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B IOLOGY FORM 4
KLB COMPLETE NOTES.
BEST TEACHING & STUDENT NOTES
BY Mwalimu Viny Namaye.

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 Notes prepared by Mwalimu Viny Namaye.

GENETICS.
 Living organisms express a lot of variations (differences) among them.
 Variation refers to the differences between individuals.
 The study of variations and how they are inherited from parents to offsprings is called
Genetics.
 Genetics, therefore explain why organisms differ from one another and at the same time
show similarities within the same species.
 When organisms reproduce the offspring resemble parents. The transmission of
characteristics from the parents to the offsprings is called heredity. However, offsprings
show slight differences from their parents e.g. in human beings members of same family
express some differences in terms of physical appearance, like shape of nose, skin colour
and height. This is as a result of hereditary factors they each acquire from their parents.
 The environment also affects the characteristics that are expressed in the organisms.

THE CONCEPT OF GENETICS.

ↄ Variation is the differences in living organisms.
ↄ In human being variations are shown in:
 Tongue rolling.
 Fingerprints.
 Height.
 Type of earlobes.
 Sex.
 Blood group.
 Skin colour.
 Weight.

ↄ In plants, variations are observed in:

» Length of leaves.
» Length of internodes.
» Size of fruits etc.
ↄ Categories of variations.
Discontinuous variation.
Continuous variation

Discontinuous variation
ↄ In discontinuous variation, there are definite distinct groups of individuals with no
intermediate form for example, individual are either tongue rollers or non-rollers.

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ↄ Other examples of discontinuous variation in human being include sex; where an
individual is either male or female, ABO blood group system where an individual can
only belong to one of the blood groups A, B, AB or O, ear lobe where an individual has
an attached or free ear lobe and presence of long hair in the nose and on the ear pinna.
ↄ Discontinuous variation is also observed in plants foe example, a paw paw plant is either
male or female.
ↄ Characteristic which are discontinuous are either controlled by one or two major genes.
ↄ Physical expression of these genes is not influenced significantly by environmental
conditions.

Continuous variation.
- This type of variation shows a wide range of differences for the same characteristic from
one extreme to the other.
- For example, within a group of people, height ranges from shortest to tallest with several
intermediaries. On graph it produces a normal distribution curve.
- Other examples of continuous variations in human being include:
 Skin colour.(pigmentation)
 Body weight.
 Span of the hand etc.

- In plants continuous variations are expressed in:

 Length of internodes.
 Number of branches.
 Leaves or fruits on trees.
 Size of the fruits at maturity.

- Characteristics that show continuous variations are controlled by many genes.

- The physical expression of these genes is significantly influenced by environmental
conditions e.g. a plant having the genetic factors fro tallness may fail to grow tall because
of unsuitable soil and climate.

Causes of variations.
- In physical appearance of organisms variation is caused by the following factors:
 Genetic
 Environmental factors
 Combination of genetics and environmental factors.
 Reproduction.

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- Reproduction brings about variation in the following different ways.
 Gamete formation.
o During gamete formation there are two processes that contribute to variation.
These are:
-Crossing over-in prophase I of meiosis homologous chromosomes pair to form
bivalents whose chromatids may form intimate contact points called chiasmata.
At chiasmata breakage may occur and exchange of chromatids segments
between non-sister chromatids may take place. This is called crossing over.
Crossing over results to new gene combinations causing variation.
-Independent assortment-arrangement of homologous chromosomes at the
equator of the spindle during metaphase of the first meiotic division is random.
This is called independent assortment. These homologous chromosomes
segregate (separate) into different daughter cells which are the gametes and
contains different genetic combinations that bring about variation.

 Fertilisation.
- Fertilisation allows parental genes to combine and this cause variation in members of the
same family.

 Mutations.
- Mutation is the spontaneous change in genetic make-up of an organism. The changes may
be inherited by offspring and hence bringing variation.
- Mutation may be triggered by factors called mutagens.

THE CHROMOSOME

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ↄ This is a thread-like structure found in the nuclei of cells.
ↄ They contain genetic materials i.e. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
ↄ Each chromosome has two parallel strands called chromatids.
ↄ Each pair of chromatids is connected at one point by a structure called a centromere as
shown below.
ↄ In somatic cell (body cells) chromosomes occur in pairs where each pair has a
characteristic length.
ↄ Members of each pair are called homologous chromosomes. This means they are alike
in appearance even if they may be carrying different versions of same gene.
ↄ In sexual reproduction, each parent contributes one of the chromosomes of a homologous
pair.
ↄ A long length of chromosomes is a series of genes which specifically occupy certain
position on the chromosome.
ↄ Genes determine the characteristic of the cell and its progeny.
ↄ All cells (sperms and ova) have chromosomes. Each species has a constant number i.e. in
human beings somatic cells have 46 chromosomes while each gamete contains 23
chromosomes.
ↄ After fertilisation which involves gametes, the diploid number of chromosomes is
restored to 46 in the zygote.
ↄ Chromosomes are located in the nucleus but only become visible during cell division.
ↄ Chromosomes show characteristic behaviour during cell division.
ↄ Cell division ensures transmission of the genetic materials from parents to offsprings.

Genes and DNA.

 Chromosomes contain hereditary material or factors that are transmitted from parents to
offsprings. These factors are known as genes.
 Genes occupy definite positions on the chromosomes known as gene loci. (Singular loci).
 In 1944, Oswald Avery established that agene was in form of a nucleic acid molecule
called Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
 Later, Biologists Francis Crick and James Watson found that DNA is a complex molecule
composed of three different components. These are a five carbon sugar, a phosphate
molecule and nitrogenous bases of which there are four types namely; Adenine(A),
Guanine (G),Thymine (T) and cytosine (C).
 Combination of the three components formed a nucleotide.
 The two biologists suggested that DNA consists of several nucleotides joined together to
form long chains which they called DNA strands.
 Two parallel DNA strands twist on one another to form a double helix.

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 They also observed that the quantities of Adenine and Thymine were always equal while
those of Cytosine and Guanine were also equal. Therefore, this suggested that Adenine
always combines with Thymine when forming the double helix structure of DNA.
 Therefore, DNA is like a twisted ladder with the nitrogen bases forming the steps as
shown below.
 In general, a gene is a section of the DNA on the chromosome that is made of chains of
bases along the DNA strand.

Double helix structure of the DNA molecule.

The untwisted DNA strands

The role of DNA

DNA is important because of the following;
ↄ It stores genetic information in a coded form as nucleotide bases.
ↄ It enables the transfer of genetic information unchanged to daughter cells through
replication.
ↄ It also translates the genetic information into the characteristic of an organism through
protein synthesis.

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DNA Replication
 Hereditary materials from parents are passed to the next generation (offsprings) due to
the ability of the DNA to replicate itself. This replication of the DNA clearly explains
how inherited characteristics are passed on.
 DNA double helix has two long separate strands that are joined together by the base
pairs.
 When a DNA molecule is about to replicate (double itself), the double helix unwinds and
the two strands unzip themselves. This is caused by the presence of the weak hydrogen
bonds that link the bases of the two strands.
 Unzipping takes place due to breaking of hydrogen bonds thus setting each strand free
from the other.
 After unzipping, the information on the DNA strands that is in form of a base sequence is
copied out onto a new DNA structure using the parent DNA as the template. Hence, the
parent DNA molecule is said to have replicated itself.
 Replication makes it possible to pass on the DNA molecule together with its exact
genetic information to daughter cells during cell division in the organism.
 As the cell prepares for cell division during interphase, genetic materials (DNA)
replicates i.e. it doubles itself so that enough DNA is made available for each of the
daughter cells.

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The role of DNA in Protein Synthesis.
 DNA molecule is responsible for protein synthesis in the cells. Structural protein
molecules determine the structure of the cell and therefore the organism while functional
protein molecule such as enzymes and hormones control the functioning of the cell.
 Sequence of the bases along the DNA strands act as a code that determines the sequence
of amino acids to be linked to form a specific protein.
 Every set of three bases along DNA strand is responsible for bringing into position a
particular amino acid of a polypeptide chain.
 The set of a base triplet is called a codon and it codes for a particular amino acid of
protein molecule.
 Examples of such DNA codons are AAA coding for amino acid lysine, TTT for
phenylalanine, CAA for glutamine, CTT for valine and CTA for leucine etc.
 Synthesis of protein takes place on ribosomes that are found in the cytoplasm. DNA
molecules are located in cell nucleus hence there must be a means of communicating the
DNA information from the nucleus to the ribosomes where proteins synthesis takes place.
 In the cell there is a special molecule that mediates (communicates) between the DNA in
the nucleus and the cytoplasm. This molecule is a nucleic acid called Ribonucleic Acid
(RNA). The role of RNA is to carry genetic information from the DNA to the site of
protein synthesis in the cytoplasm hence RNA is referred to as messenger RNA (m-
RNA) and it is formed from the DNA strand.
 During formation of m-RNA, a section of the DNA strand acts as a template where the
double helix of the DNA strand unzips and free nucleotides align themselves opposite the
template.
 The base sequence of the template is copied onto a new strand that then becomes an RNA
strand. In the RNA, Thymine (T) is replaced by the base Uracil (U).
 When the transfer of DNA base sequence onto the m-RNA is complete the messenger
RNA leaves the nucleus with full instruction from the DNA about the kind of protein to
be synthesised by the cell.
 This instruction is inform of the base triplets or codons that are then practically used to
assemble the amino acids on the protein polypeptide chains.
 Information on m-RNA is translated by the ribosomes and is used to assemble amino
acids into specific protein molecules. This is usually done by another RNA molecule
known as Transfer RNA (t-RNA.)
 The t-RNA molecule transports amino acids from their pool in the cytoplasm to the
protein assembly point depending on the base sequence on the m-RNA strand.
 The amino acids are then condensed to form a long polypeptide chain that is the protein
which determines the inherited characteristics in organisms.

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 Therefore, the genetic information stored in the DNA is translated into characteristics of
an organism through the process of protein synthesis.

Diagrammatic representation of m-RNA

synthesis

Transfer RNA (t-RNA)

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THE FIST LAW OF HEREDITY
 Mendel’s Experiment.
ↄ Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics because of his pioneering work on
inheritance.
ↄ He carried out various breeding experiments and observed the variations in different
characteristics in garden pea. These characteristics include:
 The height of the stem-tall or dwarf.
 Texture of the seeds-smooth or wrinkled.
 Colour of flower-purple or white.
 Texture of pods-smooth or wrinkled.
 Colour of pods-green or yellow.
 Position of flower- axial or terminal.
 Colour of cotyledon-yellow or green.

ↄ In an experiment, Mendel selected a group of dwarf plants and self-pollinated them by

dusting mature pollen grains onto stigmas of the same plant. He then collected the
resulting seeds and planted them.
ↄ Mendel noticed that these seeds germinated and grew into dwarf plants only. He repeated
the experiment for several generations and obtained the same results.
ↄ This showed that dwarf garden pea plants could produce only their own type i.e. they
were pure breed.

ↄ Mendel also selected tall plants and self –pollinated them and then planted the resulting
seeds and observed that they grew into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants.
ↄ He took seeds from tall offsprings only and repeated the experiment for many generations
until he obtained only tall plants. Through this Mendel established a pure breed of tall
plants.
ↄ He then cross-pollinated purebred tall garden peas plants with dwarf variety. He planted
the resulting seeds and observed that the offspring were all tall plants. This offsprings are

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termed as the first filial generation (F1 generation). Filial generation are the offsprings
produced from a cross between a parental generation.

ↄ Mendel crossed two of the tall offspring from the Filial (F1 generation) and planted
resulting seeds. He observed that the second filial generation (F2 generation) consisted of
a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. The F2 generation comprised of offspring resulting
from a cross between members of F1 generation.
ↄ He counted these plants and noted that the ration of the tall to dwarf plants was
approximately 3:1.
ↄ Mendel observed that the ratio was always obtained when a cross was made between non
purebreds of the F1 generation tall plants.

ↄ Therefore from Mendel’s work the first law of inheritance is obtained known as the law
of segregation.
ↄ He concludes that the characteristics of an organism are determined by hereditary factors
which occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single

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gamete. This is Mendel’s first law, the law of segregation. (Mendel referred to genes as
factors).
ↄ He also postulates that these factors are located on chromosomes and they are transmitted
from parents to offsprings through gametes.

Mendel’s success can be attributed to the following.

ↄ He used favourable materials i.e. pea plant that is normally self fertilised making it easy
for him to used cross pollination.
ↄ The pea plant he used had several observable contrasting characteristics (traits)
ↄ His study focused on particular traits while those before him had been attempting to
determine wholesome heredity of each organism.
ↄ He kept accurate data on all his experiments and from the analysis of his data he was able
to formulate definite hypotheses.

Monohybrid Inheritance.
ↄ Form Mendel’s experiment, the inheritance of one characteristic such as height in garden
pea plant is controlled by a single pair of hereditary factors contributed by both parents.
This type of inheritance is known as monohybrid inheritance.
ↄ It involves transmission of just one pair of contrasting characteristics (traits) such as
tallness and dwarfness for height, or smooth and wrinkled for texture of the seed coat.
ↄ A single pair of hereditary factors known as genes controls such traits.
ↄ In diploid organisms, genes occur in pairs on chromosomes and such pairs are called
allelic pairs.
ↄ An allele is an alternative form of the same gene that controls the development of a pair
of contrasting traits.
ↄ The genetic constitution of an organism is known as genotype while phenotype refers to
a set of observable characteristics of an organism which are an expression of an
individual genotype.
ↄ The genotype of an organism is represented using paired letter symbols, where the capital
letter represents dominant gene while the small letter represents the recessive gene.
ↄ In the illustration below t represents the gene for dwarfness while T represents the gene
for tallness.
ↄ The symbol for male is ♀while that for female is ♂.
ↄ During gamete formation (gametogenesis) in the dwarf plant, each gene in allelic pair
segregates into different gamete. When male and female gamete fuse during fertilisation,
the offspring produced contains same number of genes as in each parent.
ↄ Inheritance of dwarfness in pea plant can be illustrated diagrammatically by a genetic
cross as shown below.
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Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Dwarf dwarf
Parental genotype tt x tt

Gamete t t t t

F1 offspring tt tt tt tt
genotype.
All dwarf (phenotype)

ↄ Similarly the pair of genes in the purebred tall pea plants will segregate into different
gametes during gametogenesis. Hence when self-fertilised, the resulting seeds will have
half the number of genes from each parent as shown in the genetic cross below.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Tallness Tallness
Parental genotype TT x TT

Gamete T T T T

Fusion

F1 offspring TT TT TT TT
genotype.
phenotype All tall.

ↄ When the pure breed tall plant is crossed with dwarf plant, the resulting seeds when
planted grow into tall plants only.
ↄ These offsprings represent first filial generation also called F1 generation. The dwarf
characteristic is not represented in the offsprings.

