;‫؟‬Kills

AUTHORS

0 ‫ قه‬H. Hajjaj - 10[ Abdel Fattah Jaber

Dn Shahir ElHassan - Dr. Abdullah Shakir

AH Rights Reserved

AI-Quds Open University

 ‫ي‬٠‫بع‬.٠‫حخ‬٠‫'؛'■حش‬

COURSE :Phonetics & Pronunciation 1(8258

I ‫ ؛‬Dr. Ali H. Hajjajc* Dr Abdel Fattah Jaber ١
AUTHORS
٠
I Dn Shahir El-Hassan Dr. Abdullah Shaltfr
٢
I im ٩
! EVALUATOR

EDITOR
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNER ‫ ؛‬Mrs، Saad Abdul Razik -[Link] subhi
I

n MohadGAITiti-Abdel Malik Arafat

GRAPHIC DESIGNER

TYPIST ‫ ؛‬AmiwaAbo-Hamdia-EmanAI-Baidoon
QUALITY

AUTHORS ٢‫ض‬
EVALUATOR Dr. Taiseer Zaid Al- Kailani
Curriculum
Development
EDITOR Dr, Taiseer Said ‫ سقه‬Kalian‫؛‬
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNER Dr. Taiseer ZaidAl- Kailani
Team
‫ أ‬GRAPHIC DESIGNER
‫ إ‬TYPIST
I ‫لحجتتتئ“ا‬.

QUALITY

lids Onen Un‫؛‬v٠Pub٠

First Edition :2001
٦
Ail rig s reserved 10 part of this publication may by reproduced ‫ و‬stored in a retrival system,
or transmitted 30 any form or by any me2ns:electronic٠mechanic21,bhotocobying recording,
or otherwise,without the priop permission 0٤ the copyright owner.
This ٤00* and the audio-visual 2145 accompanying ets units may 0‫ ح‬obtained from.
al-Quds Open University
EI.77 Um summaq AMMAN, IORDAN

Class No
» .5522561/e,mail amman@[Link]
‫ر‬
٦
Author
Title
Subject Heading
DespositNo.
Notes
*Prepared By The National Library*
Phonetics & Pronunciation

Course 150. 8258

1115 course is adapted 010:

Listening Skills 1 0‫ ل‬Shair El-Hassan 20‫ل‬
Abdullah Shakir, Al-Quds Open University, 1993

Pronunciation & Speech by Ali 11. Hajjaj 200

Abdul Fattah Jabre, Al-Quds Open University, 1995
 1. Course Description
11015 ‫ى‬
1 a three-credit-hour course in Phonetics and
Pronunciation. It is a revision of two former courses ListeningSkills

‫ء‬
(1) (No. 5151) and Pronunciation 4724092% (No. 5257). 1 aims ٤
at providing students with 2 systematic training 111 reception 211 ‫ل‬
production of 800008 10 general and particularly English sounds,
110 this latter case isolation and context. 110 course also provides
training 11 prosodic features of connected speech 5 5 ‫ ه‬stress,
٤
rhythm, intonation and accents. Further more, 1 trains students 10
phonetic system 01 transcription as well 25 phonetic and phonemic
distinctions. 12110012518 will 011 ‫ه‬ ‫لن‬
012 9 English-Arabic sound
contrasts as well as problematic English sounds and pronunciation
features for Arab learners.
119 Course relies heavily on authentic material recorded 0 ‫آل‬
native and/or native-like speakers.
‫و‬
11 course consists 0 seven units outlined 110 section 4 below.
‫ه‬
11 material ٧111 be presented 111 ‫ ه‬distance education context, with
ample exercises 211‫ ل‬tasks at the receptive and productiye levels.
Authentic spoken material recorded 0٧ native 2100/0 native-
1180929٤8 ‫ ه‬will constitute an integral 021٤ 0٤ this 00118٥.

II. Course Objectives

1000010 completing the course, students are expected to:
1. define phonetics and phonology and differentiate
between them,
2. identify speech organs, their location, and functions,
3. recognize and produce the English sounds correctly,
4. transcribe English sounds, words and 10042888 and read
phonetic transcription.

٠
 5. recognize significant contrasts at the segmental and
supra-segmental levels,
6. be aware 0 ٤ spelling-pronunciation relationship 10
English,
7. recognize problematic English sounds (vowels 200
consonants) diphthongs 2110 clusters 112 ٤ cause
difficulty 0* Arabic learners of English 10 isolation
and context, and produce them correctly,
8. recognize correctly supra-segmental features of
English connected speech namely stress, rhythm,
‫ل‬
intonation, weak 211 strong forms, etc.,
9. recognize 204 identify major varieties 0 ٤ spoken
English, and
10. use an appropriate dictionary to find the pronunciation
ofa given word.

111. Methodology
119 following teachingeaming procedures techniques, and
activities 29 recommended.
1. Present the material in distance-education context and
format, addressing the students directly and engaging
11210 step by step in the discussion.
2. ٨11 units, exercises, activities ‫ه‬0‫ل‬ tasks should
be accompanied by tape presentations, so that the
demonstration 0 sounds, syllables, stress patterns,
etc. 00 the tape should 09 10920 simultaneously with
their presentation and discussion in the textbook.
3. Diagrams and illustrations should be used wherever
110955415
4. Provide the students with ٤ the
the purpose 0

——- ‫ ل‬--------------

,',"‫ىطأ‬.,.'٠.. .■:.,:‫الي‬..‫ت‬..‫ك‬:^‫ت‬:‫ت‬:‫;كالئ‬٢--....‫ت‬٠٦٢٠:;™—
 pronunciation exercise so that they can identify the
target point in the taped material in advance.
5. Provide sufficient ear-training ٤0 enable students
٤0 recognize the significant contrasts 10 the English
sound system.
6. Provide 2 variety 0 ٤ drills ‫ل‬
210 exercises 10 enable
studentstodiscriminatebetweenproblematic contrasts
at the segmental and supra-segmental levels,
7. ٤
Guide the students 0 imitate the sounds or speech 010
the tape.
8. Guide the students to check their own pronunciation
of sounds, words, phrases or sentences which 1209
٤
the target learning 00:0 against the recorded model
material.
9. Ask the students to detect and discriminate sounds and
sound features by listening to the taped material and
writing ‫ ملذه‬findings in their notebooks, using, 10*
example, the minimal pair technique.
10. ٨ spelling-pronunciation relationship should be
established to 5100 ٧ how different spelling 12 ‫ ى‬the
same pronunciation and, vice versa, how the same
٧
spelling can 12 9 different phonetic realization.
11. Present the material systematically 20 progressively,‫ل‬
2.2. 1829110 with sound with sounds, words 200 phrases

in context, then increase 100 length 0 discourse 10 2٤

natural setting.
12. Expose students 005 and then ٧ ٤0 different accents
‫ل‬
(British/ American) 20 different speaker roles, e.g.
age, sex, etc.
13. Present authentic dialogues/ conversations ٧10
emphasis 00 stress, rhythm and intonation.
 14. Present different discourse functions 0٤ intonation,
e.g. politeness, sympathy, surprise, etc.
15. Provide ample exercises at 0000 the receptive and
productive levels.
16. Try, 45 often as possible, to use songs, rhymes, tongue,
twisters, words ٧10‫ ا‬several contrast and minimal 02115
110 012898 and sentences.
17. Recycle 109 learning points 21‫ ل‬outcomes 10 stamp
them 110.
18. Present the material 110 4 self-evaluating manner, so
٤2٤ students 210 assess their own progress.
19. Train students ٤0 use the dictionary ٤0 100 up 1‫ه‬
pronunciation 0٤ given words.

TV Audio-Visual Aids
The following audio-visual aids will be used throughout this
course.
A. Software
1. Audio and video taped materials recorded 0‫ ل‬native
speakers 01 English,
2. Phonetic Alphabets (e.g, IPA 5100015) 10 broad 21‫ل‬
narrow transcription.
3. Photographs 0٤ tongue positions of the cardinal
vowels.
4. Illustrations of 00 organs of speech.
5. Illustrations 0٤ the points and manner 01 articulation.
6. Charts 01 English and Arabic sounds.
7. Pronouncing dictionaries, e.g. 10. Jones, ٨11 English
Pronouncing Dictionary (latest edition).
8. Phonetic readers, e.g. J.D. O’Connor, New Phonetic
Readings (latest edition).
 9. 120195‫ و‬diagrams, charts, pictures that help illustrate
the material discussed :1‫ م‬the course.
10. Native speakers 0٤ English as informants,
11. Other similar materials,

B. Hardware
1. Tape recorders.
2. TV sets.
3. Chalk and talk.
4. Realia ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬similar materials collected by 00 teacher
and the students.
5. language lab (if available).
6. Computer/ Internet (11 2٧211200).

٦٧. Evaluation
Evaluation 15 ‫ ه‬continuous built-in process where students
constantly detect, discriminate and produce English speech 2114
check ٤1‫ه‬٤ against standard renditions 01 native speakers. The
following evaluation techniques are recommended.
1. Ask students ٤0 transcribe targeted sounds, words,
phrases 211‫ ل‬sentences.
2. Ask students ٤0 read out transcribed texts and check
that against written or recorded models.
3. ٨5* students ٤0 listen 10 a B.B.C 0 ٢٧0٨ 0 any local
English programme 110 0149* for them ٤0 reinforce their
pronunciation and detect 11 different realizations of
certain sounds, words or utterances.
4. Ask students ٤0 115٤ those English sounds that are
typically difficult for Arab learners.
5. Give students (lists of) words to make verbs, nounsand
adjectives out 0٤ them, pronounce them and identify
 stress shift.
6. Give students tests 0‫ ن‬phoneme discrimination, stress
and intonation, listening comprehension of short
utterances by means of visual material, listening
comprehension 0٤ phrases 2110 5001٤ utterances by
doing, .2. carrying out 0‫ اه‬instructions, 48 well as
dictation tests.
7. Ask students ٤0 listen ٤0 authentic discourse in order
for ٤1910 ٤0 recognize such features 25 intonation
patterns 20‫ ل‬function 28 well as other features 0٤
spoken discourse.
 Course Index
Unit No.

