operating
temperature is between 150 to 200 degrees C (about
300 to 400 degrees F).
• Existing phosphoric acid cells have outputs up to 200
kW, and 11 MW units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate
a carbon monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent,
which broadens the choice of fuels they can use. If
gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed.
• Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal
parts must be able to withstand the corrosive acid.
 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)
fuel cells
• Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells work
with a polymer electrolyte in the form of a thin,
permeable sheet.
• Efficiency is about 40 to 50 percent, and operating
temperature is about 80 degrees C (about 175 degrees
F).
• Cell outputs generally range from 50 to 250 kW.
• The solid, flexible electrolyte will not leak or crack, and
these cells operate at a low enough temperature to
make them suitable for homes and cars.
• But their fuels must be purified, and a platinum
catalyst is used on both sides of the membrane, raising
costs.
 Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
• Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic
compound of metal (like calcium or zirconium) oxides
(chemically, O2) as electrolyte. Efficiency is about 60
percent, and operating temperatures are about 1,000
degrees C (about 1,800 degrees F).
• Cells output is up to 100 kW. At such high temperatures
a reformer is not required to extract hydrogen from the
fuel, and waste heat can be recycled to make
additional electricity. However, the high temperature
limits applications of SOFC units and they tend to be
rather large. While solid electrolytes cannot leak, they
can crack.