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Parental phenotype ♀ ♂
Tall plant Dwarf plant.
Parental genotype TT x tt

Gamete T T t t

Fusion

F1 offspring genotype Tt Tt Tt Tt

phenotype-all tall.

o In the cross shown above the male plant is tall and the female plant is dwarf. If the cross
is reversed so that the female is tall and the male dwarf, this is referred to as reciprocal
cross. F1 results will be the same for either of the crosses.

o However, when F1 offsprings are self pollinated, they produce a mixture of tall and dwarf
plants. These offsprings are second filial generation also called F2 generation.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Tall plant Tall plant.
Parental genotype Tt x Tt

Gamete T t
T t
Fusion

F1 offspring genotype TT Tt Tt tt

3 phenotic tall 1 phenotypic dwarf.

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Another alternative method of making genetic crosses is by using a Punnet square as
shown below.
♀ T t
♂
T TT Tt
t Tt tt Filial generation

Complete Dominance.

ↄ The ration 3 tall:1 dwarf obtained in the F2 generation above is characteristic of

monohybrid inheritance where the dominant gene completely suppresses the expression
of the other gene in heterozygous condition. This is called complete dominance.
ↄ When the allelic genes are identical such as TT and tt, it is referred to as [Link]
individual with such condition is referred to as a homozygote .
ↄ In case the allelic genes are not identical such as Tt, the condition is referred to as
heterozygous. And individual with such condition is referred to as a heterozygote.
ↄ Individual with genotype Tt are phenotypically tall because gene T is dominant over the
gene t
ↄ A dominant gene is one that expresses itself in both homozygous (TT) and heterozygous
(Tt) state.
ↄ Therefore, genotype condition (TT) is referred to as homozygous dominant while (tt) is
homozygous recessive.

Ratios and probability.

ↄ In monohybrid inheritance the ratios 3:1 can be presented as a probability.
ↄ When large number of heterozygous tall pea plants were self pollinated, the phenotype of
the offspring were in the ration 3tall :1 dwarf.
ↄ This can be expressed in a different way where the total ratio is 3+1 =4. To find the total
plants that are tall we calculate as
3
/4 or 75% of the offsprings are tall while 1/4 or 25% are dwarf.

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 Notes prepared by Mwalimu Viny Namaye.
Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Tall plant Tall plant.
Parental genotype Tt x Tt

Gamete T t
T t
Fusion

F1 offspring genotype TT Tt Tt tt

3 tall 1
/4 /4 dwarf.

Incomplete Dominance.
 When it comes to complete dominance, one allele is always dominant over the other ,for
example, in the garden pea, the tall plants with genotype TT (homozygous) could not be
distinguished from an individual with genotype (Tt) (heterozygous) despite the fact that
their genotype are different but the phenotype is identical.
 However, in some plants such ad mirabilis jalapa (4 O’clock plant) a cross between red
and white flowers plant results in F1 generation with all the offspring having pink flowers
hence indicating blending of the colours.
 Self-pollinating the F1 individuals gives a phenotype ratio of 1 red:2 pink : 1 white. This
shows that there is no allele that completely dominates the other. This is referred to as
incomplete dominance.
 In genetic crossing that involves incomplete dominance; two different capital letters are
used to represent the two genes. For example, in the 4 O’clock plant let R represent gene
for red flower colour while W represents the gene for white flower colour.
Parental phenotype ♂ ♀

Red flowered plant white flowered plant

Parental genotype RR WW

Gametes R R W W

F1 generation genotype RW RW RW RW
Phenotype: All pink

There is no complete dominance hence all the colours are expressed as pink.
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 When the F1 generation is selfed (crossed) the results will be as follows.
Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Pink flowered plant Pink flowered plant
Parental genotype RW RW

Gametes R W R W

F1 generation genotype RR RW RW WW

Phenotype: 1 red 2 pink 1 white

Inheritance of ABO Blood group.

ↄ In man, the ABO blood group system is an inheritable characteristic that is transmitted
from parents to offsprings.
ↄ Unlike other genetic traits determined by a pair of alleles, the ABO blood group has three
genes involved hence this is a case of multiple alleles.
ↄ The alleles are responsible for the presence of antigens Types on the red blood cells.
ↄ Gene A is responsible for antigen A, gene B is responsible for presence of antigen B and
gene O is responsible for no antigen on the red blood cells.
ↄ Gene A and B have equal degree of dominance, that is, they are co-dominant and will
both express themselves (both antigen A and B will present together on the surface of red
blood cell) when present together as in both AB blood group.
ↄ Gene O is recessive and will only express itself in the homozygous condition.

Human blood groups and their genotypes.

Blood group genotype Antigens on
(phenotype) red blood cells
A AA,AO A
B BB,BO B
AB AB A and B
O OO O

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ↄ The alleles are transmitted from parents to offsprings through Mendel’s usual explanation
hence a marriage between a man of blood group A and a woman of blood group B can
produce children of all four blood groups as shown if both the parents are heterozygous.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Parental genotype AO x BO

Gamete A O B O

fusion

F1 generation AB AO BO OO
Genotype.
Phenotypes
Blood groups. AB A B O

ↄ A man who is homozygous for blood group A married a woman who is homozygous for
blood group B produce children who only have AB.
Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Parental genotype AA x BB

Gamete A A B B

fusion

F1 generation AB AB AB AB
Genotype.
Phenotypes
Blood groups. All blood groups AB

ↄ However a marriage between a man of blood group A and a woman of the same blood
group cannot produce children of blood group B. similarly, a man of blood group B and a
woman of the same group cannot produce children of blood group A. parents with blood
group O cannot produce children with blood group A or B.
ↄ The knowledge of blood group has been used to solve parentage dispute in courts and it is
also used in blood transfusion.
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Inheritance of the Rhesus Factor.
 In man, possession of the Rhesus antigen on red blood cells make one Rh+ (Rhesus
positive) while absence of Rhesus antigen makes one Rh- (Rhesus negative).
 In human beings possession of Rhesus antigen type D is controlled by the presence of the
Rhesus Rh+ while absence of the Rhesus antigen type D is due to absence of the Rhesus
gene denoted as Rh-.
 Individual with Rhesus positive can either be homozygous or heterozygous but those with
rhesus negative lacks all the genes.
 In a marriage where both individuals are homozygous for the rhesus gene (Rh+ Rh+) all
the children will be Rh+.
 In a marriage where both individual are heterozygous for the Rhesus gene (Rh- Rh-), then
there is a possibility that some of the children will be Rh- as show below.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Parental genotype Rh+ Rh- x Rh+ Rh-

Rh+ Rh- Rh+ Rh-

Gamete
Fusion

F1 generation genotype Rh+ Rh+ Rh+ Rh- Rh+ Rh- Rh- Rh-
Phenotype blood group
Rhesus positive rhesus negative

 If both the parents are rhesus negative (Rh-) then all the children from this marriage will
be rhesus negative as shown below.
Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Parental genotype Rh+ Rh- x Rh+ Rh-

Rh- Rh- Rh- Rh-

Gamete
Fusion

F1 generation genotype Rh- Rh- Rh- Rh- Rh- Rh- Rh- Rh-
Phenotype blood group
Rhesus negative

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 Notes prepared by Mwalimu Viny Namaye.
Determining Unknown genotype.
o In garden pea, the gene determining red flower is dominant over that which determines
white flower. A plant with red flower can either be homozygous or heterozygous for that
characteristic.
o To get the correct genotype, it is crossed wit homozygous recessive plant.
o If offsprings have red flower, then this shows that the red flowered plant is homozygous,
that is, plant is from a pure line as below.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Red flowered plant white flowered plant
Parental genotype RR x rr
Gametes.
R R r r

Fusion

F1 generation genotype. Rr Rr Rr Rr

Phenotypes all red flowered plants.

o However, in case their offsprings produce a mixture of white and red flowers in equal
proportions giving out ratio 1:1, this indicates that the red flowered plant was
heterozygous as shown below.
Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Red flowered plant White flowered plant
Parental genotype Rr x rr
Gametes.
R r r r

Fusion

F1 generation genotype. Rr Rr rr rr

Phenotypes 2 red 2 white

Test cross.
ↄ It is a cross between an individual showing a dominant trait with another individual
showing a recessive trait.
ↄ It is used to determine unknown genotypes which are also determined using a backcross.
ↄ A back cross is a cross between an offspring and with one of its parents.

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SEX DETERMINATION
ↄ Sex determination is controlled by a specific pair of chromosomes. In human being there
are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes) in every body cell.
ↄ Gene which determine whether a child will be a male or female are located on the
specific pair of chromosomes called sex chromosomes that are two types, X and Y
chromosomes. The remaining 22 pair of chromosomes are called autosomes and they are
usually responsible for other characteristics or traits in human beings.
ↄ A male human being has XY chromosome hence is said to be heterogametic (produce
two kinds of gamete, one carrying X chromosome and the other carrying Y
chromosome).
ↄ A female carries XX and is referred to as homogametic (produce only one kind of
gametes all carrying X chromosome).
ↄ After meiosis in a male, the spermatozoa can either contain X or Y chromosomes while
the female ova contain only X.
ↄ Sex of a child is a matter of chance and depends only on whether a spermatozoon that
fertilizes the ovum carries X or Y chromosome.
ↄ During fertilization, there are four possible genotype combinations where two of the four
combinations (XX) results in a girl while the other two combinations (XY) result in a
boy. Hence, there is 50% chance that fertilisation can result to either XX (girl) or XY
(boy).
ↄ This can be expressed diagrammatically below.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Parental genotype XY x XX

Gametes X Y X X

fussion

Offspring
genotype XX XX XY XY
Phenotype girls boys
Phenotypic ratio 2 girls : 2 boys
1 girl: 1 boy.
ↄ Therefore, in terms of probability, the chance of a boy or a girl is produced in a family is
half (1/2). This mans there are equal chances that a boy or a girl is born in a family.
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ↄ In some animals ,males are homogametic unlike in human beings for instance, in birds
the male is XX and the female is XY. Some insects the female is XX while the male is
XO as the Y chromosome is missing. In fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, sex
determination is exactly as in human beings, that is, males are XY and females are XX.

Linkage.
 In living organisms there is large number of characteristics or traits controlled by man
different genes. Not all genes are located on their own chromosomes due to the limited
number of chromosomes hence a chromosome only accommodates many genes carrying
particular characteristics.
 Genes that are located on the same chromosome are called linked genes. Linked gene are
not segregated (separated) during meiosis and are inherited together hence transmitted
into the same gamete.

Transmission of linked genes.

Sex-linked Genes.
 These are all genes that are located on the sex chromosomes. Therefore they are
transmitted together with those genes that determine sex. This implies that the genes only
contain or carry characteristics or traits associated with male organisms or female
organism.

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 An example is in Drosophila melanogaster, the gene that determines eye colour is
located on X chromosome and it is absent on Y chromosome. This is because most sex-
linked genes are carried on the X chromosome while Y chromosome carries very few
genes.
 In human beings, few genes are located on the Y chromosome which controls
characteristics that are only for males such as premature baldness and tuft of hair on the
ear pinna and in the nose.
 The characteristics that are controlled by genes located on the X chromosome include
colour blindness and haemophilia. These traits are usually expressed in either males or
females.

Colour Blindness.
- Red –green colour blindness is the inability to distinguish between red and green colours
by some individuals.
- Gene for colour blindness is linked to the X chromosome and the gene that determines
normal colour vision is dominant over that for colour blindness.
- A marriage between a colour-blind man and a woman who is homozygous for normal
colour vision results in their daughters being carriers. (A gene for certain trait is carried
but does not express itself in phenotype of the individual.) Since the daughters have
normal vision but have gene for colour blindness in them they are described as carriers
because they are heterozygous and colour blindness is suppressed by the dominant gene
for normal colour vision.
- In the same family, the sons of those parents are normal as illustrated below.
- Let N represent the gene for normal colour vision while n represent the gene for colour
blindness.
- Since the gene is linked to X chromosome it is represented as XN and Xn.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Colour blindness Normal colour vision
male female
Parental genotype XnY XN XN

Gametes Xn Y XN XN

Fusion

F1 generation genotype XnXN XnXN XNY XNY

Phenotype Carrier daughters Normal sons

Inheritance of colour blindness in humans
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- In case a normal vision man marries a woman who is normal vision but a carrier the
offsprings will be as shown below.
Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Man with normal Woman with normal
Vision. Colour vision (carrier)
Parental genotype XNY x XN Xn

Gametes XN Y XN Xn

Fusion

F1 generation genotype XNXN XnXN XNY XnY

Phenotype daughter with normal carrier daughter son with normal vision colour blind son
Colour vision.

Inheritance of colour blindness in humans

 If a carrier daughter from the above parents marries a normal man, some of their sons
will suffer from colour blindness while daughters will be either carriers or homozygous
fro normal colour vision as shown above.
 From the above cross, it is clear that the gene for colour blindness is passed from the
mother to the sons. This is because the only chromosome the male offspring inherits is
from the mother.
 In males, if the X chromosome carries the gene for the trait then it will be expressed since
it is only located on X chromosome and not the Y chromosome and males have only one
X chromosome.

Haemophilia
ↄ This is a sex linked trait where blood of the victim takes an abnormally long time to clot.
In case of a cut, it results to prolonged bleeding hence the term bleeder’s disease.
ↄ Haemophilia is caused by a recessive gene on the X chromosome.
ↄ For example, if a normal man is married to a carrier woman for haemophilia, there is a
probability of ½ that if their child is a boy, he will be a haemophiliac and if a daughter,
she will be a carrier.
ↄ Let H represent the gene for normal blood clotting condition and let h represent the gene
for haemophilia. Both the genes are located on the X chromosome e.g. XH or Xh.

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Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Normal man normal woman (carrier)
Parental genotype XHY x XHXh

Gametes XH X
H Xh
Y

Fusion

F1 generation genotype XHXH XHXh XHY XhY

Phenotype normal carrier normal Haemophiliac

Daughter daughter man man

NOTE:
 Other than carrying the sex-linked genes such as those discussed above, the X
chromosome in females and Y chromosomes in males is responsible for
development of both primary and secondary sexual characteristics.

 At puberty, the secondary characteristics in females that are controlled by X

chromosome include:
 Enlargement of breasts.
 Widening of the hips.
 Growth of pubic hair.
 Onset of menstrual cycle.

 In males the secondary characteristics includes:

 Breaking of the voice.
 Growth of pubic hair and beards.
 Widening of shoulders.

Effects of Crossing Over on Linked genes.

o Linked genes are always carried together on the same chromosomes and expected to stay
together never to separate.
o However experimental studies suggest that it is unusual to find complete gene linkage
and it is usual to find offsprings showing new variations.