(1)
Unit Title
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
n
1

(2) SPEECH PRODUCTION AND 43

RECEPTION

(3) ENGLISH CONSONANTSAND 111

(4) SYLLABLES AND WORDS 187

(5) CONNECTED SPEECH 225

(6) VARIETIES 014 ENGLISH 265

(7) PROBLEMATIC AREAS 293

«One Phonetics and Phonology
 Contents
wnmn‫دعو‬
‫كتتففكثضكننتخشنكفتنثتتكثفض^خ^شنشنظف^فنففن^تش^تت^شش‬
!.Introduction
1.1 Preview 4
1.2 Objectives 4
1.3 Contents 5
1.4 Methodology 5
1.5 Audio-Visual ٨14‫ى‬ 6
1.6 Evaluation 7
1.7 Supplementary Reading 1
2. Defining Phonetics and Phonology 8
3. Phonetics: the Sounds 0٤ Language 9
3.1 Sound Segments 9
3.2 Spelling and Pronunciation 10
3.3 Articulatory and Acoustic Phonetics 11
4. Phonology 15
4.1 Minimal Pairs 15
4.2 Complementary Distribution and Free Variation 18
4.3 Distinctive Features 20
5. Prosodic Features 29
5.1 Word-, Phrase-, and Sentence-Stress 29
5.2 1800100110 32
5.3 Intonation 34
6. Overview 37
7. Preview 0٤ Unit Two 37
8. Answer Key 37
9. References 42

3
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
1.1 Preview
Our Speech 011815٤5 0٤sounds which are combined ٤0 form
syllables, morphemes, 410 words which are 110 turn, combined
0‫ ا‬make phrases, clauses and sentences. Thus, speech sounds
constitute the smallest units 11 the speech process. 110 this
unit, the systematic study of sounds will be introduced. This
٧11‫ ا‬include the difference between phonetics and phonology
speech organs and production, sound transcription, the
relationship between sounds ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬spelling 211‫ ل‬prosodic features
(stress, rhythm and intonation). Ample exercises and suggested
answers ٧1100 4180 ‫ ا‬given.

1٠2 Objectives______________________
Upon completing this unit, students are expected (0:
0. 10٧٧ 1 110٨ symbols 11 order to identify the
consonant sounds they listen ٤0 010 tape,
1. distinguish sound contrasts and produce them
correctly,
2. distinguish between the ٤7٧0 concepts 0٤phone
and phoneme,
3. 000210120 and identify the various allophonic
realizations 0٤sounds,
4. recognize and distinguish between consonantal
contrasts 111 English,
5. recognize the relationship between spelling
and pronunciation 110 English,
6. make phonetic 211‫ ل‬phonemic distinctions,
and
7. recognize and distinguish prosodic features.

4
UnitOne Phonetics and Phonology
1.3 Contents
‫ ا‬. Defining phonetics and phonology
2. Phonetics: the sounds 0٤ the language
2.1 sounds segments
2.2 Spelling and pronunciation
2.3 Articulatory phonetics
2.4 Auditory and Acoustic Phonetics
3. Phonology: 11‫ ه‬Sounds Patterns 0٤ Language
3.1Minima! 1021[5
3.2 Complementary distribution and Free Variation
3.3 Distinctive Features
4. Prosodic Features
4.1 Word", Phrase-, ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬Sentence-Stress
4.2 Rhythm
4.3 Intonation

1.4 Methodology_________________________
In addition ٤0 the general methodology described 4000٧9, 1‫ه‬
following techniques are recommended 101 this unit.
1. Present 1110 sounds along with the demonstration 0 their actual
realization 0٦ the 1809. Present them contrastively and 110 02115,
1‫ج‬٠‫<؟‬.‫ةاجا‬٢‫اهل‬١‫ه‬١
2. Present the phonetic symbols simultaneously with 1110 sound 1‫ا‬
represents on the tape.
3. Draw a distinction between the concepts 0٤ phone and phoneme.
4. Present contextual exercises for students ٤0 transcribe, pronounce
or read transcriptions 2100100219 ‫ ل‬their performance with
recorded or written models.
5. Provide practical hints ٤0 illustrate the articulation 0٤ sounds (e.g,
point out that /t/ 211110 /‫ ل‬/‫ ل‬English are articulated with the tip 0٤
the tongue against the alveolar ridge just behind the upper teeth).
6. 11211 students in identifying 00 various prosodic features of
language.

UnitOne ‫؟‬ Phonetics and Phonology

 1.5 Audio-Visual ٨11‫ى‬
11‫ ه‬following audio-visual aids ٧111 be used throughout
this course.

1. Audio 200 video taped material recorded 0‫ل‬

native speakers of English,
2. Phonetic 2102008 (e.g. IPA symbols) 10
broad 2110 narrow transcription.
3. Photographs 0٤ tongue positions 0٤ the
cardinal vowels.
4. Illustration of ٤1 organs 0٤ speech.
5. Illustration 0٤ the points and manner 0٤
articulation.
6. Charts 0٤ English and Arabic sounds.
7. Pronouncing dictionaries, e.g. 10. Jones,
An English Pronouncing Dictionary (‫ا‬303‫أ‬
edition).
8. Phonetic readers, e.g. J.D. D’Connor, ٧٤١4٧
Phonetic Readings ٢١tA ‫لذةخ‬١.
9. Tables, diagrams, charts, pictures that help
illustrate the material discussed 110 the
course.
10. Native speakers of English as informants.
1 1. Other similar materials,
13. Hardware
1. Tape recorders.
2. TV sets.
3. Chalk and talk.
4. Realia 210‫ ل‬similar materials collected 0‫ آل‬the teacher
and the students.
5. Language lab (if available).
6. Computer/Internet (if available).

6
Unit One 0082٤٤٤8 and Phonology
 1.6 Evaluation
110 addition ٤0 the general evaluation techniques suggested
above, the following are recommended for this unit.
1. ٨5 students 10 differentiate phonetics 211‫ل‬
phonology. ' -
2. Ask students ٤0 read transcribed sounds, works 20‫ل‬
phrases and transcribe them.
3. Ask students ٤0 distinguish between the concepts of
phone and 0001191100.
4. Ask students ٤0 differentiate between the sounds of
language and the sound patterns 0٤ language.
5. ٨8 students 10 identify and produce the various
prosodic features 0٤ language.

θ
1.7 Supplementary Reading
Ref. No. 102‫ي‬
1. Akmajian ٤ al (1992) 00. 53-123
2. Formkin & Rodman (1993) pp. 176-265
3. (31108011(1970) ‫مم‬. 4
4. (3mson(1970) 00.42-57
5. Jones (1969) 00. 1-10
6. Ladeofoged (1993) 00. 1-22

7
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
‫اعلهعاااا‬

Phonetics 15 the study 0٤ 1‫ ه‬sounds 0٤ language. Language here

1092118 human 01 natural language. Although the ٧01‫" ل‬language’’
normally refers 10 different means 0٤communication such as animal
language, sign language 0 computer language, in this context we are
only concerned with 110110210 or natural language such 28 the English
language, the Arabic language 41‫ ل‬the 119101 language. Phonetics,
the study 0٤language sounds, 15 concerned with the spoken language.
All human or natural languages consist 0٤sounds and sound groups.
The study 0٤ these human sounds and sound groups 11 terms of their
production and interpretation 15 called phonetics.
Phonology 011 the other hand 18 the study of the distribution
and patterning of speech sounds 11 a particular language such 25
English or Arabic and the underlying Jules and principles governing
pronunciation 110 each language.
٧٧‫ ح‬can now say that phonetics 1‫ ى‬the study of human sound-
producing possibilities and the speech mechanism. Phonology 18
the study 0٤ the phonetic characteristics 0٤ particular languages. 10
example 1٤ you study the 0194108 of speech involved 111 producing
sounds like [s], [110], [٩, the point 110 the mouth at which they are
articulated (pronounced) 21‫ ل‬how (the manner 111 which) they are
articulated, then you are studying phonetics. 11 on the other hand,
you study 10٧٧ these three sounds change meaning 110 English 25 110
sat, mat.‫ اقلم‬10211 ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬are studying (English) phonology.
110 this course you 7٧111 study aspects 0٤ both phonetics and
phonology.
SAQs (1) ‫ق‬

1. 15 the study 0٤[b], [11] and [1] 111 isolation part 0٤phonetics
or phonology?
2. When 0098 the study 0٤٤0 200٧0 sounds become 2
phonological, rather 0410 2 phonetic, study?
3. What, 11 your opinion, is the difference between human
(natural) sounds and snoring?

