Table of Contents

Preface v
About the Editor vii
About the Authors ix
Acknowledgments xvii

Chapter 1 The Nature of Nature of Ironmaking 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Structure of this Volume 1
1.3 The History of Ironmaking 2
1.3.1 Prologue 2
1.3.2 Ancient Ironmaking 2
1.3.3 The Spread and Evolution of Ironmaking in Europe 5
1.3.4 The Evolution of the Charcoal Blast Furnace 9
1.3.5 Mineral-Based Ironmaking in the 1700s and 1800s 18
1.3.6 Coke Furnace Evolution from the Late 1800s to Today 24
1.3.7 The Science of Ironmaking 32
1.3.8 Summary 33

Chapter 2 Fundamental of Iron and Steelmaking 37

2.1 Thermodynamics 37
2.1.1 Ideal gas 37
2.1.2 Thermodynamic Laws 38
2.1.3 Thermodynamic Activity 42
2.1.4 Reaction Equilibrium Constant 47
2.2 Rate Phenomena 48
2.2.1 Diffusion 48
2.2.2 Mass Transfer 50
2.2.3 Chemical Kinetics 63
2.2.4 Mixed Control 71

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2.3 Properties of Gases 73

2.3.1 Thermochemical Properties 73
2.3.2 Transport Properties 79
2.3.3 Pore Diffusion 81
2.4 Properties of Molten Steel 84
2.4.1 Selected Thermodynamic Data 84
2.4.2 Solubility of Gases in Liquid Iron 85
2.4.3 Iron-Carbon Alloys 88
2.4.4 Liquidus Temperatures of Low Alloy Steels 93
2.4.5 Solubility of Iron Oxide in Liquid Iron 93
2.4.6 Elements of Low Solubility in Liquid Iron 94
2.4.7 Surface Tension 96
2.4.8 Density 99
2.4.9 Viscosity 99
2.4.10 Diffusivity, Electrical and Thermal Conductivity, and
Thermal Diffusivity 100
2.5 Properties of Molten Slags 103
2.5.1 Structural Aspects 103
2.5.2 Slag Basicity 104
2.5.3 Iron Oxide in Slags 105
2.5.4 Selected Ternary and Quaternary Oxide Systems 105
2.5.5 Oxide Activities in Slags 108
2.5.6 Gas Solubility in Slags 113
2.5.7 Surface Tension 119
2.5.8 Density 122
2.5.9 Viscosity 124
2.5.10 Mass Diffusivity, Electrical Conductivity and Thermal Conductivity 125
2.5.11 Slag Foaming 126
2.5.12 Slag Models and Empirical Correlations for
Thermodynamic Properties 128
2.6 Fundamentals of Ironmaking Reactions 128
2.6.1 Oxygen Potential Diagram 128
2.6.2 Role of Vapor Species in Blast Furnace Reactions 129
2.6.3 Slag-Metal Reactions in the Blast Furnace 133
2.7 Fundamentals of Steelmaking Reactions 142
2.7.1 Slag-Metal Equilibrium in Steelmaking 143
2.7.2 State of Reactions in Steelmaking 147

Chapter 3 Steel Plant Refractories 161

3.1 Classification of Refractories 161
3.1.1 Magnesia or Magnesia–Lime Group 162
3.1.2 Magnesia–Chrome Group 165
3.1.3 Siliceous Group 166
3.1.4 Clay and High-Alumina Group 168
3.1.5 Processed Alumina Group 171
3.1.6 Carbon Group 172
3.2 Preparation of Refractories 174
3.2.1 Refractory Forms 174
3.2.2 Binder Types 175

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3.2.3 Processing 178

3.2.4 Products 179
3.3 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Refractories and their Relation to
Service Conditions 180
3.3.1 Chemical Composition 180
3.3.2 Density and Porosity 181
3.3.3 Refractoriness 183
3.3.4 Strength 184
3.3.5 Stress-Strain Behavior 187
3.3.6 Specific Heat 188
3.3.7 Emissivity 189
3.3.8 Thermal Expansion 190
3.3.9 Thermal Conductivity and Heat Transfer 192
3.3.10 Thermal Shock 196
3.4 Reactions at Elevated Temperatures 196
3.5 Testing and Selection of Refractories 208
3.5.1 Simulated Service Tests 208
3.5.2 Post-Mortem Studies 214
3.5.3 Thermomechanical Behavior 215
3.6 General Uses of Refractories 217
3.6.1 Linings 217
3.6.2 Metal Containment, Control and Protection 219
3.6.3 Refractory Use for Energy Savings 224
3.7 Refractory Consumption, Trends and Costs 226