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o This is an indication that some of the linked genes separate and are transmitted on
different chromosomes. This happens during crossing over when sections of chromatids
of a bivalent intertwine and may break off.
o Some of these sections get rejoined to different chromatids hence separating genes that
were previously linked.
o The fusion of the few gametes that contain chromatids whose genes have changed places
in this manner produce new combinations (recombinants)
o Majority of the gametes that fuse contains chromatids whose gene linkage has not been
interfered with by crossing over.
o Crossing over results to some chromosomal mutations which in turn cause variations.

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MUTATIONS.
ↄ Mutation is defined as the spontaneous change in the individual’s genetic make-up. For
example, in human beings a haemophiliac may suddenly be produced from quite normal
parents. In Drosophila vestigial wings may crop up in offsprings of parents with genes for
normal long wings.
ↄ The resistance for DDT by insects such as mosquitoes) or resistance to penicillin by
bacteria are examples of mutation.
ↄ Mutations are normally due to recessive genes transmitted normally and are there occur
naturally but extremely rare.
ↄ Mutations can also be induced by certain factors present in the environment. The factors
in the environment are called mutagens.
ↄ Examples of mutagens include:
 Gamma rays.
 Ultraviolet light.
 A variety of chemicals like colchicine and mustard
gas.
ↄ Mutations that happen in gametes are important compared to the one in somatic cells
because they are inherited.

Types of mutations.
There are two types of mutations:
 Chromosomal mutations.
 Gene mutations.

 Chromosomal mutations.
ↄ This is a type of mutation that involves changes in the structure or number of
chromosomes.
ↄ At crossing over time in meiosis, chromatids of homologous chromosomes intertwine at
numerous points, the chiasmata.
ↄ Chromosomes break at the chiasmata hence creating an opportunity for various changes
on the chromatids which then leads to chromosome mutation.
ↄ There are five types of chromosome mutations. These are:
 Deletion.
 Duplication.
 Inversion.
 Translocation.
 Non-disjunction.
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 Deletion.
 It occurs when some sections of the chromatid breaks off and fails to reconnect to any of
the chromatids.
 This section of the chromatid is completely lost and the genetic materials they contain is
said to be deleted.
 Deletion can produce great effect on an individual as it involves loss of genes hence the
structure and the development of the individual can be greatly interfered with.

 Duplication.
 A section of the chromatid replicates and adds an extra length to itself and by doing so a
set of genes is repeated.
 Duplication can produce serious effects depending on the chromosome sections involved.
 For example, if the gene duplicated were responsible for certain traits, these traits may be
over-emphasized or over expressed in the organism.


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 Inversion.
 This is a type of chromosome mutation that occurs when a chromatid breaks at two
places and when rejoining, the middle piece rotates at 1800 and rejoins in an inverted
position.
 The effect is that the gene sequence is reverse along the chromatid and the consequences
depend on the group of genes affected.

 Translocation.
 It occurs when a section of one chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another
chromatid but of the non-homologous pair.
 Therefore, translocation involves movement of genes from one non-homologous
chromosome to another.

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 Non-disjunction.
 This is a type of chromosome abnormality that leads to addition or loss of one or more
whole chromosomes.
 In case it occurs during anaphase of the first meiotic division, two homologous
chromosomes fail to segregate (separate) and move into the same gamete cell.
 In case non-disjunction takes place at anaphase of the second meiotic division, sister
chromatids fail to segregate and this result in half of the gametes containing two of same
chromosome while the other gamete have none.
 Fusion of the first type of gamete with a normal gamete of opposite sex results in an
individual with three such chromosomes, that is , the normal homologous pair and an
extra chromosome.
 Non-disjunction causes Down’s syndrome that is a disorder in human beings where there
is an extra somatic chromosome number 21 in the cells.
 Individuals with Down’s syndrome have the following characteristics:
» Slit-eye appearance.
» Reduced resistance to infections.
» Always mentally deficient.
» Thick tongue.
» Cardiac malfunctions.
» Short body with stubby fingers.

 Non-disjunction also results to other disorders such as Klinefelter’s syndrome and

Turner’s syndrome.
 In Klinefelter’s syndrome, individuals have an extra sex chromosome hence they have a
total of 47 chromosomes in their cell e.g. XXY (male) and XXX (female).
Symptoms of Klinefelter’s syndrome in males
o Infertility due to lack of sperm production.
o Underdeveloped testes.
o Reduced facial hair.
o Taller than average with signs of obesity.

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 When the gamete with an extra sex chromosome fuses with a normal gamete from the
opposite sex, an individual with Klinefelter’s syndrome is produced showing the
characteristics above.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Male female
Parental genotype XY XX

Gametes XY X X

Fusion

Offspring genotype XXY XXY XO XO

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Male female
Parental genotype XY XX

Gametes X Y XX
X

Fusion

Offspring genotype XXX XO XXY XO

 Turner’s syndrome is where an individual lacks one sex chromosome hence there are
only 45 chromosomes (XO or YO) in the cells instead of the normal 46 chromosomes.
Zygotes with constitution YO never develop due to absence of many important genes.
 Individuals with turners syndrome are females who show underdeveloped female
characteristics such as:
 Infertility due to lack of ovaries and small uterus.
 No breast development.
 They are short in stature.

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Polyploidy.
ↄ During meiosis, chromosomes pairs may undergo non-disjunction simultaneously
resulting in half the gametes having two of each type of chromosome. Therefore they are
diploid and the other half has none.
ↄ If the resulting diploid gamete fuses with a normal haploid gamete, the zygote formed is
triploid.
ↄ If two diploid gametes fuse, a tetraploid individual results. This is referred to as
polyploidy.

 Gene mutation.
 This is a type of mutation that involves a change in the structure of a gene. It is also
referred to as point mutations.
 Gene mutation arises due to a change in the chemical nature of the gene. The change may
involve some alterations in the DNA molecule for example; the sequence of nucleotides
in a certain section of DNA molecule corresponding to a particular gene may change.
 Such a change will results in an alteration of the amino acid sequence required in the
synthesis of a protein hence the protein formed will be different from the intended one.
The abnormal protein molecule formed will not function properly and this will greatly
affect both the structure and development of the organism.
 There are four main types of gene mutations as follow:
 Insertion.
 Substitution.
 Inversion.
 Deletion.

 Insertion.
- This is the addition of an extra base onto an existing DNA strand.
- For example, if the base is Guanine (G) is inserted between the first two Adenines (A) at
the start of the DNA chain as shown. The resulting m-RNA base triplet will be altered.

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 Deletion.
- Deletion is the removal of a gene section or portion.
- If he base Thymine (T) is deleted from its position at the indicated section of the DNA
strand as shown below. The base sequence becomes altered at this point.

 Substitution.
- This is the replacement of a portion or section of the gene with anew portion.
- If adenine (A) is substituted by Guanine (G) on a DNA strand, the base sequence is
altered at this particular point. Substitution leads to formation of unintended protein
molecules.

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 Inversion.
- It occurs when a section or portion of DNA strand breaks at two points, the middle piece
detaches and rotates 1800 and then rejoins with the base sequences inverted. The portion
AC is inverted.
- This results in alteration of the base sequence at this point.

Using Short messaging Service (SMS) as analogies of gene mutations.

Complete the table below using the questions.
Intended message Actual message Change that cause Type of gene
distortion mutation
Buy me a skirt Buy be a skirt.
Mary went shopping. Mary went hopping.
This is my team. This is my mate.
Auntie is staying. Auntie is straying.
a.) For each of these messages in the table above identify the type of gene mutation
illustrated.
b.) In the messages above show the changes (alteration) that causes the distortion in the
intended message.
c.) Name examples of chromosomal mutations that lead to:
i. Change in chromosome structure.
ii. Change in chromosome number
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Disorders due to Gene mutations.
 In human beings, the following disorders are caused by gene mutation. They are:
 Albinism.
 Sickle-cell anaemia.
 Haemophilia.
 Colour blindness.
 Chondrodystrophic dwarfism.

 Albinism.
ↄ This is a condition in which the synthesis of the skin pigment called melanin fails.
ↄ It is characterised by the following:
 A light skin.
 White hair.
 Pink eyes.
ↄ An individual with this condition is described as an albino.
ↄ The genotype for an albino is homozygous recessive aa while a carrier for the
characteristic is heterozygous with the genotype Aa and has a normal skin pigmentation.
ↄ In a family an albino can be born in case both parents are carriers of the recessive gene as
shown below.
Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Normal skin colour Normal skin colour
Parental genotype Aa x Aa

Gametes A a A a

Fusion

Offspring genotype AA Aa Aa aa
Offspring phenotype Normal skin colour Albino

ↄ Therefore, the probability that any child born to carrier parents will be an albino is 1/4.
ↄ The probability that any of their children is a carrier is 1/2.
ↄ The skin of an albino is highly susceptible to sun burn and the eyes are sensitive to bright
light. Therefore sunglasses and sunburn lotions are used to help them lead a normal life.

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 Sickle-cell anaemia.
 This is a gene mutation through substitution.
 In normal haemoglobin type A have two polypeptide chain while in sickle-cell condition
one amino acid, glutamic acid, is replaced by another amino acid valine in each of the
two polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin molecule.
 The resulting haemoglobin type S is defective and has a marked difference from the
normal one.
 Therefore, Sickle-cell anaemia is a condition where the individual is homozygous for the
defective gene that directs the synthesis of haemoglobin type S.
 Most of the individual red blood cells are sickle-shaped and the person frequently
experiences oxygen shortage to the body tissues and hence can not carry out strenuous
physical exercises.
 Sickle-shaped red blood cells are not able to squeeze through capillaries hence they end
up clogging blood vessels preventing normal blood flow. The blockage leads into severe
pain in joints, arms, legs and the stomach. Most deaths victims of sickle-cell anaemia are
due to other infections from other diseases or damage to tissues.
 Inheritance if sickle cell condition is a case of incomplete dominance. If a man with
sickle cell trait (carrier) marries a normal woman, the probability that any of the offspring
will carry the sickle cell trait is 1/2.

Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Man with sickle cell trait woman with normal haemoglobin
Parental genotype HbA HbS x HbA HbA

HbA HbS HbA HbA

Gametes

fusion

Offspring genotype HbAHbA HbAHbA HbAHbS HbA HbS

Offspring phenotype Normal haemoglobin Sickle cell trait ( carriers)

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Parental phenotype ♂ ♀
Man with sickle cell trait woman with sickle cell trait
Parental genotype HbA HbS x HbA HbS

HbA HbS HbA HbS

Gametes

fusion

Offspring genotype HbAHbA HbAHbS HbAHbS HbS HbS

Offspring phenotype Normal haemoglobin. Sickle cell trait (carriers) Sickle cell anaemia

 In a marriage between sickle cell carriers the probability of obtaining a sickle- cell child
is 1/4 while the probability of getting a child carrying the trait is ½.

 Haemophilia.
 Inheritance of the condition of haemophilia has been already discussed earlier.
Haemophilia is due to a recessive gene on the X chromosome produced by gene
substitution. Haemophiliac blood lacks the ability to clot.
 This condition is caused by a haemophilic gene that prevents the production of the
necessary clotting factor especially clotting factor VIII called antihaemophiliac globun
(AHG).
 Haemophilics (people suffering from haemophilia) lose a lot of blood even from minor
cuts resulting to anaemia.
 Remedies to haemophilia include:
 Introduction of clotting factors such as VIII and IX.
 Screening to get genetic counselling to couples before
bearing haemophilic children.

 Colour blindness.
 Just like haemophilic conditions, colour blindness was discussed earlier but it differs with
haemophilia with most common one being red-green blindness.
 The individual is not able to distinguish between red and green colours.

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 Perception of colours is due to presence of specific cones on the retina for specific colour.
Colour blindness is caused by the presence of a gene in its recessive form causing total
absence or shortage of the respective cones for colour perception.
 The gene for colour vision is located on the X chromosome and it id inherited. Due to
occurrence of the gene on the X chromosome, more males suffer compared to females.
 The victims require assistance in situations e.g. street lights and practical experiments
where specific colour changes are observed.

Effects of Environment on Heredity.

 Development of an organism depends on the genetic make up or genotype and the
environment where the interaction between the genotype of an organism and the
environment modifies the phenotype of the organism.
 For instance, an organism with potential to grow tall from its genes would only grow tall
if the environment would provide suitable conditions. However if this conditions are not
provided from the environment the organism may not grow tall.
 In both plants and animals, identical individuals reared in different sets of environment
will appear more different than those raised in the same environment. Like in human
beings there are cases of identical twins that have been separated early in life and brought
up in different environments until they are mature.
 Comparison of the individuals reveals that they indicate some observable differences.
Diet, diseases, and climate are the factors of environment that influence the phenotype of
an individual.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF GENETICS.

 The knowledge from genetics has been widely applied to practical uses in the following
areas:
 Plant and animal breeding.
 Blood transfusion.
 Genetic counselling.

Plant and Animal Breeding.

- Human beings have been breeding plants and animals by selecting those that have
desirable characteristics. This process is called artificial selection.
- Artificial selection is done by either inbreeding or crossbreeding.

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- Inbreeding involves crossing of genetically closely related individuals and it is very
important in retaining certain characteristics or traits. However, it increases the chances
of undesirable or harmful recessive genes expressing themselves in the phenotype hence
cross breeding is preferred.
- In agriculture certain phenotypic characteristics have been selected in both plants and
animals. This phenotypic characteristics include:
 Early maturity in both plants and animals.
 Resistance to diseases e.g. cassava resistant to cassava mosaic, coffee to leaf rust.
 Increased length of productive season e.g. chicken varieties with long egg laying
durations.
 Adaptation to local conditions such as amount of rainfall, soil type and
temperatures.
 Flowers such as roses and orchids are selectively bred for their colour shape and
aroma (sweet smell.
 Higher yields in terms of meat, milk, egg and fruit production.
 Ease of harvesting in cases of crops like coconut palm, coffee, mango and banana
where dwarf varieties have been produced.

Blood Transfusion
 Knowledge of blood groups is widely used during blood transfusion to ensure
compatibility of donor and recipient blood groups.
 Blood typing is done before blood transfusion where a qualified person tests for both
ABO and Rh antigens.
 The effect of the recipients antibodies will have on the donor’s antigens is considered.
For example,
A donor who is blood group O+ can donate blood to a recipient who has blood group A+
but same donor cannot donate to a recipient who has blood group A-. This implies that
Rh factor must be considered first before transfusion.
 Knowledge on Blood typing and matching has been used to solve disputed parentage.
For example,
A woman of blood group A (genotype AO) gives birth to a child of blood group O and
claims that a man of blood group AB is the biological father.
Knowledge of ABO blood group determination and inheritance shows that the man is not
the biological father because the biological father must be of genotype AO, BO or OO.
The most accurate technique of establishing parentage is DNA matching.