Unit 0‫ه‬ Phonetics and Phonology

3.1 Sound Segments
10 describe speech sounds, 1‫ ا‬is necessary ٤0 define what makes
210 individual sound 01 sound segment 211‫ ل‬how sound segments
differ from each other.
When we say a word, the speech organs 1100٧• continuously and
produce ٤2‫ ا‬٧0‫ لم‬25 1٤ 1‫ ا‬were one sound. 10‫ ؟‬example, when ٧‫ح‬
say tab, we do 110‫ ا‬stop after saying [t] 10 say [2] and 10]. However,
a word indeed consists of one, ٤٧٧0 0 more segments 0٤ sound. ٨5
you realize, tab consists 0٤ [t], [a] and 10].
Speakers 0٤ any language know that although words are said
110 ‫ ه‬continuous way, they (words) consist of individual sounds.
However, 1‫ ا‬should be noticed that analyzing 2 word into its
individual sound 692111010٤5 doe‫ ؛؛‬110‫ ا‬rely on spelling. 110 English,
sat obviously consists 0٤ three :‫؛‬ounds, 11 sound for s, the sound
10 a and the sound ٤0 ٤‫ و‬but the pronunciation of the word island
does not include the sound s. We will return ٤0 this point 110 the next
section.
Coughing, sneezing, 8110111‫ ع‬and the 119 are 110٤ considered
sound segments 0٤ language because 28 such they 00 00٤ combine 10
makewordsin any language. Only those sounds thatarelinguistically
important (that 18‫ و‬those used to ‫؛‬make words) are considered speech
sounds.
Speech sounds, broadly speaking are divided 1110 consonants
and vowels. Consonants are speech sounds produced ‫ ل‬blocking
(such 25 English 0, 0, ‫ ول وا‬k, ‫ و(ع‬diverting (110‫ و‬10‫ و‬ng), or obstructing
(f, ٢٧‫ و‬s, 2) the 110٧٧ of air from the lungs. Vowels 010 the 001 hand, are
speech sounds produced (such as English ‫ وذ‬a, 0) without blocking,
diverting, 0 obstructing the 10٧ 0٤ the 211 from the lungs. We ٧111
return 40 the distinctive features 0[ sound below.

9
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
 SAQs (2) (20
1. ٧‫ه‬٤ happens ٤0 the 80291 0124105 when we produce 2
word?
2. Can 500 guess what ‫ه‬1‫ ه‬the speech organs?
3. Is there a one-to-one correspondence between
pronunciation ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬spelling? Give examples.
4. 5٧1٧ is coughing 100٤ 20 important linguistic 8001007
5. According to ٧‫ه‬٤ ‫ه‬1‫ ه‬speech sounds divided into
consonants ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬vowels?

3.2 Spelling and Pronunciation

Alphabeticspelling,ororthographyrepresentsthepronunciation
0٤ sounds of the words. However, 0980 sounds are often represented
in an unsystematic 0 irregular way. In English, for example, the
sound /5/ is written in ordinary spelling 10 several ways 2‫ ى‬seen 10 the
following words: soon, ‫ ولنيي‬nice, psychology, scene, mess, fa ten,
and word. In this respect, the orthographic representation 0٤ the
consonant sounds 20‫ ل‬the vowel sounds and subsequently 0٤ word
forms, differs between English 200 Arabic. Arabic representation
0 sounds 110 writing is far more regular than 1٤ 15 in English. For
example, 010 [*] 5000 ‫ ه‬Arabic is always represented by /‫ك‬/ such
25 [kataba] ‫( كتب‬wrote); [kala:m] ‫( كالم‬speech), 121:100] 02119005) ‫)كريم‬
and so 0. In English ‫ ط‬sound 1**] is rep:resented in different ways
such ‫ ىه‬kind, back, ‫ي‬20‫ و‬tobacco, school, unique, khaki and queen.
The vowel sound (1:) :5 represented in Arabic 0‫ ]و] ل‬such as (4:1)
‫( فول‬beans), [wu uh] 005) ‫ )وجوه‬and 80 00. The same vowel in
English 38 represented orthographically in several ways, e.g. food,
su, flute, ٤‫( و‬strong form), ٤00‫ و‬shoe, you, through, threw, and fruit.
1115 causes 0٤ 10‫ ه‬٤ problems to Arab learners ٤0 010 we will
return in detail in Unit Seven.

Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

 0 ™‫د‬

1■ How ‫ح‬7‫ ئ‬٢ representation differ between

‫اييئنييتييو‬ I

70 <1>٠‫س‬

1. Write English words representing different ٧25‫ل‬ of

writing the sound // 2110 the sound /e/
ZkZ...................... .................................................................

/e/

2. Write five English words containing different silent letters.

3.3 Articulatory and Acoustic Phonetics

٨8 we have seen above the study 01 the general characteristics
٤
0 speech sounds 15 called phonetics. Phonetics 145 different types:
articulatory phonetics, the study of how speech sounds 210 made 01
articulated (which is our concern in this unit); acoustic phonetics,
٤ ٤
the study 0 1100 physical properties 0 speech 25 sound waves 110 the
air; auditory phonetics which 09218 with 100 perception of speech
sounds through 1 ‫ ه‬ear; and forensic phonetics used 10 legal cases
for the sake of identifying speakers and the analysis 0٤ recorded
utterances, 110 018 course, 50‫ ي‬will limit our study ٤0 articulatory
phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics 15 concerned with the study 0 ٤‫ه‬
sound-making (or speech) mechanism. This mechanism involves the
٤ ‫ه‬ ٤
study 0 11 organs 0 the human body specialized 110 the production

UnitOne Phonetics and Phonology

 0٤ sounds, 119 way (01 the manner) 111 which these organs produce
٤9 sounds, 210‫ ل‬the points (01 the places) 11 which they produce
the various sounds through the mouth, 210‫ ل‬sometimes also through
the nose. 1٤ should 00 mentioned that the organs of speech perform
various other functions such 25 breathing, smelling, tasting etc.
Our 10211 concern 111 this course is with their articulatory
function, 1.2. their function in the production 0٤ speech sounds.
11‫ ه‬following diagram (Diagram 1.1) illustrates where each
speech organ 18 located.

Diagram 1.1 The Organ 0٤ speech

LL Lips
TT. Teeth
AR. Alveolar ridge
HP. Hard palate
SP. Soft palate (velum)
‫ ل‬Uvula
1. Pharynx
BL. Blade of tongue
F. front of tongue
18. Bach of tongue
R. Root of tongue
V. Vocal cords
G. Glottis
٧. Windpipe
FP. Food Passage

Producing different speech sounds requires, among other

things, activating some of the 800٧9 80099 organs and a body 0٤ 211
moving from the lungs upwards through the mouth or the 10099. ٨
speech sound 15 produced as ‫ ه‬result of ‫ ه‬body 01٤ ‫ ه‬which moves
110110 the lungs and 1‫ ى‬released through the mouth 01 the nose with
some speech sounds activated. 00 its way 0100 the lungs ٤0 the 0121

Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

‫يبشيييييييهسيييسييسترريييبن‬.‫ةييتببجيجييجمسييلتيييتتيبيبييي‬:‫نبيتةتجبيدمبيرستنييشميبسيبييمرييبمبتشسيهبيبسطم‬:‫ر‬-٧٠-:.‫تيرييتشتتيتتستديييتيتجينهبةبمنن؛شسنشتتتنجيتسجي‬:‫؟‬٦٨٨١٥‫ي‬:‫يحشةب‬.‫شتا‬٣٦٨-٦٦٥‫ن‬٦*"2‫ت‬٣٣**‫تشستبتجلس‬٠‫بتتتتشتتذ‬٠‫ت‬٤٣٦‫س‬-1‫نتشستسنشتتمتبهت‬:٣٤2‫تشببت؟‬٣2‫تتتنت‬٣‫ت‬٦٠٤٦٤٦٦٠‫تتنة‬٥٣٣‫•••ش‬-٠
cavity (i.e. 11‫ ه‬mouth) or th،‫ ؛‬nasal cavity (1.. the 10089), this 21‫م‬
stream 15‫ و‬as mentioned above, obstructed partially 0 completely
10 produce consonants 0 not obstructed ٤0 produce the vowels. 110
points ‫ اه‬which the air stream 15 obstructed are called points 0 places
0٤ articulation. For example, the 0001105 (places) 01 articulation 0٤
English consonant sounds are illustrated 110 Diagram 1.2.

Diagram 1.2 The Places 01 the Articulation of English Consonants

‫ ا‬Bilabial
2٠ Labiodental
‫في‬. Dental
4. Alveolar
5. Palato-alvcolar
6. Palatal
7. Velar
8. Uvular
9. glottal

The manner 0٤consonant articulation refers ٤0 how this obstruction

(whether complete or partial) of he air stream takes place. For example,
if the 21٣ stream 15 completely obstructed at a certain 0011٤ in the vocal
tract before 1٤ 15 released, 1٤ 1‫ ؛‬called a stop, as 110 the production 0٤ 0,
0‫ و‬t, ‫ ول‬k, 2]. 11 the obstruction is partial, we 21‫ ن‬produce 2 fricative, as
110 the production of [1‫ و‬V, s, 2]. And 80 010.
110 ٧00091 articulation almost entirely depends 010 the position 0
1110 tongue in the 021 cavity. 116 tongue is either high, mid 01 10٧٧ 110 the
mouth; 1‫ ا‬:‫ ى‬also either 11٦ the front, the centre or the back of the mouth.
٨ vowel is actually described in terms 0٤ these 5٧0 positions: high __
low 210‫ ل‬front___ back. For example, according ٤0 the position of the
tongue 111 the mouth, English vowels can 0‫ ي‬classified into front, central
or back vowels. Diagram 1.3 18 310 illustration.

13
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
 Diagram 1.3 110 Position of the Tongue for English Vowels

(The position of the vocal organs for the vowels 111 the words 1
heed, 2 113 ‫ ول‬head, 4 had, 5 father, 6 good, 7 1004). 11130 ‫ ه‬positions
for vowels 24 ‫ و‬3‫ و‬211‫ ل‬are 110 between those shown for 1 and 5. The 11‫م‬
position ٤0[ vowel 6 18 between those shown 101 1 and 7 (Ladefoged,
1993)

٧‫ ه‬will return to speech production (and reception) and English

consonants 211111 ٧070015 ‫ ل‬Units 2 and 3 respectively.

SAQs (420)
1. What are the different types of phonetics study?
2. What is articulatory phonetics concerned with?
3. What are the different speech organs?
4. 110 what way 15 the articulation of consonants different
from the articulation of 00٦0112

Exercise (2) ‫ا‬

Look ‫ اه‬Diagram 1.2 and attempt 10 identify 10٤ 01205 ‫ه‬
articulation ‫ [م‬the underlined consonants:
Icup ...................................
2. Oce ...................................
3. hin ...................................
4. kick ...................................
5٠ receive ...................................