Chapter 4 Ironmaking Refractory Systems 229

4.1 Introduction 229
4.2 Blast Furnace Proper 229
4.3 Hearth 231
4.3.1 Refractory Materials 231
4.3.2 Discussion 234
4.3.3 Wear Mechanisms 237
4.3.4 Design Considerations 237
4.3.5 Summary 240
4.4 Bosh, Belly and Stack 240
4.4.1 Refractory Materials 241
4.4.2 Ceramic Properties 244
4.4.3 Wear Mechanisms 244
4.4.4 Design Considerations 247
4.5 Gunning Materials 248
4.6 Taphole and Casthouse 249
4.6.1. Taphole Materials 249
4.7 Hot Blast Stoves 251
4.7.1 General 251
4.7.2 Basis for Selection of Refractory and Insulating Materials 252
4.7.3 Selection of Refractory and Insulating Materials 254

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Chapter 5 Production and Use of Industrial Gases for Iron and

Steelmaking 259
5.1 Industrial Gas Uses 259
5.1.1 Introduction 259
5.1.2 Oxygen Uses 260
5.1.3 Nitrogen Uses 262
5.1.4 Argon Uses 263
5.1.5 Hydrogen Uses 264
5.1.6 Carbon Dioxide Uses 264
5.2 Industrial Gas Production 265
5.2.1 Introduction 265
5.2.2 Atmospheric Gases Produced by Cryogenic Processes 266
5.2.3 Atmospheric Gases Produced by PSA/VSA/VPSA Membranes 270
5.2.4 Hydrogen Production 273
5.2.5 Carbon Dioxide Production 273
5.3 Industrial Gas Supply System Options and Considerations 274
5.3.1 Introduction 274
5.3.2 Number of Gases 274
5.3.3 Purity of Gases 275
5.3.4 Volume of Gases 275
5.3.5 Use Pressure 275
5.3.6 Use Pattern 275
5.3.7 Cost of Power 275
5.3.8 Backup Requirements 275
5.3.9 Integration 275
5.4 Industrial Gas Safety 275
5.4.1 Oxygen 276
5.4.2 Nitrogen 276
5.4.3 Argon 276
5.4.4 Hydrogen 277
5.4.5 Carbon Dioxide 277

Chapter 6 Steel Plant Fuels and Water Requirements 279

6.1 Fuels, Combustion and Heat Flow 279
6.1.1 Classification of Fuels 279
6.1.2 Principles of Combustion 280
6.1.3 Heat Flow 294
6.2 Solid Fuels and Their Utilization 297
6.2.1 Coal Resources 298
6.2.2 Mining of Coal 304
6.2.3 Coal Preparation 307
6.2.4 Carbonization of Coal 309
6.2.5 Combustion of Solid Fuels 309
6.3 Liquid Fuels and Their Utilization 312
6.3.1 Origin, Composition and Distribution of Petroleum 313
6.3.2 Grades of Petroleum Used as Fuels 315
6.3.3 Properties and Specifications of Liquid Fuels 316

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6.3.4 Combustion of Liquid Fuels 319

6.3.5 Liquid-Fuel Burners 319
6.4 Gaseous Fuels and Their Utilization 320
6.4.1 Natural Gas 321
6.4.2 Manufactured Gases 321
6.4.3 Byproduct Gaseous Fuels 324
6.4.4 Uses for Various Gaseous Fuels in the Steel Industry 326
6.4.5 Combustion of Various Gaseous Fuels 328
6.5 Fuel Economy 331
6.5.1 Recovery of Waste Heat 332
6.5.2 Minimizing Radiation Losses 334
6.5.3 Combustion Control 334
6.5.4 Air Infiltration 335
6.5.5 Heating Practice 336
6.6 Water Requirements for Steelmaking 336
6.6.1 General Uses of Water in Steelmaking 336
6.6.2 Water-Related Problems 339
6.6.3 Water Use by Steelmaking Processes 340
6.6.4 Treatment of Effluent Water 347
6.6.5 Effluent Limitations 353
6.6.6 Boiler Water Treatment 363

Chapter 7 Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke and Recovery of