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Genetic Counselling.
 This is the provision of information and advice by specialists with medical knowledge on
genetically inherited disorders, their risks and outcomes.
 It is meant for proper counselling.
 Examples of genetic counselling that genetic counselling may be required include:
 Sickle cell anaemia.
 Albinism.
 Haemophilia.
 Erythroblastosis foetalis.
 Klinefelter’s syndrome.
 Colour blindness.

Other practical application of genetic engineering include.

 Genetic engineering-deals with identification of a desirable gene, altering isolating and
transferring the gene from one living organism to another.
This helps to increase crop production, and improve animal breeding in activities such as
farming and medicine.
 Crime detection-at scenes of crime, specimens such as hair, blood, semen in case of rape
is obtained and DNA extracted from the developed hair or blood cells.

 Cloning-it is a type of reproduction where a group of cells arise from single individual
cells without fertilisation. Hence a form of a sexual reproduction. Offsprings are called
clones.
 Human genome.

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EVOLUTION
 Organic evolution is defined as the emergence of complex life forms from pre-existing
simple life forms gradually over a long period of time.
 Evolution offers scientific explanation for the great diversity observed or seen in living
organisms and their similarities in structure and function.
The origin of life
 There are various theories that explain the origin of life.
 Special creation theory.
 Chemical evolution theory.
a) Special creation theory.
 The theory explains that the whole universe and all it contains was created by the action
of a Supreme Being (God). Create means to bring something into existence out of
nothing.
 This belief is called Special Creation.
 Special creation theory holds the following view about origin and nature of life.
 That life was brought into existence by a Supreme Being.
 That life forms were created in a perfect form and have remained unchanged
overtime.
 That this knowledge is based on faith and cannot be disputed.

b) Chemical evolution theory.

 It is a scientific view of the origin of life.
 The theory supposes that life probably began through a catalytic effect of lighting or
other catalysts bring together elements to for, simple molecules such as water, ammonia
and methane.
 The theory adds that millions of years ago simple molecules such as hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen in the earth atmosphere combined in various portions to form different
simple compounds such as water and ammonia.
 Due to further combination, it resulted in the formation of complex self-replicating
molecules that resemble the current Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which forms the
genetic materials.
 Successive replications of the molecules further led to the formation of simple forms of
the first living cells such as viruses and bacteria.
 The theory of chemical evolution holds the following views on the origin and nature of
life.
 Life came to existence through combination of chemical substances.
 The initial life forms were simple and have changed over the years to form the
present complex organisms.

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 Scientific evidences in the form of experiments, artifacts and fossils supports this
theory.
Describe the Evidence for the organic evolution.
There are six evidences that support organic evolution as follows:
 Fossil records.
 Geographical distribution of organisms.
 Comparative embryology.
 Comparative anatomy.
 Cell biology
 Comparative serology.

1. Fossil records.
 Fossils refers to the remains of ancestral forms accidentally preserved in some naturally
occurring materials such as sedimentary rocks, plant resins, ice etc.
 The study of fossils is called palaeontology.
 Fossils are commonly formed by a process in which organic materials are converted to
stones. This is referred to as Petrification.
 Petrification occurs in hard body parts such as bones, teeth, shells, and woody parts of
plants.
 Fossils are also formed through preservation of the whole organism or its parts.
Importance of Fossils.
 They give direct evidence of the type of animals and plants that existed at a certain
geological age.
 They show that the different groups of organisms arose at different times on earth.
 Fossils also helps to compare different organisms hence it is possible to tell they
phylogenetic relationship between the organisms.
 They also show a gradual increase in complexity of organisms over time.
NOTE
 The age of fossils can be determined by radioactive dating.
 Carbon-14 (C14) is currently used.
 This process is referred to as radioactive carbon dating.
Limitations of Fossil records.
o There are missing fossil records called missing links. This is due to some parts or whole
organisms getting decomposed, some were scavenged upon and only a few fossils have
been discovered.
o Distortion of parts during sedimentation which may give wrong impression of the
structures.
o Destruction of fossils by geological activities such as earthquakes, faulting, uplifting and
mass movement.

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2. Geographical distribution of organisms.
 The theory of continental drift explains that in the past the current day continents formed
one single land mass.
 During this time, the animals migrated freely all over the land mass.
 Later, the land broke up into parts that drifted from one another forming the present day
continents.
 This continental drift isolated organisms that had a common ancestry and caused the
organisms to evolve along different evolutionary lines.
 This resulted to the formation of different species distinct/different from those found in
other climatically similar but separate regions. For instance, monkeys with a long
prehensile tails inhabit/live the amazon forest in South America while short-tailed
monkeys live in Africa. The panther and jaguar represents the cat family in amazon while
cheetah and leopards inhabited Africa and Asia.
 It is believed that from their point of common origin, they migrated into different
continents thus became isolated and evolved into different species.
3. Comparative embryology.
 Embryology is the study of the formation and development of an embryo.
 Embryos from different vertebrate group have been found to be having similarities in
morphological features in early stages of development.
 This similarity shows a common ancestry hence the closer the resemblance/similarity
between the embryos in early stages, the closer the phylogenetic relationship of the
organisms.
 This is described by a theory called “recapitulation theory” which states that ontogeny
recapitulates phylogeny. This means that in development from embryo to adult, animals
embryos go through stages resembling successive stages in evolution of their ancestral
forms.
4. Comparative anatomy.
 If the form and structure of different organisms is compared, there are similarities shown
in basic structures which suggest that the organisms have a common or related ancestry.
 A case where one basic structural form is modified to give rise to various different forms,
this is called divergent evolution. This divergent forms coming from a single ancestral
form may become adapted to different ecological niche in a given habitat. This is called
adaptive radiation e.g in homologous structure. Homologous structures are those
structures that have common embryonic origin but are modified to perform different
functions e.g. forelimbs in bats are modified to form a wing for flight and forelimbs in
horses are elongated to enhance speed in running. In turtles they are modified to form a
swimming flipper.
 Beaks are also examples of adaptive radiation. They are modified into different length,
shapes and size depending on the mode of feeding. Short beaks commonly feed on seeds
while for nectar feeders the beaks are long and slender, fruit eaters have relatively large
beaks while carnivorous birds have strong hooked beaks.

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 Analogous structures are those structures that have different embryonic origin but have
evolved to perform similar functions due to exploitation of the same kind of environment
e.g. both birds and insects have wings for flight but the wings of birds have pentadactyl
limb structure which originates from the endoskeleton, while insects wings are supported
by toughened veins composed of cuticle that originates from the exoskeleton. Other
analogous structures include eyes of vertebrates and those of molluscs such as octopus.
They have different embryonic origin but perform similar functions.
 Vestigial structures are those that have become reduced in size because they stopped to
be functional e.g.
 Appendix in human lack any function while in herbivores like rats they are well
developed and functions to digest cellulose.
 Vestigial tail in human has been reduced to coccyx.
 Nictating membrane in the eyes of mammals.
 Kiwi flightless birds have reduced wings beneath the body plumage.
 Python and whales have no external hind limbs.
5. Cell biology.
 Cells of higher organisms show similarities in their structure and function as all these
cell contain cell membranes and organelles such as ribosomes, Golgi bodies,
mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 They also have some biological chemical in common such as Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP) and Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
 Presence of these structures and biological chemicals strongly indicate that all cell
have a common ancestral origin.
6. Comparative serology.
 There is a phylogenetic relationship when an analysis of blood protein and antigens is
done.
 Species that are more phylogenetically related contains more similar blood proteins e.g.
in serological tests.(serum)
Mechanisms of evolution.
 There are two theories that explain how evolution may have occurred. They include:
 Lamarck’s theory- by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
 Darwin’s theory of natural selection- by Charles Darwin.
Lamarck’s theory
 Jean Baptiste de Lamarck proposed that when the environment required the use of a
particular structure in an organism, then the organisms developed that structure in
response to the demand of the environment.
 There, this led to natural use and disuse of structures creating change in the
individual/organism in its life time.

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 He further proposed that these changes or structures which were acquired during the life
time of an individual were transmitted/ passed to their offsprings and other generations
resulting in the emergence of new forms or new species.
 New forms or species that emerged have particular advantages over their ancestral forms
in exploiting of certain ecological niche.
 Lamarck used the example of the current long-necked giraffes. The short necked giraffes
constantly stretched their necks to reach vegetation in higher levels to avoid competition
for food with other browsers. The longer neck that developed was passed to successive
generations giving them an advantage over the short-necked species.
 Lamarck also cited the appearance of flightless birds such as ostrich, emu and kiwi. Their
reduced and functionless wings resulted from their lack of use in an environment that did
not require flight.
Why is Lamarck theory not acceptable?
 Lamarck’s explanation that acquired characteristics are inherited makes his theory
unacceptable since phenotypically acquired characteristics that do not affect the
genotype of an organism/individual cannot be inherited.

Darwin’s theory of natural selection

 Darwin theory is based on the concept of “natural selection”.
 It observes that variations occur with the individuals of a population and through sexual
reproduction these characteristics are transmitted to the offsprings. Some characteristics
are advantageous while others are disadvantageous.
 Darwin also observes that offsprings outnumber the parental generation but only a few
are able to survive to adulthood and reproduce. This might be due to environmental
pressure in terms of predation, diseases and competition for food and breeding sites.
 Therefore members of the population are constantly competing each other in an effort to
survive. This is called “struggle for existence”.
 During the struggle for existence only the individuals with advantageous variations are
well adapted to the environment hence they are suited to environment and are selected
hence survive and reproduce. Those with poor characteristics do not transmit the
characteristics. This is called “survival for the fittest”.
 Therefore natural selection is defined as a mechanism by which beneficial variations in
a population are perpetuated while the disadvantageous variations are eliminated.
 Individuals with beneficial variations survive, reproduce and transmit these variations to
their offsprings while those with disadvantageous variations are less, well adapted hence
they are not able to compete favourably therefore they are eliminated.

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Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics.
 Drugs, pesticides and antibiotics are chemical substances used to kill disease causing
micro-organisms and pests.
 Some pathogens and pests usually survive and reproduce despite being exposed to the
chemicals repeatedly.
 This indicates that with the population some individuals have the genes for resistance or
acquire it through mutation hence they survive the chemical.
 Those individuals that survive transmit the characteristics to their offsprings hence
establishing a new population of resistant forms, for example, if mutation occurs in a
population of bacteria, the mutant bacteria produce an enzyme that breaks down
penicillin hence continued use of penicillin fails to cure the bacterial disease.
 The same way some insects such as mosquitos have a gene that makes them synthesize
an enzyme against DDT which is an insecticide used to control insects. This makes DDT
ineffective in the control of such insects.

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RECEPTION, RESPONSE
& CO-ORDINATION .

Definition of Terms.
 Irritability
This is the ability of living organisms to detect or perceive external and internal changes in their
environment and respond appropriately to the changes.
 Stimulus
A stimulus is a condition in the environment which produce a change in activity of part or the
whole organism.
 Response
Refers to the change in activity by the organism.
 Receptors
These are parts of the body which perceive stimuli.
 Effectors
These are parts of the organism that bring about response.

Examples of external stimuli

 Temperature.
 Light.
 pH.
 Humidity.
 Mineral salt concentration in the habitat.
 Population density.
 Absence or presence of predators.

Examples of internal stimuli.

 Accumulation of wastes.
 Concentration of gases.
 Presence of internal parasites.
 Changes in temperature and glucose concentration.

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 Plants depend on hormones for co-ordination while animals have two different systems of
co-ordination. These are:
 Nervous system.
 Endocrine system.
 Therefore, for sensitivity and response to be effected there must be receptors to receive
the stimuli, co-ordinators to integrate information received, transmission systems to
conduct the stimuli and effectors to respond to the stimuli.

Response to variety of stimuli.

 There are different types of responses grouped according to the type of stimulus that
causes them.
 Responses involve the movement of the whole organism or part of the organism.
 In case the movement is towards the stimulus, the response id described as positive (+ve).
 If the movement is away from the stimulus, it is described as a negative (-ve) response.
 Major responses in living organisms include taxes and tropisms.

TAXIS.
 This is a locomotory response of a motile cell such as a gamete or a whole organism in
response to a unidirectional external stimulus.
 Unidirectional stimulus is that stimulus that gets to the organism from one specific
direction.
 Tactic responses are grouped according to the stimuli that causes them.

a.) Phototaxis.
- It is a response to variation in light intensity and direction.
- Phototaxix is shown when euglena, spirogyra and fruit flies move towards light.
- Wood lice, maggots and termites move against light hence showing negative phototaxis.
b.) Aerotaxis.
- This is response to variation in oxygen concentration such as when amoeba moves from
an area of low oxygen concentration to an area to an area of high oxygen concentration.

c.) Osmotaxis.
- This is response to variation in osmotic pressure demonstrated by marine crabs when they
burrow in the sand to avoid dilution of the body fluids.

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d.) Rheotaxis.
- It is the response to variation in the direction of water or air currents.
- Fishes and planarians move against water currents.
- Butterflys and moth fly against the direction of wind current to detect the scent of flower.
e.) Chemotaxis.
- Is the response to variations in chemical substances for example, movement of the male
gametes towards the female gametes. Sperms of mosses and ferns are attached and move
chemicals substances by the ovum.
- On the other hand mosquitos will fly away from insect repellants.
f.) Thermotaxis .
- It is locomotory response to temperature changes. For example, paramecium moves from
a location of lower temperature to one moderate temperature.

Survival value of Tactic response.

 It enables organisms to escape from harmful stimuli for example excessive heat and
predators.
 Living organisms are able to seek favourable habitats and acquire resources for example
nutrients and access mates.
 Chemotaxis enables fertilisation to take place.

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RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION IN PLANTS.
 Plants lack the nervous and sensory system hence their responses are in form of growth
movements or tropisms.

Tropisms.
 It is a growth movement in response to unidirectional external stimuli.
 The tropic movements are shown by growth curvatures of plant parts.
 When the growth curvature is towards the stimuli then the response is positive.
 When the growth curvature is away from the stimuli then the response is negative.
 The growth curvatures are often slow because growth rate is controlled by plant
hormones (auxins).
Types of Tropisms.
a.) Phototropism.
 It is a growth curvature in response to the direction and intensity of light.
 Shoots demonstrate positive phototropism while toots demonstrate negative
phototropism.

b.) Chemotropism.
 It is a growth curvature in response to a gradient of chemical concentration for example,
Developing pollen tube which grows towards chemicals secreted by the embryo sac.

c.) Geotropism.
 This refers to the growth curvature in response to gravity.
 Roots show positive geotropism while shoots are negatively geotropic.

d.) Hydrotropism.
 This is growth curvature in response to water or moisture.
 Plants roots are positively hydrotropic.

e.) Thigmotropism or haptotropism.

 Thigmotropism or haptotropism is a growth curvature in response to contact with a solid
object.
 It is demonstrated in tendrils or climbing stems which twine around objects such as
branches or tree stems.
 Root tips show negative thigmotropism when they grow avoiding obstacles such as
rocks.