Unit One ٤٤8 and Phonology

41012
 Exercise (3) 20
Underline the sounds indicated in brackets 11 each 0٤ the
following words:
!.ban (stop)
2. fair (fricative)
3. much (affricate)
4. net (nasal)
5. falcon (lateral)

Exercise (4) ‫ال‬

10 19 space opposite 220 of 102 foliowing words, write
whether 1٥ underlined letter(s) represents ‫ ه‬front, central or
hack vowel,
1. leaf
2. food (.............................. )
3• put
4.400 (.............................. )
5. cut (.............................. )

4.1 Minimal Pairs

110 section 1 above, it was mentioned that phonetics is the study
0٤ the properties 0٤ human sounds 110 general, not 11٦ 4 particular
language such 45 English or Arabic. 119 study 0 the human
sounds 5‫ ه‬they are used 11 2 specific language is called phonology.
Phonology studies the characteristics of the consonant and vowel
sounds 28 they are used 10 form meaningful words. Thus if ٧9 take
the sound [f] and 10‫ ه‬sound [v] and say fan 21‫ ل‬van, ٧0 notice that
the change 11010 /1/ ٤0 /٧/ has produced a change 111 the meaning of
fan 1110 van. The sounds used 110 a particular language in this way
are called phonemes. We will return ٤0 the concept of the phoneme
later 110 018 course. Sounds, now called phonemes, used 110 this way.

15
Unit 0‫م‬ Phonetics 1‫ لم‬Phonology
1910 to distinguish the meaning of ‫ ه‬wo d from another word. Thus
they act ٤0 101100 various sound patterns of a particular language.
Phonemic distinctions 10 2 language 210 0‫ ه‬tested through
comparing 11‫ ه‬pronunciation of 02115 of words which are identified
110 form except for 2 contrast 10 000 phoneme occurring at the same
000811011 (‫ اه‬the beginning, 11110019 or end 05004 ٤ ‫)ه‬. Such ٤٧0
words, .0‫ع‬.‫ ق‬and 20‫ ل‬are described 45 2 minimal pairs, and ٤10
test 28 ‫ ه‬minimal pair test. Table 1.1 shows some minimal pairs 101
English consonant 200 vowel phonemes.

Table 1 .1 Some Minimal 102119 For English Phonemes

Consonants Vowels
‫اجا‬-0‫ا‬ pig-big ٢vJ-W seat-sit
bee-tea l٦l٠ld sit-set
Ki’ tin-din ‫ا‬el-lai set-sat
!‫سه‬ ‫ل‬110-‫ن‬1 lai-IN cat-cut
)‫لل‬-‫لعا‬ cap-gap IN٠٠la٠٠l 1٤-91٤
‫صا‬ gag-hag la.٠|i|١٥l cart-cot
/h/-/rn/ hen-men /٥٨۵:/ cot-caught
‫س‬-1‫الأ‬ 111410-1140 ‫دا‬٠‫ا‬-15‫ا‬ cord-could
‫لىا‬-‫اوا‬ sin-sing 15‫إ‬-٦٦٠‫ا‬ pull-pool
‫ااوا‬-‫ااا‬ sink-silk /u:/-/ʒ:/ pool-pearl
IVI-lvl lid-rid 5٠‫ا‬-‫احإ‬ pearl-pale
lil-lwl red-wed led-lfctl day-die
‫ا‬5‫ال‬-‫اأا‬ well-yell 1‫األ‬1-‫ا‬٠‫الد‬ buy-boy
‫اذا‬-‫الم^ا‬ youhew bdifeŋl toy-toe
/‫ل‬/-/05/ chin-gin hoe-how
‫|ذها‬-|‫اأ‬ large-laugh /ao/i/iə/ now-near
|‫|؟‬-|‫|ال‬ fat-vat 1‫س‬-1‫جًا‬1 tear(noun)-tear
) l(
‫؛‬ear-tour
|‫|ال‬-|٩| heave-heath ‫ا‬٤‫إو‬-‫اأ‬

Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

■..‫'لى‬.-;.'‫;ذش;ثص‬-;‫يذ‬,٦:::‫ب؛‬٠'-‫ربب‬-‫ل'ئ‬:‫سكليلي'آلةل‬٦‫ا‬-‫د‬٠:٠;'‫'ىدلم‬-''‫ذلم‬٣'''"-'-'":';‫■■ت؛’د‬
 wreath- ‫اهكةا‬-‫انذا‬ sure-she
wreathe
/ð/-/s/ though-so /ə/- zero waiterwait
isHzl bus-buzz
/z/-/ʃ/ zoo-shoe
|‫|آل‬-|١| confusion-
confession

!‫اة‬-‫إل‬ beige-bait

(1101 110 Cambridge Encyclopedia 0٤ Language, 1993)

When 2 group of words are differentiated 110100 each other by 0119-

phoneme change 10 110 same position, such ‫ ه‬group 15 called a minimal
set. Eor example 2 minimal 6010 ٧0145 0‫ ا‬٤ the 002818 01 consonants 15
fan, ban, van.2 ‫هن‬0‫ و‬100210‫ه و‬11‫ ل‬set based 010 vowel phonemes 15 fee fit.
fat, fate, fought.

SAQs (5)
1. What are the sounds 113 a particular language called?
2. What is the difference between 2 minimal pair and 2 minimal set?
3. 1105٧ do you know that sounds (phonemes) form specific

Exercise (5) ‫له‬

100* ‫ه‬٤ the following pairs 0٤ words. Underline the word
you hear.
Lpack back
2.0092* beak
3. plays blaze
4. pull 0111
5. pit bit
6. bark park
7 bride pride
8. port sort

17
UnitOne Phonetics and! Phonology
 9.01‫ع‬ big
10.‫ا‬80 120

Exercise (66) (70

Give minimal pairs ٤0 contrast 10 following consonants.
٦.1‫م لمم‬٩1‫لم‬
1٦١1‫فىم‬. 1‫هاًاة‬
‫ل‬1‫إسإاآ‬٦١‫أ‬
4. /5/2101/100/

5. 1‫سس‬1‫؟‬
6٠ 11٢‫ا‬1‫؟اس‬
٦٠ ‫ دل‬fa!
8.!‫ل^امه لم‬
9. !٦١‫أس ؛‬١‫ل‬
0.‫ال‬2‫اال‬

4.2 Comptementary Distribution 40‫ لم‬Free Variation

Minimal pairs show that speech sounds are contrastive 110 ‫ه‬
language. For example 111 English, /0/ 200/ ‫ل‬/ are two distinct sounds
48 using 002 110 ‫ ه‬word instead of the other changes 10 meaning 0٤ that
word, .‫ع‬. pack and k. However, not all sounds 111 language 0200
the meaning 0٤ words. For example, 110 English, there 18 011/ ‫ه‬/ sound
only hut :٤ 15 2 clear /1/ at the beginning 0٤ 2 word such 28 1101 and a
dark /1/ (transcribed phonetically 11 ‫] ىه‬1[( ‫ ىه‬pull. Such two varieties 0٤
/1/ are called 211000095 (see Unit Two),
The /1/ sound 0[ phoneme 18 100٤ the only consonant 111 English that
has 2110000098. (٨8 you know, 1٤5 allophones are the clear /1/ and 10
dark//.
11 English, 1‫ ه‬use of allophones (or the different realizations 0٤
11‫ ه‬same phoneme) is brought about in ٤٧0 2598 (cf. 3.1 200٧):
1. When the position 0٤ 1‫ ه‬phoneme in the word or syllable
changes 15‫ ا‬pronunciation.
These positions 22:

‫نعل‬٤00‫ع‬ Phonetics and Phonology

 2. ٨ clear /1/ 15 used ‫ه‬٤ the initial position 0٤ 110 ٧01‫ ل‬or
syllable, eg light 204 2 dark /1/ at the final position 01 the
word or syllable before consonants, e.g. ‫ اللك‬20‫ ل‬silk,
0. ٨0 aspirated /0/, or // 01 /1/ (that is, having 2 stronger
sound with more breath producing 2 // sound along 501٤1
1٤) 15 used at the beginning 0٤ words 0 syllables such as /
pbɪn/pin,/1 in/ tin and ‫ل‬: ‫ا‬/ cool, but 00 aspiration when
preceded 0210 ‫ ل‬/s/ sound 8 /spin/ spin, /sti:m/ 8‫ما‬2100‫ و‬and /
sku:l/ school.
c. An adjacent sound (usually 2 vowel) changes 100 quality of
the consonant phoneme producing 210 allophonic variation
e.g. /kæt/ cat, /kʌt/ cut and/ 191100/ came. 10 these words the
// sound tends 10 be affected by the following 00 21. ٧ ٧
11 2. 200 ‫ل‬. above the allophonic variation is conditioned 0 ‫ال‬
٤
the position 0 the phoneme in the word 01 syllable (initial 0• final 0
occurring before ‫ ه‬constants as in /1/) 0 preceded 5/ ‫آل‬/ or not as 111 /p/,
// or/k/. 110 c, however, the variation in the allophones 18 conditioned by
‫ ه‬phonetic context (that 15 the vowel sound following the consonant
in the word 01 syllable). 110 211000098 in a, b or c are said to 09 110
٤
complementary distribution, that 15 one 211000000 0 the same phoneme
‫ه‬
15 used 110 00 position 10 the word or syllable, and another allophone 0 ٤
the same phoneme is used 110 another position.
2. When ٤100 same speaker produces slightly different
٤
pronunciations 0 the 521100 sound. Such differences produce
different allophonic realizations ‫ال‬٤ these realizations of ٤9
same phoneme may change 2110 therefore 210 called ‫د‬
variations.