Coal Chemicals 381
7.1 Introduction 381
7.1.1 Carbon as a Reducing Agent 381
7.1.2 Chemical Effects of Coking 381
7.1.3 Kinds of Coke 382
7.1.4 Important Properties of Metallurgical Coke 382
7.1.5 Methods of Manufacturing Metallurgical Coke 382
7.1.6 Products of Coal Carbonization 383
7.1.7 Recovery of Coal Chemicals 384
7.2 Coals for Metallurgical Coke Production 384
7.2.1 Selecting Coals for Quality Coke 384
7.2.2 Preparation of Coal Charge for Byproduct Ovens 395
7.3 Metallurgical Coke Production Processes 401
7.3.1 The Beehive Process for Carbonizing Coal 401
7.3.2 The Byproduct Process for Carbonizing Coal 403
7.4 General Design and Operating Principles of Modern Byproduct Ovens 409
7.4.1 Principal Oven Components 409
7.4.2 Accessory Oven Equipment 421
7.4.3 Coke Quenching 428
7.4.4 Charging and Pushing Schedules 430
7.4.5 Instrumentation and Control 431
7.4.6 Pushing Emissions Control Systems 433
7.4.7 Coke Screening and Handling 436
7.4.8 Refractory Materials Used in Coke Battery Construction 438
7.4.9 Coke Oven Repair Work 441

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7.5 Preheating, Stamp Charging and Briquetting of Coals 442

7.5.1 Coal Preheating 443
7.5.2 Stamp Charging 445
7.5.3 Briquette Blending 447
7.6 Some Proprietary Designs of Modern Byproduct Coke Ovens 449
7.6.1 Introduction 449
7.6.2 Koppers Designs 453
7.6.3 Wilputte Designs 464
7.6.4 Thyssen Still Otto Designs 467
7.7 Recovery of Coal Chemicals 496
7.7.1 Collection of Volatile Products from Ovens 496
7.7.2 Recovery of Crude Coal Tar 497
7.7.3 Recovery of Ammonia 503
7.7.4 Recovery of Ammonia as Ammonium Sulfate 506
7.7.5 Recovery of Ammonia as Anhydrous Ammonia 509
7.7.6 Recovery of Phenol 510
7.7.7 Recovery of Coke Oven Light Oil 511
7.7.8 Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 520
7.7.9 Coke Plant Wastewater 529
7.7.10 Uses of Coke, Coke Oven Gas and Coal Chemicals 530
7.8 Recent Developments in Cokemaking 532
7.8.1 Introduction 532
7.8.2 Jewell Thompson Non-Recovery Cokemaking with Heat Recovery
and Power Generation 532
7.8.3 The Single Chamber System (SCS) 534
7.8.4 Calderon Cokemaking 537
7.8.5 Antaeus Energy Cokemaking Process 537
7.8.6 TSOA/PACTI Non-Recovery Cokemaking 540

Chapter 8 Iron Ores 547

8.1 The Nature and Occurrence of Iron Ores 547
8.1.1 Iron Bearing Materials 547
8.1.2 Geology of Iron Ore Deposits 549
8.1.3 Definition of the Term Ore 551
8.1.4 Iron Ore Reserves 552
8.2 Major Iron Ore Deposits 553
8.2.1 Iron Ore Deposits of the United States 553
8.2.2 Iron Ores of Canada 560
8.2.3 Iron Ores of Mexico 563
8.2.4 Iron Ores of South America 564
8.2.5 Iron Ore Deposits of Western Europe 574
8.2.6 Iron Ore Deposits of Eastern Europe 575
8.2.7 Iron Ore Deposits of Middle East and Asia 576
8.2.8 Iron Ore Deposits of Africa 580
8.2.9 Iron Ore Deposits of Oceania 582
8.3 Discovery and Mining of Iron Ores 586
8.3.1 Discovery Methods 586
8.3.2 Mining of Iron Ores 588

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8.4 Beneficiation of Iron Ores 592

8.4.1 Introduction 592
8.4.2 High Grade Merchant Ores 592
8.4.3 Low Grade Merchant Ores 593
8.4.4 Primary Ores 596
8.4.5 Concentration Plant Flowsheets 600
8.5 Agglomeration Processes 603
8.5.1 Sintering 607
8.5.2 Pelletizing 610
8.5.3 Nodulizing 615
8.5.4 Briquetting 615
8.6 Transportation of Iron Ores 615
8.6.1 North America 615
8.6.2 International Iron Ore Trade and Transportation 617
8.7 Iron Ore Quality 618
8.7.1 Sinter Feed 618
8.7.2 Blast Furnace Lump Ores 628
8.7.3 Blast Furnace Pellets 629
8.7.4 Direct Reduction Pellets, Lump Ore and Fine Ores 631
8.7.5 Trends in Iron Ore Production by Type 638