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Survival value of tropic responses.
 Phototropism exposes the leaves in position to maximize absorption of light hence
enhancing photosynthesis.
 Hydrotropism enables the roots of plants to seek water.
 Thigmotropism enables plants to obtain mechanical support especially those plants that
lack woody stems.
 Geotropism enables plant roots to grow deep into the soil hence offering firm anchorage
(support) to the plants.
 Chemotropism enables pollen tubes to grow towards the embryo sac thereby facilitating
the process of fertilisation.

Comparison of tropic and tactic responses.

Similarities between tropic and tactic responses.
 Both are adaptive responses that enable the organisms to survive better in their
environments.
 Both responses are due to similar external stimuli such as light, water and temperature.
 Both tropic and tactic responses are directional and due to unidirectional stimuli.

Differences between tropic and tactic responses.

TROPISMS TAXES
1 They are growth responses hence they 1 They are locomotory responses hence
are permanent. they are temporary.
2 Responses are slow. 2 Responses are fast.
3 Tropisms are brought about by growth 3 Taxes are not influenced by growth
hormones. hormones.

Nastic responses
 They are non-directional movements of parts of plants in response to diffuse stimuli.
 These responses include folding of the leaves in hot weather, opening and closing of
flowers in response to intensity of light and closing of leaves in Mimosa pudica when
touched.
 These movements are brought about by turgor pressure changes at the leaf and petal
bases of certain plants.
 The bases have pressure sensitive swellings called pulvini that loss or gain turgidity
bringing about nastic movements.

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Types of Nastisms.
 Nyctinasty
- It is the movement in response to differences in light intensity and temperature changes
between day time and night time.
- In case the response is specifically for light then it is referred to as photonasty. Here the
flowers open in presence of light and closes in absence of light.
- In case the response id specifically for temperature change then it is called thermonasty.

 Haptonasty
- This is the response to touch as seen in Mimosa pudica plant whose leaves close rapidly
when the leaves or stem is touched.
- Haptonasty is also demonstrated by the Venus flytrap, an insectivorous plant that grows
in soil deficient in nitrogen hence it obtains its nitrogen by trapping and digesting insects.
When sensitive hairs on the leaves are touched by a landing insect, the midrib cells lose
water rapidly hence losing their turgor. This makes the trap to spring inwards hence
closing the leaf with the spines interlocking.

Before contact (touch) After contact (touch)

 Chemonasty.
- This is the response to the presence of specific chemical substances of nitrogenous
compounds such as urea and ammonium compounds that are found in insectivorous
plants such as sundew.(Drosera)
- When insects are trapped by the tentacles of Drosera, the insect provides the chemical
stimulus for the release of digestive enzymes by the plants.

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 Hydronasty
- This is a response to change in humidity.
- This type of response is seen in some flowers such as those of the Dandelion genus
which close when the air is moist.
Survival values of Nastism.
 Protection of the inner delicate parts of the flowers.
 Reduction of transpiration.
 Regulation of temperatures.
 It is a way of obtaining some limited mineral nutrients.

CO-ORDINATION IN PLANTS
 Plant growth responses are co-ordinated by the following hormones:
 Auxins.
 Gibberellins.
 Cytokinins.
 Florigens.

What is the role of Auxins in Tropisms?

 Indole-acetic acid (IAA) is one of the common Auxin hormones.
 Auxins are produced at the apical meristem of the shoots and roots.
 They move backwards in the region of region of cell elongation where they exert their
effect.
 Movement of auxins is by diffusion from one cell to another in one direction.
 There is higher production of auxins in the shoots than in the roots.
 IAA stimulates growth in both the shoots and roots in the region of elongation.
 The hormone is required in very small quantities to trigger off response.
 Roots are usually more sensitive to auxins than the stems hence roots require smaller
concentration of auxins to stimulate growth compared to the shoots.
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What is the role of Auxins in Phototropism?
 When light is uniformly distributed, auxins which are produced from the shoot apex are
evenly translocated down the shoot. This means there is equal growth rate in the zone of
elongations which leads to normal increase in height of the shoot.
 When a shoot is exposed to unidirectional light (light form one direction) the shoot tip
usually bends towards the source of light. This cause lateral migration of auxins from the
side that is lit to the darker side hence leading to a higher concentration of auxins on the
darker side compared to the side that is lit.
 The higher concentration of auxins on the darker side stimulates rapid cell elongation
hence faster growth rate than on the lit side.
 Therefore, the shoot curves towards the source of light. This explains positive
phototropism.

What is the role of Auxins in Geotropism?

 Shoots are negatively geotropic while roots are positively geotropic.
 If a seedling is placed in a horizontal position in the dark it has greater accumulation of
auxins on the lower side.
 Gravity causes a greater concentration of auxins to migrate and accumulate on the lower
side of the growing stems and roots.
 High concentration of auxins promotes faster growth but in roots it inhibits growth hence
greater Auxin concentration on the lower side in the shoot promotes faster growth than on
the upper side causing the shoots to bend upwards.
 In the roots, lower Auxin concentration on the upper side promotes faster growth than on
the lower side hence roots bends downwards.
What is the role of Auxins in Geotropism?
√ Climbing stems and tendrils use other plants for support when they come in contact with
a suitable hard object. The contact causes the plant to curve and coil round hard objects.
√ The part of the stem in contact with the hard object has a lower concentration of auxin
than the outer part.
√ This causes lateral migration of auxin to the outer side of the stem which then promotes
faster growth in the shoots.
√ Since higher concentration of auxin promotes faster growth in the shoot, the greater auxin
concentration in the outer part causes faster growth than the part in contact with the
object hence the shoot continues to coil round the object.

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RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS

 Just like plants, animals also detect and respond suitably to changes in the environment.
 Lower animals possess simple structures while higher animals have evolved elaborate
structures used for detection and co-ordination of resulting responses.
 In animals irritability is brought about by the nervous system.
 Animals such as arthropods have a nervous system that consists of peripheral nerves and
ventral nerve cord. Their heads have nerve fibres that are concentrated to form cerebral
ganglia that act as brain for effective co-ordination. Arthropods also have sense organs
such as eyes, antennae, cerci and halters for detecting stimuli.
 In higher animals like vertebrates, irritability is brought about by more elaborate nervous
system (neuro-sensory) system and endocrine (hormonal) system. The nervous system
gives the quickest means of communication in animals.

Nervous system.

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

Brain Spinal cord Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

Nervous system in Mammals

 The mammalian nervous consists of:
 Central nervous system (CNS)
 Peripheral nervous system.
 The central nervous system comprises of the brain and the spinal cord.

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 The central nervous system receives and integrates impulses from the receptors (parts
of the body that detect stimuli) and relays them to the effector organs (parts of the body
that bring about response) hence it is the centre of co-ordination.
 The peripheral nervous system is made up of sensory nerves which transmits impulses
from the receptors in the sensory organs to the central nervous system, and motor nerve
that transmits impulses from central nervous system to effector organs.

Central nervous
system

Receptor organs
Effector organs
(Sensory organs)

Structure and function of Nerve Cells.

 The nerve cell also called neurone is the basic functional unit of the nervous system.
 It is modified to transmit impulses.
 A nerve impulse is an electronic signal that is transmitted along a nerve fibre.

Parts of neurone.
 It has cell body (centron) and an extension called dendrites.
 In some neurons one of the dendrites is extended to form an axon.
 Each axon is filled with specialised cytoplasm called exoplasm that continues with the
cytoplasm of the cell body.
 The axon is bound by a thin membrane that is continuous with the plasma membrane of
the cell body.

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 The axon is enclosed by a fatty sheath called myelin or medullated sheath.
 Myelin sheath is surrounded by neurilemma that is a membrane of the Schwann-cell.
 Schwann-cell secrets the myelin sheath.
 Myelin sheath breaks at intervals to form of about 1mm to form nodes of Ranvier.
 The function of node of Ranvier is to propagate the nerve impulse.
 Myelin sheath also helps to insulate the axon.

Types of Neurones.
 There are three types of Neurones classified according to the direction of impulse
conduction. They include the following:
o Sensory neurone (afferent)
o Motor neurones (efferent)
o Relay neurones (connector, intermediate or associate.

The Sensory neurone

 It links (connects) the sense organs such as ears, eye, skin, nose and tongue with the
Central nervous system.

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 It has a cell body that is situated of the axon and outside the Central nervous system
(CNS)
 Its receptor dendrites are located in the sense organs while the terminal dendrites are
located in the Central nervous system
Function of Sensory neurone.
 Transmit nerve impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous system.

The Motor neurone

 It links (connects) the central nervous system with the effector organs such as muscles
fibres and glands.
 It has a cell body that is situated at one end of the axon in the central nervous system.

Function of Motor neurone.

 It transmits nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.

The Motor neurone

 The Relay neurone links (connects) the sensory neurone and the motor neurone through a
small gap or neural junctions called synapses.
 The entire relay neurone is located in the central nervous system.
 Relay neurones are non-myelinated.(Lacks myelin sheath)

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Function of Relay neurone.
 To transmit nerve impulses between sensory neurone and motor neurones.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of:
- The brain.
- The spinal cord.
- Their associated nerves.

The Brain
» It is a delicate nervous organ that is enclosed in a bony structure called skull or cranium.
» It is covered by a system of membranes called meninges.
» The meninges consist of the dura, pia and arachnoid.
» Dura matter
 It is the tough outer membrane covering the brain and spinal cord of
vertebrates.
 It is made up of connective tissue and a rich network of capillaries.

» Pia matter
ↄ It is the innermost membrane covering the brain and the spinal cord.
ↄ It has many blood capillaries and lymph vessels.

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» arachnoid
ↄ It is a narrow space between the dura and pia matter.
ↄ It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid from which Oxygen and nutrients
diffuse into the brain cells.

» The brain also has a system of cavities within it called ventricles that are usually filled
with cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid is continuous within the spinal cord of the central
cord of the spinal cord.
» The function of the fluid is to provide nourishment to the brain tissues and it also serves
as a shock absorber to protect the brain from mechanical damage.

The Functions of The Major Parts of the Brain

 Human brain is divided into three parts as follows:
 The fore-brain.
 Mid-brain.
 Hind-brain.
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 These three regions consists of various other parts
The Fore-brain.
 It consists of cerebrum the thalamus, hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
 Cerebrum is important for integration of sensory impulses such as vision, hearing and
taste.
 It controls voluntary body movements for example, those of lims, lips and the neck.
 It also controls learning, memory and personality.
 Thalamus is an importance relay centre that contains receptors for pain and pleasure.
 Hypothalamus (found below thalamus) has receptors for homeostatic functions such as
thermoregulation and osmoregulation.
 It also controls appetite and sleep.
 The pituitary gland (attached to the hypothalamus) is a small endocrine gland that
controls the rest of the endocrine glands.

The mid-brain.
 It connects the fore-brain and the hind-brain.
 It relays impulses between nerves from the spinal cord and the fore-brain.

The hind-brain.
 Hind-brain is made of two major parts i.e. cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
 Cerebellum-its function is to maintain body balance and posture. This is done by
controlling and co-ordinating muscular movements.
 Medulla oblongata-controls involuntary activities such as breathing, swallowing,
salivation and vomiting.
 It also controls dilation or constriction of blood vessels hence influencing blood pressure.

The Cranial Nerves

 Cranial nerves arise from the brain and form part of the peripheral nervous system.
 There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves confined in the head and neck of human beings.
 They may be pure sensory, motor or mixed.
 Cranial nerves include optic, auditory, olfactory and facial nerves.

The spinal cord.

 It is the posterior extension from the brain to the tail.
 It is enclosed by meninges and protected by the vertebral column.
 The spinal cord is made up grey matter and white matter.
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 Grey matter is H-shaped and surrounds the central canal that is filled with cerebrospinal
fluid. Grey matter relays information between sensory and motor neurones.
 It consists of cell bodies and dendrites of both relay and motor neurones hence giving it a
darker appearance hence the term “grey matter”.
 White matter surrounds the grey matter.
 It consists of sensory and motor neurone.
 Myelin sheath of the neurones gives this part a shiny white appearance.

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Reflex action
 A reflex refers to a rapid response to a certain stimulus.
Types of Reflex action.
 Simple reflex action
 Conditional reflex action.
Simple reflex action.
 It is a specific single and automatic response to a particular stimulus.
 It does not depend on learning.
 Examples of reflex actions includes:
» Withdrawal of finger from a hot or sharp object.
» Blinking of the eye when an object passes close to it.
» Coughing.
» Sneezing.
» The knee jerk reflex.
» Salivation.
» Secretion of tears when an onion is cut.
» Swallowing.
» Enlargement of the pupil in different light intensities.
 The structural basis of a reflex action is called a reflex arc which illustrates the pathway
followed by the nerve impulses. Reflex arc is made up of three neurones, receptor
(sensory), relay and motor neurones which link the receptor with effector through the
spinal cord.
Explain the events that happen when a finger is burned or pricked by an object.
 When a finger is pricked the pain receptors in the skin of the finger are stimulated.
 Nerve impulses are triggered off and transmitted through the sensory neurone to the grey
matter of the spinal cord.
 The impulse is the transmitted to the Relay neurone via a synapse then to the motor
neurone through another synapse.
 The impulse is transmitted to the effector that is the biceps of the upper arm. The biceps
contract and the forearm is withdrawn or raised.

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Conditional reflex action.

 A conditioned reflex action is an automatic response that can be evoked from an animal
by unrelated stimulus substituted for the one which normally elicits (creates or bring
about) the response.
 This reflex action is formed from past experience.
 It involves modification of behaviour through learning for example, a simple reflex
action, a dog usually salivates when it sees food given to it. If a bell is rung just before
food is presented to the do, and the procedure is repeated several times then the dog will
learn to associate the bell and the food. Hence it will salivate as soon as it hears the sound
of the bell whether food is present or not. This type of response is called conditioned
reflex action.
 This condition weakens with time hence it must be reinforced by repeated stimulus or
repeating the original experience if the same result is to be obtained.
 Examples of Conditioned reflex actions are:
 Walking.
 Playing piano.
 Cycling.
 Writing.
 Swimming.
 Driving.

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What are the differences between simple reflex action and Conditioned reflex action?

Simple reflex action Conditioned reflex action.

1 Single stimulus brings about response. 1 Repeated stimulus brings about response.
2 Simplest form of behaviour and is 2 Involves modification of behaviour and is
independent of experience. dependent on experience.
3 Sensory and motor components are the 3 Primary sensory component is replaced
same at all times. by a secondary sensory component but
the motor component remains unchanged.
Transmission of Nerve Impulses
Resting Potential
 A nerve impulse is an electric charge or wave of electrical disturbance arising from
changes in ionic concentration across the surface membrane of a nerve fibre(axon or
dendrite).
 Ions involved in impulse transmission are sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+)
 A non-conducting nerve fibre is described to be in a resting potential where there are
more Na+ outside the axon membrane than inside in elation to the concentration of K+
that is higher within the axoplasm. Within the axoplasm there are relatively more
anions(negatively charged ions)
 The effect of unequal distribution of ions creates positive charge outside the axoplasm
and negative charge inside the axoplasm so that the membrane is said be polarised.
 In resting potential state, Na+ are actively pumped out (extruded) by mechanism called
sodium pump while K+ can diffuse freely in and out of the axoplasm.