1. What are three types of allophonic variations?

2. What is the difference between complementary distribution and

001٤013
19 Phonetics ‫ه‬1‫ ل‬Phonology
 Exercise (7)
Pronounce the following words:
2. park ٤ skin
0. speak 2. 19‫ه‬
c. Ted 1. else
‫ل‬. stand i. hill
e. kin j٠ lull

Exercise (8)
Identify the dark /1/and aspirated /ph/, /1/, and // 10 110 words
below: (write D for dark /1/ and ٨ for aspirated sounds):
a. purse................ .................... f. soldier...................................
00. holding........... .................... g. caught...................................
‫ ع‬٤‫ح‬210................ .................... 1. tumble..................................
‫ل‬. national........... .................... i. pure..........................................

Exercise (9)
Identify the consonant sound following the vowel sound 10 each
0٤ the following words. Write down 110 consonant sound 0011
identify below:
. look............................ fput........................................
b. like.............................. g. pit........................................
c. late.............................. h, peep.....................................
‫ل‬. leave.......................... i. Catch .....................
e. pat............................... j. caught.................................

4.3 Distinctive Features

٨5 mentioned above, phonetics 15 concerned with describing the
500000 sounds that occur 10 the various languages of the world. These
sounds can be divided into types 01 segments, each type 0٤ which has
certain common characteristics 0‫ م‬features as follows:

Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

'‫ا=د;ألد‬٦‫بس‬,-^,‫ح‬٠‫آ=آيب''آل‬:‫؛‬٦'٠٠'٠--'‫ذتا؛‬--‫د‬٠
 Voiced 01‫ م‬Voiceless
A speech sound 1‫ ى‬either voiced 01 devoiced (voiceless) depending
010 whether 110 vocal cords vibrate during its production. When the
vocal cords are apart, lung 21٣ flows freely through them causing 00
vibration, 20‫ لم‬hence the sound produced is called voiceless, e.g. [p],
[t]j [1]. 010 the other hand, 1٤the vocal cords are held together, lung air
forces its way through them causing them to vibrate, hence producing
a ١oiced sound, e.g. //, /d/, /g/. Therefore a sound segment 18 either
voiced or voiceless.
110 order ٤0 recognize the difference between ‫ ه‬voiceless sound
segment, try pronuncing a long V sound such as vyyvy, then compare
1‫ ا‬with ‫ ه‬long f sound such 25 1, 00010 01 which are formed 10 the
same way 110 the month. The difference 18 that [v] is voiced and [1] is
voiceless.

Lip-Rounded or-Unrounded
Some sounds are lip-rounded (produced with ‫ ه‬protrusion 01 the
11005 25 in [10 [‫[ ل‬w]) 01 lip-unrounded (produced with 1105 either 111 ‫ه‬
spread position such as [29] 01 6 neutral position such as [9] or [t].
It should be noticed that some lip-unrounded sounds 111 isolation
may acquire 1110 rounding 5٧11910 followed 10‫ آل‬a lip-rounded sound. 10‫؟‬
example ‫ حما‬English /15 /‫ ا‬unrounded but it becomes rounded when 15 ‫ام‬
used before the rounded /u/ 110 ‫ ىه‬the word ٤٤٢7٧0.3
Aspirated or Unaspirated
"Aspiration" refers to 00‫ ا‬slight delay after the release 0٤ 4
voiceless stop sound (fp], [٤] or k ) 210111 ‫ ل‬beginning of the voicing
of the following vowel sound. 1‫؟‬01 0*210001‫ وح‬when 0‫ ال‬pronounce the
English word tie, you can feel 2 puff 0٤ air between producing the /٤/
and the rest of the word.
In English the sounds /p, ‫ وا‬k/ are always aspirated when they occur
initially 5‫ ه‬in pie, ‫ جنا‬211‫ ل‬key. However they are unaspirated 11 they are
preceded by a voiceless sound as 110 spy, stay and sky. Similarly, 11 0‫آل‬
occur between vowels such as 110 rapid, they are unaspirated.
The Arabic /t/ and /Id can also be aspirated 111 stressed initial

21
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
positions as 110 (1241107 (00‫“ ه (تام‬Kaamil” (‫(كامل‬. 18‫لما‬٤ even in initial
positions, these sounds are 00‫ ا‬aspirated 11 they are unstressed, as 110
“tamrin" (‫ه (تمرين‬11‫ ل‬،،kitaab” (‫)كتاب‬.
However, 110 0040 languages aspiration does 100٤ have 2 contrastarg
effect. 110 other words, 11 601000 000 pronounces the word take with an
aspirated 01 unaspirated /‫ا‬/‫ا و‬1‫ ه‬meaning 0٤ the word 110 both 4895
remains the same. 110 contrast, aspiration has 20‫ م‬important effect 10 other
languages such as Hindu.

Pulmonic or Glottalic
٢٢٧0 cannot produce any sound without a body 01 air. This is tine
even 11 0100 wishes to whistle. Certainly, you cannot whistle if you
prevent the air 0٦ your mouth from getting out by completely closing
your 11105.
Speech sounds are 110 different. Most 01 speech sounds 01 human
languages are produced as 28 result 0٤ the air that 15 pushed out of the
lungs. 111 some languages, some sounds are produced 0‫ آل‬moving not
001‫ ل‬the lung air but the 211 110 the ٧01‫ ه‬tract as well. The movement 0٤
the body of air 18 called airstream mechanism. The source and direction
of the body 0٤ air determines the type of airstream mechanism involved
in the production of speech sounds. Accordingly, human sounds are
produced by three types of airstream mechanism: pulmonic, glottalic
and, in certain cases, velaric.
The airstream mechanism 1‫ ى‬called pulmonic if only lung 211 is
involved 110 the production of a speech sound. 110 other words, 1٤ 4 sound
results from pushing the lung air up the windpipe and releasing 1‫ ا‬from
the mouth 01 the nose, the sound is said to be produced by ‫ ه‬pulmonic
airstream mechanism. Most speech sounds 0٤ different languages are
produced 0‫ آل‬breathing out rather than 10. Try ٤0 produce a sound while
breathing in. surely, you will find it quite difficult 10 produce 2 sound 11
your language does not contain any sound produced this way.
As stated above, the direction of the airstream mechanism, whether
upward 01 downward, also distinguishes the type 0٤ airstream involved
110 the production of speech sounds. The airstream mechanism 15 called

22
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
egressive 1٤ lung ail is released through 00 mouth 01 the nose as 15 the
case 111 100 production 0٤ English sounds. Therefore, we can say that
all 'English sounds are produced 10٧ 210 egressive pulmonic airstream
mechanism. 110 value [‫؛‬pulmonic] 810‫ ن‬be assigned to all English
50111008. 1٤ 15 worth mentioning that 211 Arabic sounds are 4180 produced
by 100 same airstream mechanism.
The production of certain sounds requires using lung 11 together
with the air 110 the vocal tract. Some sounds require, for their production,
using 1100 air of the lungs which 1‫ ى‬compressed 10910٢5٧ the glottis and the
air 110 000 vocal tract. This body 01 air 15 released through the mouth 0‫آل‬
an upward movement of the closed glottis. 010 the other hand, 11 the
010500 glottis 1000٧95 downward, the body 01 ‫ مذه‬will 00 sucked into
the mouth. An upward 0+ downward movement of the closed glottis
produces a glottalic airstream mechanism. 111 order to know 00٢٧ this
airstream mechanism works, try to make ‫ ه‬big constriction 110 011‫ل‬
throat pretend that you are about to cough. Get your ٧0021 cords firmly
together and shut 011‫ م‬the glottis. At 11015 stage, 210 upward movement
0٤ the larynx will push out the air above the larynx while a downward
movement of the larynx will suck in 1110 air and lessen the constriction;
the‫ ؛‬vocal cords will vibrate vigorously as the air flows 111.
The direction of the airstream whether upward or downward
determines the type of sound produced. ٨10 upward movement of the
closed glottis produces a category 0 voiceless sounds called ejectives.
You can feel the movement 01 your glottis 11 you put your finger against
1‫ ا‬while trying ٤0 sing beginning with 8 10٢5٧ tone (saying ‘ahah’) and
then raising your voice to the highest point 1‫ ا‬can reach ‫ اه‬the sound
[211]. Practise doing this several 1110005. You can 2150 practise producing
610 ejective if your try 00 pronounce the word ‘button’ with a glottal stop
[?] (like the Arabic 10210022) and not witha/t/, hence saying 1‫ ا‬as [10٨7٨].
Ejectives occur in languages such 2‫ ى‬Hausa, the principal language of
North Nigeria.
010 the other hand, ‫ ه‬downward movement of the closed glottis
brings about sucking air inwards, producing an ingressive glottalic
airstream mechasim. Sounds made ٢71٤10 such an airstream mechanism

23
Unit One Phonetics 44‫ ل‬Phonology
are called implosives. When the air is drawn 11010 the larynx, the glottis
18 not completely closed. Thus, the air 110 the lungs vibrates the vocal
cords 45 it 15 pushed upward, and hence implosives are voiced sounds.
Such sounds occur 110 languages such 45 Sindhi and several African 211‫ل‬
American Indian languages.
Making 410 implosive 15 100‫ ا‬easy, albeit not impossible. Try ٤0 say
[aba], 210‫ ل‬during the voicing 0٤the [b], 00011 your 11105. You can feel the
downward movement 0٤ the glottis 11 0‫ ال‬put your finger at ‫الم‬.