Chapter 9 The Blast Furnace Facility and Equipment 643

9.1 Introduction 643
9.2 Furnace Proper 645
9.2.1 Foundation 645
9.2.2 Support Structure 645
9.2.3 Hearth 646
9.2.4 Tuyere Band 653
9.2.5 Bosh 654
9.2.6 Belly and Stack 657
9.3 Charging System 663
9.3.1 Stockhouse 663
9.3.2 Top Charging Equipment 665
9.4 Blast Furnace Gas System 672
9.4.1 Top Openings 672
9.4.2 Gas Cleaning Equipment 673
9.5 Hot Blast Generation 676
9.5.1 Stoves 676
9.5.2 Air System 680
9.5.3 Tuyere Injectants 684
9.6 Raw Material Receiving 684
9.6.1 Receipt of Blast Furnace Raw Materials 684
9.6.2 Car Dumper 685
9.6.3 Ore Yard and Ore Bridges 685
9.6.4 Trestle and Stockhouse 687
9.7 Casthouse 687
9.7.1 Tapping the Furnace 687

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9.7.2 Casthouse Emissions 691

9.7.3 Slag Disposal 693
9.7.4 Hot Metal Transportation 693
9.8 Instrumentation and Control 695
9.8.1 Evolution of Process Control 695
9.8.2 Typical Computer Process Control System Architecture 695

Chapter 10 The Manufacture of Pig Iron in the Blast Furnace 699

10.1 Production and Types of Pig Iron 699
10.1.1 Introduction 699
10.1.2 Types of Grades of Pig Iron 699
10.2 Outline of the Blast Furnace Process 703
10.2.1 Blast Furnace Proper 703
10.2.2 Description of the Charge Materials 703
10.3 Chemistry of the Blast Furnace Process 707
10.3.1 Production of Heat and Reduction of Iron 707
10.3.2 Reduction of Manganese, Phosphorus and Silicon 708
10.3.3 Elimination of Sulfur 709
10.3.4 Reaction of Less-Abundant Elements 710
10.3.5 Blast Furnace Material and Energy Balance 712
10.4 Operation of the Furnace 713
10.4.1 Blowing-in 713
10.4.2 Routine Operations 717
10.4.3 Sampling the Iron 717
10.4.4 Charging the Furnace 718
10.4.5 Operation of the Stoves 720
10.4.6 Blast Furnace Irregularities 721
10.4.7 Fanning 723
10.4.8 Back Drafting 724
10.4.9 Banking 724
10.4.10 Blowing-in from Bank 726
10.4.11 Blowing-out/Raking-out 727
10.4.12 Blowing-down 727
10.4.13 Draining the Salamander 728
10.5 The Blast Furnace Burden 728
10.6 Modern Techniques for Improving Blast Furnace Operating Performance 733
10.6.1 Beneficiated Charge Material 733
10.6.2 High Hot-Blast Temperatures 734
10.6.3 Fuel Injection 734
10.6.4 Oxygen Enrichment of the Blast 735
10.6.5 High Pressure Operation 736
10.6.6 Improved Burden Distribution 736

Chapter 11 Direct Reduction and Smelting Processes 741

11.1 Introduction 741
11.2 Historical Development and Background 741
11.2.1 Definition and Terms 743

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11.2.2 DRI Quality 744

11.2.3 Special Precautions 745
11.3 Direct Reduction Processes with Reducing Gas Generated Externally
from the Reduction Furnace 746
11.3.1 Methods to Produce Reducing Gas 746
11.3.2 Shaft Furnace Processes 749
11.3.3 Fluidized Bed Process 755
11.4 Direct Reduction Process with Reducing Gas Generated from
Hydrocarbons in the Reduction Furnace 760
11.4.1 Kiln Processes 760
11.4.2 Shaft and Hearth Processes 766
11.5 Reduction Smelting Processes 769
11.5.1 COREX Process 770
11.5.2 DIOS 771
11.5.3 AISI Direct Steelmaking 772
11.5.4 HIsmelt 772
11.5.5 ROMELT 773
11.5.6 Cyclone Converter Furnace (CCF) 773
11.6 Inactive Process of Historical and Academic Interest 774
11.6.1 Höganäs Process 774
11.6.2 Wiberg-Soderfors Process 775
11.6.3 Sumitomo Dust Reduction Process (SDR) 775
11.6.4 Sumitomo Pre-Reduction Method Process (SPM) 775
11.6.5 Kawasaki Process 775
11.6.6 Armco Process 775
11.6.7 Nippon Steel Process 776
11.6.8 High Iron Briquette Process (HIB) 776
11.6.9 Plasmared Process 776
11.7 Future Developments 777

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