Action Potential.
 It is a localised change in electrical potential between the ion inside and outside of the
nerve fibre when stimulate.
 Inside becomes positively charge while the outside becomes negatively charged. This is
called depolarisation.
 The membrane becomes more permeable because the sodium pump temporarily stops,
causing an influx by diffusion of Na+ into the axoplasm. This increases the concentration
ions within the axoplasm relative to the outside causing the K+ ions to diffuse out.
 This change stimulates the depolarisation of the membrane adjacent to it hence
propagating the depolarisation [Link] is then immediately followed by a recovery to
the polarised state.
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 The movement of this action potential along a nerve fibre brings about a nerve impulse.

Synapse or Neuro-Junction.
ↄ A synapse refers to a junction between dendrites of two adjacent neurones.
ↄ The function of a synapse is to allow the transmission of nerve impulses from neurone
to neurone.
ↄ In the pre-synaptic knob there are vesicles that contain a transmitter substance which is
usually Acetylcholine.
ↄ In case an impulse reaches the synaptic knob, it stimulates the vesicles to move towards
the pre-synaptic membrane releasing the acetylcholine. This transmitter substance makes
the membrane permeable and it (acetylcholine) diffuses across the synaptic cleft to the
post-synaptic membrane that becomes depolarised.
ↄ Sodium ions from the cleft flow through the post-synaptic membrane into the post-
synaptic knob causing an action potential at the point. This action potential is then
transmitted as a nerve impulse along the neurone.
ↄ Immediately after that acetylcholine liberated in synaptic cleft is broken down by an
enzyme called cholinesterase in an inactive end products namely:
 Choline.
 Acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
ↄ These end products are reabsorbed by the axon terminals and it is recomposed into
acetylcholine again using energy in the form of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ↄ The rapid breakdown of acetylcholine is necessary to re-polarise the pre-synaptic
membrane for the next nerve impulse propagation so that there is no merging of
successive nerve impulses from neurone to neurone.
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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM.
 This is also an additional system used for co-ordination in animals. It is composed of
Endocrine glands that are ductless which secretes hormones that form communication
network in the body of an animal.
 Hormones are organic compounds that are either protein or steroids in nature and they are
produced in small quantities in one part of the body and transported by the blood stream
to the other part of the body where they produce effect. The parts of the body that
respond to specific hormones are called Target organs.
 in animals hormones carry out the following functions:
 Regulating growth and development.
 Control of behaviour during breeding and proper
functioning of cells.
 The nervous system directly or indirectly influences production of hormones from
ductless endocrine glands that are located in various parts of the body.

 Pituitary gland is the master endocrine gland that controls the activities of all other
glands,
 Its actions are co-ordinated by hypothalamus which influences the activities of the
pituitary gland by monitoring the level of hormones and other chemicals in the blood
passing through it.
 It also influences the secretions of the anterior lobe of the pituitary.
 Hormones control their reactions through a mechanism called negative feedback
mechanism which plays an important role in controlling many biological processes.
 An illustration using thyroxine can be used to explain negative feedback mechanism as
shown below.

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 In the illustration if the thyroid gland is producing too much thyroxine, that signal level
will be sent to pituitary gland to secrete less thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) also
called thyrotrophic. The amount of thyroxine therefore falls.

Throxine
 It is produced by thyroid gland which is located in the neck region.
 Iodine is a component of thyroxine.
Functions of thyroxine.
ↄ Thyroxine controls basal metabolic activity.
ↄ It also enhances the effect of growth hormone somatrophin.
ↄ Thyroxine hormone also works in conjunction with adrenaline to enhance involuntary
activities such as increased circulatory rates.
Effects of Under-secretion of Thyroxine. (Hypothyroidism)
 Less secretion of thyroxine hormone may be due to insufficient iodine in the diet or
defective enzymatic reactions that are involved in its formation.
 Hypothyroidism leads to cretinism in children and myxoedema in adults.
 Cretin kids have the following characteristics:
» Deformed legs.
» Dry leathery skin.
» Large tongue.
» General body sluggishness.
 These kinds of children have poor mental development that results to low intelligence.
 For myxoedema in adults, it is characterised by:
» Swelling of the thyroid gland.
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 This condition is called goitre.
 Goitre is due to overworking of the thyroid gland in trying to synthesize or manufacture
enough thyroxine.
 Due to less thyroxine concentration, individuals have low metabolic rate which is shown
through reduced heartbeat and breathing rate and low body temperatures.
 Individuals also are mentally and physically sluggish. Low physical activity results in
weight gain (obesity) and retention of excess fluid (oedema) hence swollen feet and puffy
face.

How to Control Hypothyroidism.

 Use of balanced diet supplemented by iodised table salt.
 Administration of iodine tablets.
Effects of Uver-secretion of Thyroxine. (Hyperthyroidism)
ↄ Over-section of thyroxine is caused by the presence of plasma proteins that stimulate
thyroid activity such as defective enzymatic reactions.
ↄ Hyperthyroidism leads to increased metabolic activities which results to increased
heartbeat, breathing rate and high temperatures.
ↄ Individuals with hyperthyroidism shown nervousness, restlessness and are easily irritable.
ↄ Hyperthyroidism can also cause goitre, weight loss, thinning of the skin and brittle hair.
ↄ Extreme cases of hyperthyroidism can lead to heart failure. This condition is called
thyrotoxicosis.

How to Control Hyperthyroidism

ↄ Treatment with radioactive iodine.
ↄ Surgical removal of a part of the thyroid gland.
ↄ Antithyroid drugs that can slow down the activity of thyroid gland can also be
administered.

Adrenaline
- This is a hormone produced by adrenal glands that are attached to the abdominal cavity.
- The glands are made up of outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla.
- The medulla receives nerve impulses from the brain and produces the hormone
adrenaline.
- The cortex lack nerve supply and produces a number of hormones called corticosteroids.
- The work of adrenaline hormone is to prepare the body for fight or flight.
- The hormone increases the heartbeat rate and circulation rate. This increases metabolic
rate causing arterioles in the ski and digestive system to constrict.
- Glycogen in the liver is converted to glucose to synthesize energy faster.
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- Skeletal muscles contract and relax which can allow movement.
- Breathing rate becomes faster and deeper to increase oxygen inhalation for rapid energy
synthesis.
- Fats are converted to fatty acids that are available in the blood for muscle contraction.
- Over-secretion of adrenaline can be caused by growth of a tumour in the medulla of the
adrenal gland.
- Symptoms of over-secretion of adrenaline hormone:
◊ High blood pressure.
◊ Severe headache.
◊ Racing heart.
◊ Sweating.
◊ Faintness.
- The overall resulting effect is aging of major body organs such as kidney, heart and liver.

Comparison between Endocrine and Nervous System.

ↄ They both provide means of communication within the body of an organism.
ↄ Both involve transmission of a message triggered by a stimulus and a response.
ↄ The target organs of hormones are like the effector organs of the nervous system.
ↄ Both involve chemical transmission.
ↄ Both bring about survival response.

Differences between Endocrine and Nervous systems.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM
1 Chemical substances evoke a response. 1 Nerve impulse evokes a response.
2 Chemical transmitted through blood. 2 Impulses are transmitted through the
nerve fibres.
3 Responses are slow but affect several 3 Responses are quick, specific and
parts of the body. localised.
4 Effects are long lasting. 4 Effects are rapid and short-lived.
5 Responses take place involuntary. 5 Response takes place voluntarily and
involuntarily.

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Effects of Drug Abuse on Human Health.
ↄ A drug is any chemical substance that when taken into the body has psychological and
physiological effects.
ↄ Drugs are usually prescribed to remove pain or to cure illnesses. However there are some
substances that when introduced into the body also cause psychological and physiological
effects that are not curative.
ↄ Drug abuse-it is the indiscriminate use of drugs with no regard to their side effects.
ↄ Examples of drugs commonly abused include khat (miraa), nicotine, cannabis sativa
(bhang) and alcohol.
ↄ Prolonged use of drugs can cause addiction.(drug dependence).

What are the effects of Drug abuse?

 Depressed appetite and poor feeding habits leading to emaciation.
 Interference with absorption of important vitamins such as vitamin K and vitamin E that
may lead to sterility and blindness.
 Lowered nervous co-ordination leading to loss of posture and balance. This decreases
performance in sports and manual activities.
 Irritation of the lungs and the respiratory tract leading to frequent coughs and infections.
 It may lead to cancer of the lungs, throat and urinary bladder.
 It may cause stomach ulcers.
 It causes damage to many tissues of the heart and the liver leading to heart attacks and
liver cirrhosis respectively.
 Interference with temperature regulation leading to excessive heat loss.
 Damage caused to the brain may lead to sleeplessness (insomnia), loss of memory
(amnesia), deliriums, hallucinations and mental illness (madness).
 In women, drug abuse may lead to poor foetal development and pregnancy
complications.
 Irreversible damage to important body tissues and organs may eventually lead to death.
 Addicted persons have impaired judgment which may predispose them to accidents and
infections such as HIV/AIDS.
SENSE ORGANS
ↄ In mammals the main organs of special sense are:
» The eye-for sight.
» The ear-for hearing.
» The tongue-for taste.
» The nose-for smell.
» The skin-for pressure, temperature and pain.
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THE HUMAN EYE

 It is a complex sense organ whose function is to receive light by which an animal

perceives and distinguishes objects.
 It is located in the socket in the skull called orbit.
 The role of the orbit is to offer protection against physical damage.
The orbit also has a layer lining of fats that provide further
protection against as shock absorber against mechanical injury.
 Inside the socket, the eye is suspended by muscles that move it.
 Lateral rectus muscles move the eye left to right. Superior and
inferior rectus muscles move the eye up and down. Oblique
muscles steady the eye in it’s up and down movement.
 In front of the eye ball there are two thin folds of skin i.e. the eyelids. The eyelid protects
the eye. The eyelid has many eyelashes from its edges. The function of the eyelashes is to
protect the eye from entry of small foreign particles.
 The eyebrows form a tick raised skin just above the eye. They are thickly covered with
hair whose function is to prevent sweat and dust from entering the eye.
 Land vertebrates have a lachrymal gland that continuously secretes a watery saline
antiseptic fluid called tear. The role of tears is to moisten the cornea and wash foreign
particles out of the eye.
 In amphibians, reptiles, birds, some fish and some mammals like cats, there is presence of
nictitating membrane which is drawn across they eye to clean it.
 The mammalian eye is spherical and fluid filled structure with walls made of three
different layers i.e. sclera(outer layer), choroid (middle layer) and the retina (inner layer)

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 Sclera .
 It is a white fibrous layer whose function is to protect the delicate inner parts of
the eyeball. It also maintains the shape of the eye. It forms the cornea at the
front.
 Cornea is a transparent layer that allows light to enter the eye.
 At the front part of the cornea there is a protective thin transparent membrane
called conjunctiva.

 Choroid.
 It is a dark-pigmented membranous middle layer that has numerous blood
vessels. Its function is to absorb stray light to prevent internal reflections within
the eye.
 In the eye front, the choroid extends to form the ciliary body and the iris. Iris is a
thin round sheet of muscular tissue and it contains two sets of muscles i.e.
circular and radial muscles. This two muscles control the diameter of the pupil.
 The pupil is an opening in the iris that allows light to enter the eye.
 The ciliary body is an extension of the choroid, the iris and suspensory
ligaments. It has circular and smooth muscles that contract and relax to change
the shape of the lens. Ciliary bod y also secretes the aqueous humour.
 Lens
- These are transparent biconvex structures just behind the pupil of vertebrate animals.
- It is held in position by suspensory ligaments that become taut (stretched or pulled) or
loose to change the curvature of the lens. Lens divide eye all into interior (part behind
cornea) and posterior chambers (part between lens and retina). The anterior part is filled
with a watery fluid the aqueous humour while the posterior part is filled with a denser
jelly like transparent material called the vitreous humour.
- These two fluids have the following functions:
◊ Help to maintain the spherical shape of the eyeball.
◊ To refract incoming light towards the retina.
 Retina.
ↄ It is a high sensitive layer made up of three regions as follows:
ↄ Outer pigmented region in contact with the choroid.
ↄ A middle region of photoreceptors consisting of rods and cons.
ↄ Innermost region of neurones that join to form optic nerve which transmits nerve
impulses from retina to the brain for interpretation.

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Cones and Rods.

 Cones have a photochemical pigment called iodopsin that perceives light of high
intensity.
 In presence of light, iodopsin breaks down to iodine and opsin bringing about
depolarisation of the cell membrane of the cones hence nerve impulse is generated and
transmitted along the neurones to the optic nerve which transmit impulses to the brain for
interpretation. There is greater concentration of cones in the fovea centralis or yellow
spot part of the eye which is the most used part of the retina.
 Each cone contains its own bipolar neurone that links it with the optic nerve fibre. This
property enables cones to have high visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability of the eye
to distinguish objects clearly.
 Higher vertebrates have three types of cone cells that enable them to differentiate the
different colours they perceive. They three types of cone cell distinguish light of the
colours blue, green and red.

Trichromatic theory.

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 It suggests that simultaneous stimulation of the three types of cones at different degree
brings about colour perception and can explain colour vision.
 For example, equal stimulation of red and green types of cone cells is perceived as yellow
colour.
 Rods contain a photochemical pigment called rhodopsin (visual purple) which perceives
light of low intensity but it is not sensitive to colour.
 Rods have low visual acuity and they cannot distinguish fine detail.
 Just like iodopsin in cones, rhodopsin degenerate to opsin (complex protein) and retinine
(derivative of vitamin A) to bring about depolarisation of the cell membrane, and then
triggers off an impulse.
 Amount of rhodopsin increases in the dark raising the sensitivity of the rods to dim light.
 Rods are in higher concentration round the periphery (surrounding) of the retina and are
absent in the fovea centralis.
 Nocturnal animals have more rods than cones because the rods are more sensitive to light
of low intensity.
 Combination of rods and cones enables the eye to be more efficient under all liht
conditions.
 In the retina, there is an area where optic nerve enters the eyeball. This are is called the
blind spot. It has no rods and no cones hence no images from objects falling on the blind
spot can be perceived.

Image Formation and interpretation

ↄ Light from an object is usually refracted by cornea, aqueous humour and the lens through
the vitreous humour and focused onto the fovea centralis.
ↄ The image is recorded as real, inverted and small.
ↄ Photoreceptor cells become stimulated and a nerve impulse is generated and transmitted
by the optic nerve to the cerebrum part of the brain for interpretation.
ↄ In the brain, the image then now appears real, upright and normal.
ↄ Images from the left eye are interpreted by the right cerebral hemisphere and those from
the right eye by the left cerebral hemisphere.