Short or Long
Length and shortness are two properties that can be assigned to
vowels more than 10 consonants. 10‫ ؟‬example, 110 isolation the English
consonants are 100٤ usually described as being long 01 short. 110 contrast,
the English vowels can 0‫ ه‬divided into two categories: long and short.
The vowels /1: 2 ‫ال‬:‫ و‬0:‫و‬:/ and the diphthongs /ei, 01‫ و‬0‫ وال‬au/ are long
whereas /i, ‫ وال وهه وه‬٨‫و و‬/ are short. Long vowels are also called tense
and short vowels lax. Tense 01 long vowels are produced with ‫ ه‬greater
degree of constriction 0٤ tongue than their lax 0 short counterparts.
Long vowels are given the value [‫؛‬long], and their short counterparts
are termed as ["long].
110 English, we cannot 15‫ ه‬tense 210‫ ل‬lax vowels 110 any context
as ٢٢٧‫ ع‬like. There are rules that govern their occurrence 110 speech.
For example, tense vowels can occur 110 what are called stressed open
syllables- 1‫ اه‬do not have 4 consonant sound ‫ اه‬the end 85 110 "see" 01 110
stressed closed syllables, those having ‫ ه‬consonant sound ‫ اه‬the end as
110 ‫ ة‬seat". 14 vowels, on the other hand, occur only in closed syllables
as 111 "sit". 111 addition, tense vowels are longer 11٦ 00010 syllables than
110 closed syllables. Try ٤0 pronounce the words 110 ‫ا‬1‫ ه‬following table
several times to discover such differences.

Unit One Phonetics ٤01 Phonology

 Tense Vowels Lax Vowels Closed Syllables Open Syllables

i: beat bee
: ٦1٤ -

e bet ‫سمعس‬

a: bar ah
bat ‫سسسه‬

9٠ ‫ي‬ bought saw

1٤٠ boot boo
good ‫سسس‬

u but ---

ei ٨ bait bay
OU boat bow
21 ‫م‬ bite buy
44 bout bough
01 void Boy
ju: cute cue

Table 1. Tense and lax vowels 110 stressed syllables.

By 100 same token, Arabic vowels can 00 divided into two
categories:
Long (tense) and short (lax). 1100 long vowels /a:, ً‫ال‬: and 1: /210
tense. And their short counterparts /a, ‫ وال‬and 1 /are 14*. However, 110
stressed syllables they may occur 111 91119‫ ا‬restricted contexts.
However, there ‫ حممة‬two 1008110 factors that affect the length 01
shortness 0٤ a speech sound: the neighboring sounds, 210110 00511010 ‫ ل‬1‫ىا‬
the word. For example, the vowel /a/ 15 much 600191 before a voiceless
6100 5‫ ه‬in “cap” than it 15 before a voiced stop 48 110 (‘cab”. Consequently,
0100 may assume that the word "cab” is longer than “cap”. This 18 not
true since the voiceless stop /10/ 15 longer than the voiced 5010 /%/.
1100 fact that syllables final voiceless consonants are longer than
their voiced counterparts 18 0010000001٦ 10 English and may be 111 other
languages. Similarly, a consonant 15 longer in final positions than in
initial positions. 110 the words “bib, did, pip, kick” the final consonant 1‫ى‬
relatively longer than the one in initial position 110 the same word.
25
Unit 000 Phonetics and Phonology
 Vocalic or Non-Vocalic
110 producing a speech sound, two major conditions affect its
quality. One 15 the shape 01 100 oral cavity. 11‫ ه‬other 15 the state 01 the
vocal cords. 110 the 0121 cavity, the airstream is constricted 113 some way,
and 1015 constriction 110 turn affects 100 type 0٤ sound produced. 1100
vowels /1:/ 2011/ ‫ل‬:/ are produced with the greatest constriction of the
oral cavity.
٨5 mentioned earlier, the vocal cords ‫ه‬1‫ ه‬either wide apart from
each other or held together. 110 the former position, voiceless sounds are
produced whereas 10 the latter position voiced sounds are produced.
Again, 110 the production 0٤ the vowels /1/ 2100 /ً‫ال‬/ the vocal cords 21105٧
101 spontaneous voicing.
According to these two features (i.e. constriction 01 the oral cavity
and the state 0٤ the vocal cords), speech sounds 0210 00 classified 28
vocalicornon-vocalic. In producingvocalicsounds,these twoconditions
must be satisfied. 010 the other hand, 11 producing non vocalic sounds
0109 or 0011 of these conditions are 100‫ ا‬satisfied. As for English, ٧050015
are all vocalic while consonants are non-vocalic. Therefore, vowels 0211
00 given the values [‫؛‬vocalic] 20‫[ ل‬-consonantal]; whereas consonants
can be given the values [-vocalic] ‫ه‬10‫؛] ل‬consonantal]. 011 the other
hand, semivowels 5110 as /w/ and /‫ل‬/ ‫[ همه‬-vocalic] and [-consonantal]
because when they are produced the air does not have a free passage
through the vocal tract, nor are they produced 5٧1100 major obstruction.
1‫ م‬contrast with these 500 sounds, /1/ and /r/ are voiced sounds and the
airstream has ‫ ه‬free passage during their production. They are therefore
[‫؛‬vocalic] and [‫؛‬consonanta].

1. What are the six types of distinctive features.

2. Give examplesofEnglish sounds to show the contrast between
the pair in each type of these distinctive features.

26
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

٦٠‫ب‬٦‫ت‬..:.,‫~تصة‬.,‫ذ‬.;‫حر‬:‫ع‬::„,٠.٦. :٠.:٠:‫ج‬::‫تصت‬:‫آدح‬٦,‫د‬.-;٠٦‫يئل;ثتئ‬:‫تت‬::٠.‫ة_آل‬٠‫ل‬٠;‫الئي‬:‫حبآلآ‬.‫ث‬:‫„آل‬
 Exercise (110)
٧111 ‫ل‬01‫ ل‬hear each of the following minimal pairs. While
listening repeat 02010 set 20‫ ل‬indicate the initial sound 0٤
each pair ‫ ىه‬being voiced or voiceless.

Exercise (111) ‫ا‬٧

Mark 0‫ه‬sound as 1 ]‫؛‬voice[ 01 [-voice] as shown 113 the
,given example
b ]‫؛‬voice[
p ٤
(
d
k
g ‫ي‬
٣1 r
m 1
q ٦٢٢
f ‫ز‬
٢٧
0

Exercise (112)
11210 a 1021105٧ transcription 01 each of the following examples
indicating devoiced sounds which are normall voiced.
Five examples.
!want ٤0 leave
We pray
5100 visited two places
110 took a nap
I went there
Swim
True

27
Unit One Phonetics 21‫ ل‬Phonology
 Exercise (13) 0
Makeanarrowtranscriptionofthe followingwords indicating
voicing and/or 11‫ م‬rounding 0 f the underlined sounds where
possible,
pray
cue
coin
twin
crane
000
‫ليا‬
true
swim
blue

Exercise (14) ‫لكا‬

1. Underline the words 11001012110 ‫ اه‬sounds uttered with rounded
lips,was want four fair vowel vocal cords cards
twenty
2. Underline the sounds which are produced with rounded lips:flew
draw dwindle sure pot boy 100‫ ا‬cue 211 vote

Exercise (15) 0
Make ‫ ه‬narrow transcription indicating the aspirated stops 110
the following 500105.
kate
take
pay
d
retain
repair
recur
51040

Unit One 28 Phonetics and Phonology

 skate
steak

Exercise (16)________________________________________ (71

While listening, repeat each 5001‫ه ول‬10‫ ل‬underline the word
that contains 810 aspirated sound.

ta
Exercise (17)
110 each pair, circle the word in which the underlined sound 1‫ ى‬longer.
why white
meet 111
back bag
110 pit
,
food foot
tip 111
tick kd
roof move

Exercise (18) 70
Listen,and repeat 02011 word, and then indicate the tense and
lax vowels sound 110 each.

5. Prosodic Features
5.1 Word-, Phrase- and Sentence- Stress
Consonants and vowels, 25 pointed above, constitute the basic
speech units. But when we use language 10 express our thought, we 00
100٤ use these segments 110 isolation. Instead, we combine them 110 certain
patterns to form larger speech units. The next larger unit that results
from combining consonants and vowels is the syllable. For 0*2100019,
the English word a 15 made 0100 01 ‫ مال‬syllable, the word money 01 two
syllables and the word motherly of three syllables. (We ٢5٧111 return to

29
Unit One Phonetics and Phono iogy
the syllable in Unit 1٢5٧0).
110 addition, language users colour their utterances by making
certain syllables stronger 0210 other, stress certain syllables and words,
producing certain syllables at a louder pitch, raising their voice ‫أه‬
certain intervals during their speech, etc. 1100 features that speakers
superimpose 00 certain syllables are called prosodic or suprasegmental
features. They include stress, intonation and rhythm. Stress will 00
discussed 110 this section, and intonation and rhythm 110 the following
100 sections respectively.
٨5 stated above, words may consist 0٤ one 01 more syllables.
111 words up of two 0 more syllables, there 15 always (110 English 101
example) 00‫ ه‬syllable which 18 said more loudly and more strongly
than the other syllables (5). For example, the word about consists 01
two syllables a and ‫ياالوط‬. 110‫ ه‬first syllable 15 uttered with a reduced
vowel /ə/, the second is produced with 8 1011 vowel /baut/. Therefore,
the first syllable 15 said ٤0 00 unstressed whereas the second 15 stressed.
111 speech, the speaker 9118 greater respiratory effort with stressed
syllables than with unstressed syllables. 110 other words, 4 stressed
syllable 15 produced with a greater amount of air which 15 pushed out
of the lungs. 1140 stressed syllable 5‫ ذ‬louder and is indicated by 8 8100211
mark (٧) placed 010 ٤00 before its nucleus 25 110 110 following examples.

a’rrive
‫؛‬mother
pre’pare
examine
110 words containing only one syllable, the same degree 0٤ stress is
maintained throughout the whole word. 110 longer words, several degrees
0٤ 511055 are thought 10 be distinguishable. However, since estimating
the degree 0٤ stress is not ‫ه‬10 928‫ آل‬task, the primary stress is normally
placed ‫ اه‬the beginning 0٤ the stressed syllable and the other syllable(s)
15 (are) understood 10 00 unstressed. The primary stress 15 represented
by the mark (٤) placed at the beginning 01 the stressed syllable 69210 ‫ىه‬
110 the words above.

Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

 Although the position of 1‫ ه‬stress does 10‫ ا‬change when 6 word
occurs 111 isolation, 1100 stress can 00 shifted 10 2 different position when
11‫ ه‬word 15 used 111 a word group, that 15 110 ‫ ه‬phrase. 10 example, the
word "remarkable" has the 1002110 stress 010 ٤‫ ه‬second syllable (that 18
re’markable). But when used 110 the phrase "a remarkable invention",
the main stress 1‫ ى‬shifted ٤0 100 second syllable of the word "invention"
(that 15 2 remarkable in ‫؛‬vention). However, the second syllable 110 the
word "remarkable" remains stressed 110 19121010 0٤ the other syllable 111
the same word.
110 placement of 00 primary stress 0‫ هن‬also be affected 0‫ل‬
the adjacent words in the sentence. When said 10 isolation, 00
word '‫؛‬unknown”, for example, 15 stressed 010 both syllables (that 18
‫؛‬unknown). 110 the phrase ‫؛؛‬an unknown 1204, the stress 010 the second
syllable 15 weakened 2100 hence pronounced as ‫؛‬unknown. However,
110 the expressions ‫؛؛‬quite unknown”, the first syllable is weakened and
hence said as ‫؛؛‬un known”.
1100 most frequent modification (e.g. dropping) 0٤ stress takes
place 110 actual communication 5010210 some words are stressed more
than 010915. 11‫ ه‬location 0٤ the main stress largely depends 00 the
meaning intended by the speaker. Thus 00٥ 210 stress any word 110 1015
utterance even those which are normally unstressed. For instance, 1٤the
speaker means that both ‫؛؛‬Mary and Jane should come to the party”, he
emphasizes 0‫ ه‬grammatical word ‫؛؛‬and” 5٧1100 15 usually unstressed 110
similar contexts. Similarly, this holds true 0٤ the conjunction "or” if the
speaker means that either ‫؛؛‬Mary or Jane should 001000 ٤0 the party”.

1. What is meant by prosodic features?

2. What are the two main types of stress?
3. What is ٤100 difference between word-stress, phrase-
stress and sentence-stress?
4. Is there a difference between stress 010 words 110 isolation
and in connected speech?

31
UnitOne Phonetics and Phonology
 Exercise (119) (0
Listen 20‫ ل‬repeat the following words, indicating 1100 stressed
611201(6) 110 each:

Exercise (20)
Put the appropriate stress (primary or secondary) in 115 proper
00511010 in the following expressions:
Compound noun Modifier ‫؛‬Noun
English teacher English teacher
Whitehouse white house
blackboard black board
shortstop short stop
(70
Exercise (21‫)ل‬
State the 51955 61011 in the following expressions:
tiresome tiresome job
remarkable remarkable success
praiseworthy praiseworthy achievement
blooming blooming plant
contract(n) contract 011090
0
Exercise (22)
Place the appropriate stress(es) on the following words:
contract(v) contract(n.)
permit(v٠) permit(n)
bluebird (compound 100110) blue bird (modifer+noun)
lookout (compound 10010) 10 100 out (verb+adverbial)

5.2 Rhythm
Rhythm،، 10 example 110 English, is closely associated with st ess.
As pointed above, the words which are most important ٤0 the meaning

32
‫زأ‬nit One Phonetics and Phonology
usually contain stressed syllables. In connected speech, those stressed
syllables are said at regular intervals 0 time. The speaker spends the
same amount 0٤ time when he moves from one stressed syllable to
another. This process 15 called rhythm.
Try to count from 1 10 6‫ و‬you will feel that moving 10100 one
number 10 another takes the same amount 01 time. When you say 7,
50101010 consists 01 two syllables, one stressed 210‫ ل‬10‫ ح‬other unstressed,
you feel you say it with the same amount 01 time as that 01 the other
numbers. If you count 110110 1 ٤0 10‫ و‬you utter eleven syllables because
7 has two syllables (se ven), yet you actually produce 001٧ 191٦ rhythmic
beats.
Another example which clarifies rhythmical patterns is children’s
verses. Beat ‫ اه‬the stressed syllables 01 1‫ ه‬following verse and notice
how regular the 110111100 is:
’Tinker, tailor, 'soldier, 'sailor ...
'richman, 'poorman, 'beggarman, 'thief...
'Thinker, 'tailor, 'soldier, 110 man, 00001 man, 'beggarman,
'thief...
110 these 5٧0 examples, there is one unstressed syllable between
every two syllables. In the following example, there are ٧0‫ ا‬unstressed
syllables between each pair of stressed syllables. Nevertheless, ‫ ه‬regular
rhythmic pattern is maintained throughout the verses.
1١ like ٤0 go in the 'garden ...
1 'like to ‫ أهع‬up 011 the 'wall...
I 'like ٤0 'do anything 'really...
But 1 'hate 00 'nothing at 'all...
Here the beats across these lines match the galloping 0٤ 2 horse.
Thisis,infact,avery importantcharacteristic [Link] this regularly
repeated rhythmic pattern, among other devices, that distinguishes
poetry from prose.

Find a children’s song ‫ ي‬poem) and try to identify its ،‫ا‬

rhythmic pattern.

33
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
 Exercise (23) 70
stressed syllable. I

Exercise (24) (270

100 the same thing as 110 the previous exercise. While listening
beat ‫ اه‬the stressed syllable.

5.3 Intonation
When we speak, we ‫ل‬0 00‫ ا‬say 211 the words 110 the same utterance
with the same time. Rather, out voice sometimes 11505 from a low pitch
10 a high one, or it falls from 2 high pitch ٤0 0 10٢5٧ one; 0 118 ‫ ا‬midway
between these two pitch patterns. Thus, ٢٧‫ ه‬vary our voice pitches, hence
producing different tunes. Changing pitch patterns during speaking
creates a kind ‫ مم‬melody that distinguishes 011‫ ه‬language 10100 another.
English 18 ‫ ه‬highly melodious language.
Intonation refers 10 the pitch pattern that ‫ ه‬speaker uses when
communicating 110 ‫ ه‬certain language. 1100 various patterns are also
referred ٤0 as intonational contours. These contours are not solely meant
10 provide our speech with melody, but they also perform significant
grammatical and attitudinal finctions. 110 addition, they 410‫ ن‬reveal the
speaker’s emotional and mental state 01 mind. 111٥ speaker can say 09‫ا‬
same word with different intonational patterns according 10 the intended
meaning. 101‫ ؟‬example, the word ،،yes” 0410 100‫ ه ه‬answer to 2 question.
Everyone 01 these attitudes can be expressed by saying the 50010 (‘yes”
with a particular intonational pattern. However, the word retains its
actual meaning 110 all 0٤these different attitudes.
Normally, short sentences form one intonational group, viz they
are uttered ‫ اه‬one continuous breath. 110 stressed syllable 0٤ the 1‫ه‬8‫ا‬
word 10 the tone group usually constitutes the tonic syllable over which
the pitch 12115 (goes down) or 11505 (2098 up). Let’s take 210 example.
112111 ‫ ه‬gave the ٤010 ‫ آل‬her brother.

Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

 110 this sentence, which constitutes 011‫ ه‬tone group, the voice
011‫ ا‬starts falling 010 the first syllable 0٤ the word: "brother” which
1‫ ى‬considered the tonic syllable. The tonic syllable can be earlier 110 the
sentence as 110 ٤100 following example:
119 wanted ٤0 ٤0 0‫ ي‬Jordan 010 Friday.
Here the ٤0101 syllable 15 1‫ ه‬first one 110 "Jordan”. Still, the whole
sentence 15 one tone group. Moreover, the same sentence can be made
up 0٤ more than one tone group 2110 ‫ ى‬the following examples 110 which
the slanting stroke represents the tone group boundary:
He sat 010 the bench, /eating a sandwich.
The girl/ gave 1100 toy/ to her brother.
Breaking the sentence 1100 one 01 more tone groups depends 010
1110 speaker. For example, items 110 ‫ ه‬11 ‫ اى‬normally 101110 one 1011٥ group
each, as 110:
He drank tea,/ coffee/ and orange juice,
110 fact, 410 intonational unit 15 a unit of information. ٨ sentence
normally contains information which has already been given 110 a
previous discourse ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬information that 18 announced 101 the 15‫ ا‬time.
Thus, a sentence contains given and new information. New information
is usually set 011‫ م‬in one separate intonantional group. Supposing that
011‫ و‬talks about "iron”, 11010 5001010 be the given information 210‫ ل‬what he
says about 11011 15 the new information. Therefore, when 10٥ says.
Iron is a metal.
“metal” receives the tonic accent since it is the speakers comment
011 the given topic “iron”. But if he is discussing “metals”, then “iron”
receives the tonic accent 45 the new information as in the example.
Iron is a metal.
Intonational patterns
As pointed 01‫ ال‬above, one changes 1018 voice pitch 110 accordance
with the various meanings he intends to convey.
We ٢٧111 return 0‫ نا‬stress, rhythm and intonation when we discuss
60001 production and reception 10 Unit 1٢7٧0 ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬when we discuss
connected speech and 15‫ ا‬aspects 110 Unit Five.

35
Unit 011 Phonetics and Phonology
 SAQs (9) (20

1. What is meant by intonation?

2. How 40 stress, rhythm ‫ه‬1‫ ل‬intonation differ 10100 each other?
3. What is meant be 10 tonic syllable?
Exercise (25) 10

Identify the tone group boundaries in the following sentences.

Use the stroke sign (/) to set off 0100 group boundaries.
Hellen stood 011 the rock watching the sailing boats.
1110 man John was talking to gave 101100 the book.
1111 0‫ ع‬wherever you go.
The teacher gave many assignments ٤0 his students.
1 like apples, oranges and peaches.