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Accommodation of the Eye.

 Accommodation refers to adjustments of the eye structures to bring image from a near or
far object into sharp focus on the retina.
Accommodation of a Near Object.
 Ciliary muscles contract hence relaxing tension on suspensory ligaments.
 Curvature of the lens increase (lens become thicker).
 This causes light rays from close objects to be greatly refracted by the lens focusing them
on to the retina as shown below.

Accommodation of a Distant Object.

 Ciliary muscles relax hence increasing the tension of the suspensory ligaments.
 This stretches the lens hence decreasing its curvature.(lens become thinner).
 Light rays from a far object are less refracted and hence focused onto the retina as shown
below.

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 [Link] Notes prepared by Mwalimu Viny Namaye

 During accommodation, iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
 In bright light or when focusing on a near object, circular muscles of the iris contract
while the radial muscles relax and the pupil constricts (becomes smaller).
 This prevents damage of the retina by excess light.
 In dim light or when focusing a far object, the iris contract while the circular muscles
relax and the pupil dilates (enlarge).
 This allows enough light to stimulate photoreceptors on the retina.

Defects of the Eye.

ↄ These are structural changes that make the focusing mechanism of the eye difficult. Eye
defects can be corrected after careful diagnosis by an optician.

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ↄ Common eye defects are:
 Short-sightedness. (Myopia).
 Long-sightedness.(Hypermetropia)

Short-sightedness. (Myopia).
 This is a condition in which light rays from a distant object are brought to focus in front
of the retina while those from a near object are clearly focused on it.
 Short-sightedness is caused by along eyeball or due to very high refractive power of the
eye lens.
 The condition is corrected by wearing concave or diverging lenses which diverge light
rays before reaching the eye lens and then focuses the light rays on the retina as shown
below.

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 [Link] Notes prepared by Mwalimu Viny Namaye
Long-sightedness.(Hypermetropia)
 This is a condition in which light rays from a near object are not brought to focus by the
time they reach the retina while those from a distant object are sharply focused on the
retina.
 Long-sightedness is caused by too short eyeball or weak lens system.
 This disorder can be corrected by wearing a convex (converging) lens. Lens refract light
rays before reaching the eye lens hence enhancing refraction in order to focus rays
sharply on to the retina as sown below.

Astigmatism.
 This is a condition in which light rays from an object are brought to focus in different
planes.
 It is caused by unequal curvature of the cornea or lens which produces unequal refraction
of light entering the eye.
 It is corrected by wearing a special cylindrical lens in front of the eye that corrects the
focus in the defective planes.

Squintedness.
 This is an eye defect in which the extrinsic muscles of the eye that control the turning of
the eyeball do not co-ordinate accordingly on stimulation.
 The defect affects the paired rectus muscles that turn the eye up and down and the lateral
rectus muscles which move the eye left and right.

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 [Link] Notes prepared by Mwalimu Viny Namaye
 Squintedness makes the eyes to face different directions hence focusing and
accommodations are difficult to achieve.
 Squintedness is difficult to control
Cataracts.
 This is an eye defect that is associated with old age. It may be caused by eye injury due to
a blow or by complications of diabetes mellitus.
 The eye lens becomes opaque hence blocking transmission of light rays.
 This defect can be corrected surgically by replacing the defective lens with a good one
from a donor or an artificial lens.

Colour blindness.
 It is a genetic defect in which certain colours cannot be distinguished by human beings
especially the red and green colours.
 The retina of those affected lacks cones with pigments that normally respond to green or
red colours.
 There is no cure for colour blindness.

THE HUMAN EAR.

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ↄ It is a complex sense organ that is used to perceive sound and maintain balance.
ↄ It consists of three parts namely:
 Outer ear.
 Middle ear.
 Inner ear.
The Outer ear
ↄ It consists of the pinna and external auditory meatus.
ↄ Pinna is a flap of skin made of cartilage that partially covers the opening of the external
auditory meatus. Its function is to collect and concentrate sound waves into the auditory
meatus.
ↄ External auditory meatus is a tube or passage that directs sound waves to the eardrum.
It is also called tympanic membrane. it is lined with hair that traps solid particles which
may enter the ear. It is also lined with secreting cells whose function is to secrete wax
that traps dust and prevent entry of solid particles. This wax maintains flexibility of the
eardrum.

The Middle ear.

ↄ It consists of tympanic membrane, ear ossicles, Eustachian tube, oval window and round
window.
ↄ Tympanic membrane is a tough membrane covering the external opening of the middle
ear. When hit by sound from outside it vibrates and transforms sound waves into
vibrations and then transmits the vibrations to the ear ossicles.
ↄ Ear ossicles are three bones namely malleus, incus and stapes. They are suspended by
muscles which also prevents excessive vibrations that could damage the inner delicate
membranous labyrinth. The three ossicles are used to amplify and transmit vibrations
from tympanic membrane to the oval window.
ↄ Eustachian tube is a tube connecting middle ear with the pharynx. Its function is to
equalise air pressure between the middle ear and the outer ear to prevent distortion of the
eardrum. This can be demonstrated when you go up in an unpressured aeroplane, the
atmospheric air pressure outside falls below that of the middle ear hence the eardrum
bulges outwards. This is corrected by yawning or swallowing which opens the Eustachian
tube to equalise the pressure on both sides of the eardrum.

The inner ear.

ↄ This is a fluid filled cavity connected to the middle ear by oval window. It has three
cavities: vestibule, the cochlea and the semi-circular canals.
ↄ Vestibule and semi-circular canals are the structures for balance.
ↄ The cochlea is used for hearing.
ↄ The cavities in the inner ear are filled with fluids called perilymph and endolymph. The
fluids contact sound vibrations transmitted from the middle ear to the cochlea for hearing.
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ↄ In vestibule and semi-circular canals, the displacement of the fluids leads to restoration of
body balance.
ↄ The fluids also absorbs mechanical shock hence protect the delicate sensory structures.

Hearing.

 The structure responsible for hearing is called cochlea.

 It is a spiral shaped tube consisting of a system of canals, membranes and sensory cells.
 Its canals are filled with endolymph and perilymph.
 The coiling of the cochlea offer large surface area for attachment of the sensory cells
those are responsible for hearing.

The process of Hearing.

 Vibrations from the eardrum are picked by first ear ossicles, the malleus, which then
transmits to the incus up to the stapes.
 Stapes passes the vibration to the oval window where the vibrations are transmitted to the
perilymph of the cochlea.
 The three ear ossicles are specifically arranged to amplify vibrations as they transmit
them to the oval window.
 Inside the cochlea, the vibrations stimulate the sensory hairs to generate nerve impulses
that are transmitted to the brain through the auditory nerve for interpretation.
 The intensity of stimulus transmitted to the brain enables the brain to interpret the
impulses as sound of specific pitch and loudness.
 When sound waves come from same direction, both ears pick the waves at the same time.
Intensity of the impulses by the auditory nerve will be of equal strength.

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 In case the sound is from one side, one ear will pick the wave earlier than the other.
Therefore the intensity of the impulses transmitted to the brain from one ear will be
different from the other one.
 The time lapse of impulses to the brain allows for one to determine the direction and
distance from the source of the sound.
Maintenance of Body Balance and Posture.
 Body balance is brought by semi-circular canals and the vestibule.

Semi-circular canals.
 They are three tubular cavities that contains endolymph.
 They lie at right angle to each other.
 Each semi-circular canal has a swelling called ampulla at one which contains sensory
cells with sensory hairs that project into a gelatinous material called cupula.
 Semi-circular canals maintain body balance and posture in relation to movement of the
head. Foe example, when a person spins and then stops suddenly, he /she feel dizzy. This
is because the endolymph is still in motion and continues to stimulate sensory cells.
Stimulation of the sensory cells triggers off nerve impulses that are transmitted through
the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation. In the brain the information is relayed to
the motor nerve that carries motor impulses to the muscles of the body to restore the body
balance.

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Vestibules.
 It has utriculus and sacculus that maintain body balance and posture in relation to
gravity.
 Utriculus and sacculus contain chalky granules called the otoliths that are attached to the
fine sensory hairs of sensory cells.
 The utriculus and sacculus when body balance is shifted the chalk granules are disturbed
causing stimulation of the sensory hairs. This then triggers a nerve impulse to the brain
through the auditory nerve.
 The brain interprets the impulse accordingly to the position of the body in relation to
gravity. The brain then relays a nerve impulse through the motor neurone to the muscles
of the body to restore correct posture.
Defects of the Ear.
ↄ Deafness is a hearing defect that makes an individual unable to perceive sound.
ↄ There are two categories of deafness:
 Permanent deafness.
 Partial deafness.
ↄ Permanent deafness is due to damage of either the cochlea or the auditory nerve. They
may be damaged due to prolonged exposure to loud sounds or when the cochlea is
sensitive to certain drugs such as some antibiotics.
Permanent deafness is difficult to correct.
ↄ Partial deafness is caused impairment of the structure that conduct vibrations to the
cochlea e.g. the eardrum and the ear ossicles can be impaired due to abnormal growth of
connective tissue(fibrosis) In middle ear or by calcification of the ear canals. The ear
drum can also be damaged by infection or physical blow. This might be due to production
of too much wax that hardens hence blocking the external auditory meatus.
ↄ This type of partial deafness can be corrected by surgery or by using a hearing aid.

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SUPPORT AND
MOVEMENT.
 Support is defined as the ability of living organisms to bear their weight and maintain
their body forms for example through holding the body parts in their correct positions
and allowing for movement.
 Movement is the displacement of parts of the body or an organism such as growth
movements of plants or limbs of animals.
 When the whole organism is involved in movement it is called locomotion.

Importance or necessity for support and movement in plants.

 Movement enables plants adjust to the environment i.e. the growth of pollen tubes to
bring about fertilisation and in tropic and nastic responses.
 Movement helps plants to obtain resources from the environment such as light, water
and nutrients.
 Movement helps plants to escape or avoid harmful stimuli such as high temperatures.
 Support in plants helps them to withstand forces in the environment such as gravity
and forces from the air currents.
 Support in plants enables their stems and branches to spread out important plant
organs such as leaves to trap maximum light and for efficient gaseous exchange for
photosynthesis process. Both flowers and fruits are held in position to enable
pollination and dispersal respectively.

The arrangement of tissues in the stems.

 Stems are important to plants because of support which is facilitated by presence of
support tissues that provides mechanical support.
 These tissues include:
 Parenchyma.
 Collenchyma.
 Sclerenchyma.
 Xylem vessels.
 Tracheids.

 Parenchyma:
 They are spherical and elongated tissues cells found in the cortex and the
pith.
 Their main function is packing.
 They become turgid to provide mechanical support in herbaceous plants.

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Parenchyma cells

 Collenchyma:
 Their walls are thickened with cellulose especially at the corners to provide
mechanical support.
 Their wall are not lignified
 Their function to provide mechanical support in leaves herbaceous plants
and young woody plants.

Collechyma cells

 Sclerenchyma:
 They have walls that are thickened with lignin.
 They consist of dead cells thickened with lignin.
 They help in mechanical support due to presence of lignified tissues.

Sclerenchyma fibres

 Xylem vessels & Tracheids:

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 These are thick-walled tubes with deposits of lignin found in rings, spirals
and patches.
 Their main function is transport of water and mineral salts.
 Since their walls are thick and lignified they also give strength and support to
plants.
 Xylem contains Tracheids that have tapered ends.
 Tracheids are also dead cells with thick lignified walls that provide strength
and support to the stems.

Tracheids

Xylem vessels

Types of stems
 There are two type of stems based on the nature and distribution of strengthening
tissues:
- Herbaceous stems.
- Woody stems.
Herbaceous stems
-They have relatively soft tissues that are easily crushed.
-They are mostly found in small plants that do not grow very tall.
-Their mechanical strength depends on turgor pressure of parenchyma tissues.
-They also have other ways of providing support such as :
o Twinning around other plants by use of tendrils and hooks
Woody stems.
- They get their mechanical support by having support tissues that have stiff, thickened
or lignified walls (strengthening tissues) such as collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem
vessels and tracheids.
- These tissues remain strong and maintain their shape even when completely dry.

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- Young woody plants show herbaceous features for their support before maturing by
development of elaborate support tissues including the bark.

Stem twinning Tendrils twist around support

SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS.

Necessity/importance of movement in animals.
 To search for food.
 To find mates.
 To find breeding grounds or sites of breeding.
 To escape predators.
 To escape unfavourable habitats or find conducive habitats.

- Animals have a skeleton which is a firm and rigid framework for support.

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The skeleton has the following functions:
 Supports animal’s body weight.
 It gives the body its shape.
 It provides surface for the attachment of the body muscles to facilitate
movement.

Types of skeletons
 Hydrostatic skeleton.
 Exoskeleton.
 Endoskeleton.
Exoskeleton
- It is made up of a substance called chitin secreted by epidermal cells.
- It is found in arthropods.
Functions.
 It supports and protects the inner delicate tissues.
 It is waterproof hence prevents excessive water loss from the body tissues.
 It provides a surface for the attachment of muscles.
Disadvantage of exoskeleton.
 It limits growth hence the exoskeleton needs to be periodically shed for growth. This
process is called moulting or ecdysis.

Endoskeleton
- Endoskeletons are found in all vertebrates.
- The muscles are external (found on the outside to the skeleton).
- Endoskeleton is made up of living tissues such as cartilages or bones that are able to
grow hence do not limit growth.
Functions.
 Supports the animal body weight.
 Gives the body its shape.
 Protects delicate internal organs such as heart, lungs and brain from mechanical injury.
 Provide surface for muscle attachment .the muscles relax and contact bringing about
movement.
 Bones of the endoskeleton produce blood cells and also act as reservoir of calcium and
phosphate ions in the body.

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LOCOMOTION IN A FINNED BONY FISH

How locomotion occurs in a finned fish/how a finned fish is adapted to locomotion.

 It has a streamlined body shape to reduce resistance against movement and for easy
movement through the water.
 It has an inflexible head which enables it to maintain forward thrust.
 Scales on the body point backwards and also overlap to allow water to pass over the
fish easily without any resistance.
 The fish secretes mucus that covers the body. This reduces friction during movement.
 A fish has a flexible backbone on which segments of muscles called myotomes are
attached. These muscles relax and contact to bring about undulating (side by side)
movement that creates forward thrust to propel the fish forward.

Muscle blocks called Myotomes

 Some fish have a swim bladder found between the vertebral column and the gut. The
bladder provides buoyancy and enables the fish to adjust vertically in relation to water
depth.
 It also has a lateral line along the body length that enables it to detect vibrations and
change in water pressure enabling the fish to respond accordingly.
 Finned fish have well developed fins for swimming, steering, braking, and maintaining
balance and change of direction.

Parts of a fish

used in swimming

Locomotion in fish
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Types of fins
 Paired fins (pelvic and pectoral).
They are used to maintain balance, braking and changing direction.
They are also used to control pitching of the fish i.e. upward and downward
movement.
 Unpaired fins (dorsal, anal and caudal).
They reduce rolling i.e. rocking from side to side.
They reduce yawing (lateral flattening of body) to increase vertical surface area.
Caudal fin propels the fish forward and steers the fish when in motion.

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SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN MAMMALS
ↄ Mammals have bones and muscles that work together to bring about movement.
ↄ Mammal’s skeletal system is divided into two parts. These are:
 Axial skeleton.
 Appendicular skeleton.
Axial skeleton
 It consists of :
- The skull.
- The sternum.
- Ribcage.
- The vertebral column.
Skull.

- It is made up many bones joined together to form the cranium as shown below.
- Cranium encloses and protects the brain.
- The cranium has perforations to allow blood vessels and nerves to pass to and from the
brain.
Ribcage and sternum.

- Ribcage encloses the thoracic cavity

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hence protecting delicate organs such as the heart and lungs.
- Ribcage is made up of ribs articulating with the vertebral column to the back and the
sternum to the front.
- The sternum is a rigid bonny structure that supports the ribs and protects the organs in
the thoracic cavity.

The vertebral column.

- It consists of bones called vertebrae.
- Number of vertebrae varies in different species of vertebrates.
- Human beings have thirty three (33) vertebrae which are separated from each other by
cartilage called inter-vertebral discs.
- The inter-vertebral disc act as a cushion that absorbs shock and reduces friction as
well as making the vertebral column to be flexible by allowing for certain degree of
movement between vertebrae.
Types of Vertebrae
ↄ There are five types of vertebrae namely:
 The cervical vertebrae.
 The thoracic vertebrae.
 The lumbar vertebrae.
 The sacral vertebrae.
 The caudal vertebrae.
Vertebrae have common basic plan as illustrated in the diagram below.

 Centrum-
 It is a solid structure of the vertebra that supports the weight of the vertebra.
 They collectively support the weight of the vertebral column.
 Transverse processes
 They are lateral projections in relation to centrum which offers surfaces for
muscle and ligament attachment.
 Neural spine
 It runs centrally through the vertebra.
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 It is a passage for the spinal cord.
 The vertebra articulates each with each other anteriorly and posteriorly by
the facets called zygapophysis.
At the front (anterior) and back (posterior) of each vertebra there is a pair of smooth facets
for articulation of successive vertebrae.
 Cervical vertebrae.
ↄ They are found in the neck region.
ↄ They are seven (7) in number in human beings.
ↄ All of them have vertebraterial canals in the transverse process for the passage of the
vertebral artery.
ↄ The first two, axis and atlas are different from the rest.
ↄ The atlas has a small neural spin and has no centum. Its neural spine widens for
passage of the large spinal cord in the neck region. It transverse process is broad and
wing like offering a large surface area for attachment of neck muscles. It has broad
facets for articulation with the condyle of the skull forming a joint that allows for up
and down movement of the head (nodding)

Atlas-ventral view Atlas-anterior view

ↄ The axis is the second cervical vertebrae in the neck region.

ↄ Its centum is broad and projects in front to form an odontoid process. This form a peg
that fits in the ventral side of the neural canal of the atlas. The joint formed allows
turning (rotatory) movement of the head.

ↄ The rest of the cervical vertebrae have broad and branched transverse processes to
offer large surface area for attachment of neck muscles.
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ↄ Cervical vertebrae have short neural spines, wide neural canals and wide centra.

 The thoracic vertebrae.

ↄ They are found in the thoracic region articulating with the ribs.
ↄ They are twelve (12) in human beings.
ↄ A thoracic vertebra has a long neural spine that offers a large surface for the
attachment of back muscles.
ↄ The centrum is large but the transverse processes are short.
ↄ The neural arc is small.
ↄ Ribs articulate with the vertebrae at two points; the capitulum and the tuberculum.

 Lumbar vertebrae.
ↄ They are found in the lumbar region of the body.
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ↄ They are five (5) in human beings.
ↄ Each lumbar vertebra has a large and broad centrum to offer support.
ↄ They have broad and long transverse process that projects forward and downward
from the centrum.
ↄ They also have a broad neural spine.
ↄ The transverse process together with the neural spine offer large surface for
attachment of muscles.
ↄ Each side of the neural spine there are two projections called metapophyses.
ↄ The vertebrae in the lumbar region are adapted to support the weight of the body and
withstand strains of movement.

 Sacral vertebrae.
ↄ They are located in the sacral region.
ↄ They are five (5) in number in human beings.
ↄ Sacral vertebrae have large and broad centrum to offer support.
ↄ The neural canal is narrow and neural spine is much reduced.
ↄ First sacral vertebrae are large with wing-like transverse processes that are fused to
pelvic girdle. The transverse process of the rest of the sacral vertebrae are not attached
providing surface for attachment of back muscles.
ↄ All sacral vertebrae are fused to form a rigid structure called sacrum. This makes the
sacrum strong and firm to bear the body weight and spread it to the legs through the
pelvic girdle.

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 Caudal vertebrae.
ↄ They are found in the tail region.
ↄ There number differs from one animal to another depending with the size of of the
tail.
ↄ In human beings the tail is vestigial hence there are four(4) caudal vertebrae that
are fused to form coccyx.
ↄ In caudal vertebrae, the neural spines and zygapophysis are very much reduced.
ↄ The neural canal and neural arch are absent hence the entire bone is essentially
centrum.

Appendicular skeleton
ↄ Appendicular skeleton consists of the girdles and the limb attached on them.
ↄ The girdles include the pectoral girdle on the anterior and pelvic girdle to the
posterior.
ↄ The limbs are fore-limbs found on the anterior and the hind-limbs found to the
posterior.
ↄ Limbs of all mammals are structured on the same basic plan i.e. the pentadactyl limb.

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 The pectoral girdle.
ↄ It is made up of two halves each consisting of three bones; the scapula, the coracoid
process and clavicle.
ↄ The bones are attached firmly by muscles to the upper part of the vertebral column.
ↄ Scapula is a flat, triangular shaped bone. At its apex there a concave cavity or
depression called the glenoid cavity that articulates with the head of the Humerus to
form a ball and socket joint.
ↄ Scapula has a spine running along the outer surface and at its free end close to the
glenoid cavity are two projections, the acromion and metacromion which are both
for muscle attachment.
ↄ The clavicle articulates on one end with acromion process and other with sternum.
Clavicle is for muscle attachment and helps in the movement of arms.

Bones of the forelimb.

ↄ They include:
 Humerus.
 Ulna.
 Radius.
 Carpals.
 Metacarpals
 Phalanges.

ↄ Humerus
 It is found in the upper arm.
 Its head articulates with the scapula and the glenoid cavity of the pectoral
girdle where it forms a ball and socket joint.
 On its head are two projections; the greater and lesser tuberosity. They
extend and form a shaft that provide surface for muscle attachment.
 In between the tuberosity is a groove called bicipital groove on which
the tendons of the biceps muscles passes.

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Humerus

ↄ Ulna and radius.

 They are two bones found in the forearm.
 The radius is found on the side of the thumb while the ulna is found on
the side of the small finger.
 Ulna had a projection called olecranon process and a sigmoid notch
that articulates with the Humerus forming a hinge joint.
 The olecranon process offers a large surface for attachment of tendon
and also prevents overstretching of the forearm at the joint.

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ↄ Carpals, Metacarpals and phalanges.

 Carpals are small bones found in the wrist.

 Away from the wrist are metacarpals that are much longer than the carpals.
 They are in the palm region.
 Towards the end of the hand there are fingers made of bones called phalanges.

 The pelvic girdle.

ↄ It consists of two halves fused at the pubis symphysis.
ↄ Each half is made up of three fused bones, the ilium, ischium and pubis.
ↄ Each half has a cup shaped cavity called acetabulum which articulates with the head
of the femur to form a ball and socket joint. Dorsally the ilium articulates with the
sacrum.
ↄ Ilium is above the acetabulum. It provides large surface to which thigh muscles are
attached.
ↄ Between the ischium and pubis is a hole called the obturator foramen. This is an
aperture through which blood vessels, nerves and muscles pass.
ↄ The design reduces weigh of the pelvic girdle and hence lighten the load to be
supported by the hind limb.
ↄ The pubis symphysis is composed of flexible cartilage that allows widening of the
females girdles when giving birth.
ↄ The ilium, ischium and pubis are fused to form innominate bone.

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Pelvic girdle of
a rabbit

Pelvic girdle of a
human being

Bones of the Hind-limb.

ↄ They include:
 Femur.
 Tibia.
 Fibula.
 Tarsal.
 Metatarsals.
 Phalanges.

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ↄ The femur.
 It is along bone found between the hip and the knee.
 Its head fits into the acetabulum forming the hip joint.
 At the tip of the shaft are greater and lesser trochanters that are extensions
for muscle attachment.
 Shaft of the femur leads to the lower end with expanded and round knob
called condyles which articulates with the patella(knee cap).
 They also articulate with tibia to form a hinge joint at the knee.

Femur

ↄ Tibia and fibula.

 These are two bones found on the lower hind-limb.
 They form what is called shin bone.
 Tibia is the larger of the two bones. It is longer and thicker than the fibula
and lies on the side of the big toe.
 Fibula is shorter and thinner and in some animals, it is partly fused to the
tibia on the distal end.
 At the top (knee), tibia articulates with the condyle of the femur.
 Fibula does not articulate with femur at the knee but at the distal end
(bottom) it articulates with the tarsals and together with fibula they form
the ankle joint.
 Shafts of the tibia and fibula provide surface for muscle and tendon
attachment.

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ↄ Tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

 They are the seven small bones on the lower hind-limb in human beings.
 Tibia and fibula articulates with the tarsals at their distal end forming with
the tarsal at their distal end to form the ankle joint.
 Tarsal also articulate with the metatarsals that comprise the bones of the
foot.
 The metatarsals articulate with the phalanges which are bones of the toes.

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Joints
ↄ A joint refers to a connection between two or more bones.
ↄ There are various types of joints that allow different degree of movement.
ↄ In mammals, there are three types of joints:
 Immovable joint.-fused bones in the skull and the pelvic girdle.
 Gliding joint-e.g. at the wrist and ankle and between vertebrae in the vertebral comn
 Moveable joint.

 Moveable joint.
ↄ They are also called synovial joints.
ↄ They are found in various points of the appendages.
ↄ They are characterised by bones covered with cartilage at the ends and bones being held
together by tough ligaments.
ↄ Cartilage reduces friction between the two bones during movements.
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ↄ The joint area is filled with a lubricating synovial fluid produced by the synovial
membrane. Synovial fluid lubricates the joints and acts as a shock absorber.
ↄ Synovial joints are of two types:
 Ball and socket joint.
 Hinge joint.

Ball and socket joints.

 It is a type of joint with two bones, one with a round head and the other one with a
depression or cavity into which the head of the first bone fits and moves freely.
 In this type of joint, movement is possible in all planes.
 Ball and socket joint allow the limbs to rotate 3600
 This joints are unable to bear very heavy loads.
 Example of ball and socket joints are:
 Hip joint
 Shoulder joint.

Pectoral girdle and humerus

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Pelvic girdle and femur

Hinge joint.
ↄ In this type of joint, a depression in one of the bones allows the smooth condyle of
the other bone to fit and articulate to allow movement in one plane (face).
ↄ The limb moves at 1800.
ↄ Examples of hinge joints are:
 Elbow.
 Knee.
 Phalanges.

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Movement at a joint.
ↄ In movable joints the bones are usually held together by an inelastic tissue called
ligament. Ligaments restrain movement of bones hence preventing dislocation.
ↄ Muscles are attached to the joint by an inelastic tissue called tendon.
ↄ Muscles that operate joints are in pairs and they are antagonistic.
ↄ A muscle that causes bending at a joint is called flexor muscle while muscle that
straightens the limb is called extensor muscle.
ↄ Movement at a joint can be illustrated using a hinge joint of the elbow as shown below.
ↄ In the arm, there are two antagonistic muscles called the biceps and the triceps.
ↄ Biceps are the flexor muscles because they bring about bending of the arm.
ↄ Triceps are the extensor muscles because they straighten a bend arm.
ↄ Biceps muscles flex the arm while contraction of triceps extend the arm.
ↄ When biceps contract, the triceps relax. This pulls the ulna and radius upwards hence
bending the arm.
ↄ When the triceps contract, the biceps relax hence straightening the ulna-radius leading to
extension of the arm.
ↄ During this movements of the arm, the hinge joint at the elbow serves as the fulcrum
(pivot) with the biceps muscles providing the effort to lift the load at the forearm.

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Arm bending Arm straightens

Structure and functions of Muscles.

1. Skeletal or striated muscle.
 These are muscles attached to the skeleton.
 They are important for locomotion.
 Striated muscles are known as voluntary muscles because they are innervated by the
voluntary part of the nervous system.
 When skeletal/striated muscles are viewed under microscope fibres are seen running
across them. This is the reason they are called striated striped muscle.
 These muscles contract and fatigue rapidly.
 Skeletal muscles consists of long fibres running along the length of the muscle.
 Each fibre contains myofibrils that run parallel to each other.
 The membrane covering a muscle fibre is called a sarcolemma.
 Myofibril are composed of two protein strands called actin and myosin.

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2. Smooth or visceral muscles.

 They are found on the walls of tubular visceral organs such as:
ↄ Blood vessels.
ↄ Gut.
ↄ Urinary tract.
ↄ Reproductive tract.
ↄ Respiratory tract.
 They are also found in the ciliary body and iris of the eye.
 Cell that make up smooth muscles are spindle-shaped and each have a single nucleus.
 They contain myofibrils that are enclosed by a plasma membrane.
 They lack cross striations hence are referred to as smooth muscles.
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 Smooth muscles are capable of slow involuntary contractions.
 They are innervated by the autonomic part of the nervous system hence they are called
involuntary muscles.
 They are capable of contracting slowly and they do not fatigue easily.

Fibres of a smooth muscle.

3. Cardiac muscles.
 Cardiac muscles are heart muscles.
 Each muscle fibre consists of short cells with centrally placed nuclei and numerous
striated myofibrils. The end of the cells are marked by thickened regions called
intercalated discs which form bridges between fibres hence transmit impulses rapidly
throughout the heart.
 Contraction of the heart muscles are generated from within the heart itself without
nervous stimulation hence the heart muscles are said to be myogenic.
 Cardiac muscles are capable of continuous rhythmic contractions without fatigue
throughout the life of the mammal.
 They have more mitochondria than skeletal muscles to sustain the high energy demand.

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