Exercise (26) ' 1/

Identify the kind of intonational pattern appropriate for the
following sentences.
510‫ ه‬works at ‫ و‬bank.
What was that noise?
You play golf, don’t you? (The speaker expects the listener ٤0
agree with him.)
You play golf, don’t you? (The speaker expects the listener to
disagree with 101100.)
You play golf?
Stand up! (meant 25 2 threat)
hollow me! (meant as on order)
I heard 11100 say....
A. That is a lovely place.
13. I don’t think so.
How beautiful the picture 15!
Coming?

Unit One Phonetics and Phonolog

 6. Overview
This first unit began with the definition of phonetics and
phonology and how they differ from each other As a step 10
the study of the sound patterns 01 English 110 the following
units, sounds segments 110 language 110 general were introduced.
These were followed 0‫ ل‬prosodic features of language, namely
stress, rhythm and intonation. All these will 1‫ ح‬examined 110
further detail in the context 0٤ English 110 the following units.

7. Preview of Unit Two

111 the following unit. Unit 1٢٧0 speech production and reception
will be examined. 110 this context, the organs 0٤ speech, the place 0٤
articulation and 10‫ ه‬manner 0٤ articulation 110 language. Furthermore,
the concept of 1100 ‫(؛‬phoneme" 20‫ ل‬prosodic, suprasegmental features,
namely stress, rhythm and intonation ٢5٧111 00 discussed 110 firther
detail.

8. Answer Key
Exercise (1)
1. /1/ kind, ba k can, tobacco, school, unique. |en
/e/ met, sad, head, says, many, friend, leisure, msure, myth.
2. lamb, night, when, know, palm.

Exercise (2)
1. bilabial 2. labiodentals, dental
4. velar 5. palato alveolar

Exercise (3)
1.12410 2. fair 3. much 4. net 5. falcon

Exercise (4)
!.Front 2. back 3. back 4. central 5. central

37
Unit One Phoneties 411‫ ل‬Phonology
Excise (5)
11‫ ه‬following words are 10 00 recorded and are therefore underlined
helow.
!, pack 2. peak 3. blaze 4. pull 5. bit
6. park 7. bride 8. sort 9. pig IQ. tab

Exercise (6)
!.met/ net 2. rim/ring 3. kin/king 4. sat/ mat 5, might/fight
6. pun/ puff 7. can/ cab 8. 8110/ sid 9. king/ kit IQ, yank/thank

Exercise (7)
Students pronounce 00‫ ا‬words given.

Exercise (8)
a, pin purse A 0.1110 holding D c, tin teach A
d. 1 in national D .1 110 alter D 1110 soldier D
g, t in caught A h, tin tumble A; 1 110 tumble A
1.10 110 pure A i.

Exercise (9)
a, kin look b, k 110 like . t in late
d. vin leave [Link] pat 1 in put
g,tin pit h. p in peep i٠‫؛‬in catch
j,tin caught

Exercise (10)
pat voiceless bat voiced
fat voiceless vat voiced
kate voiceless gate voiced
tip voiceless dip voiced
sip voiceless 2100 voiced
high voiceless thy voiced

Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

Exercise (11)
b [+ 00100]
10 ]- ٧0109[ [s- voice]
٤ [-voive] [z ‫ ه‬voice]
1 [+ voice] ]‫؛‬--voice[
k [- 00109] [tʃ - voice]

‫ى‬ [+ voice] [ʤ. ۶ voice]

٣1 [+ voice] [1* ‫ا‬-voice]
111 (+ voice] [1 +voice]
4 [- voice] ٣٢٢+ voice]
f [- voice] ٣j+voice]
٢٧ [+ voice]
θ [- voice]

Exercise (12)
Five examples ]11٧ 192‫ح‬:10000012[
!want ٤0 leave [əiwəntə 11 :٧]
We pray [wi: prei]
Swim [swim]
Tune [tiu:n]
Play 10101]

Exercise (13)
Pray [pre]
Cue [kju:] lip-rounding
Coin [koin] lip-rounding
Twin [twin] lip-rounding
Craine [krein]
100[ [pu:] lip-rounding
11‫ل‬ [trail
Swim [swim] lip-rounding
131‫ر‬ [blu:] lip-rounding

39
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
 Exercise (14)
was want four fair vowel oal ds cards
twentyflew draw dwindle sure pot
by root 011 all vote

Exercise (15)
Kate [kit] repair [r'pheə(r)]
1 ‫ومو‬ [teik] recur [rik:(r)]
‫ل‬
104 [pei] space [speis]
Care [keə] skate [skeit]
Retain [ritein] state [steit]

Exercise (16)
Words containing aspirated sounds are: page, cage, time, pipe, key.

Exercise (17)
(why) white )٤110( 0:٤ (tick) 11‫ل‬
meet (me) (food) food (100٤) move
back (bag)

Exercise (18)
Tense vowels 1‫ يو‬vowels
feet fit
boot put
seat set
car come
cught cot

Exercise (19)
The underlined syllables 110 the following words are stressed:
forget phonology
banana pacy

Unit One Phonetics and Phonology

ba on magnetic
lingu ics magnification

Exercise (20)
Compound 1101110 Modifier +noun
'English teacher English ‘teacher
‘White House White ‘house
‘Blackboard blk ‘board
‘Shortstop Short ‘stop

Exercise (21)
tiresome tiresome job
remarakable remarkable success
praiseworthy praiseworthy achievement
blooming blooming 01411٤
contract contract bridge

Exercise (22)
contract (٧) contract (10)
permit (٢٧) permit (10)
bluebird (compound n) bluebird (modifier tn)
lookout (compoundn) lookout (verb‫ ؛‬adverbial)

Exercise (23)
'Twinkle 'twinkle little ,star،.
'Howl ,wonder 'whatyou ,are...
0‫ ل‬a'bove the ,word so ,high...
,Like adiamond 110 ٤0‫ ه‬,sky...

Exercise (24)
,One ,two ,three ,four...
,Mamy ,at the ,cottage 400...
,Five 51* ,seven ,eight...
,Eating ,cherries ,off ,aplate...

41
Unit One Phonetics and Phonology
Exercise (25)
Hellen stood 010 100 rock /watching the sailing boats.
190 / whenever you go.
The teacher/ gave many assignments/ 10 his students,
1 like apples/ oranges/ and peaches.

Exercise (26)
!.Falling 5. Rising 9. Falling
2. Rising 6. Falling 10. Rising
3. Falling 7. Falling 11. Falling
4. Rising 8. Falling 12. Rising

».References
1. Akmajian Adrain et al (1992) Linguistics: An
Introduction to Communication. 3‫ل‬. ed. Cambridge,
Mass.: The MIT Press.
2. Formkin, Victoria 210‫ ل‬Rodman (1993١An Introduction
to Language. 5٥ ed. New York: Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
3. Gimson. ٨.. (1970) An Introduction to the
pronunciation of English. London.* Edward Arnold.
4. ones. Daniel (1956) An English Pronouncing
Dictionary, new edition,, London: Dent.
5. Jones. Daniel (1969) An Outline of English Phonetics.
9‫ا‬٥‫ل‬. Cambridge.
6. Ledefoged, 10 (1993)ACourse in Phonetics, 3rd 94. New
York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Unit One Phonetics 411 Phonology

 ‫‪UlTwo‬‬
‫م■■■■■'■■‪■■-‬‬

‫‪m‬؟‪■:.‬‬
‫ئكلد‬ ‫‪»1‬‬ ‫ى;ل؛س|‬
‫‪'■•!■ :‬ددي‪.'.‬‬

‫مخجخجثثيجتيجنتث^ضخخيثغثف^نثثيينثتخخثثيت^بجججيجننثجثثتخيتييخجتختجتييننينثجننجنختخخثثنيتينثثيثنثتتتثثنثجيثث^ن^ثتتجثنجثنكنننثنن؟‬
 44
Unit Two Speech Production and
deception
 Contents
Subject 120‫ع‬
!.Introduction 47
1.1 Preview 47
1.2 Objectives 47
1.3 Contents 47
1.4 Methodology 48
1.5 Audio-Visual Aids 49
1.6 Evaluation 50
1.7 Supplementary Reading 50

2. The Organs of Speech 51

2.1The Pharynx and the Larynx 51
2.2 The Tongue 53
2.3 The Oral 210‫ ل‬Nasal Tracts 54
2.4 The Glottis and Vocal Cords 55
2.5 The Uvula and Velum (Soft Palate) 57
2.6 The Hard Palate 58
2.7 The Lips, Teeth, Alveolar 1090 and Jaws 59

3. 110 Place of Articulation 0٤ Consonant Sounds 62

3.1 Bilabials, Labiodentals 20‫ ل‬Dentals 62
3.2 Alveolars, Palato-Alveolars and Palatals 65
3.3 Velars 69

4. The Manner of the Articulation of Consonant Sounds 74

4.1 Plosives, (Stops) Affricates 210‫ ل‬Fricatives 74
4.2 Nasals, Laterals, Glides and 1910110*95 74

5. The Place and Manner of Articulation of Vowel Sounds 81

5.1 Front Vowels 82
5.2 Back Vowels 83
5.3 Central Vowels 84

Unit 1500 Speech Production and

Reception
 6. From Sound to Word 85
6٠1 The Syllable 85
6.2 1100 Morpheme 89

6.3 The Word 90

7. Prosodic Supra-Segmental Features 92

7.1 Stress 95
7.2 Intonation 9]
7.3 Rhythm 98

8. Overview 99
9. Preview 0٤ Unit Three 99
٦.85‫آلتعكال‬ 99
11. References 109

46
Unit 1٢٧٧0 Speech Production 401
Reception
 !.Introduction
1.1 Preview
10 0111 0‫ ا‬know how speech sounds are produced, ‫ل‬01‫ ل‬should
know the organs involved 110 their production, 1100 place where they
are produced ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬how they are produced (i.e. the manner of their
production). This unit provides you with such knowledge. Where
necessary, 110 the course of 11015 unit, the differences between some
particular English and Arabic sounds which may cause problems 0‫ا‬
٨120 learners are pointed out. 109109 to the differences between the
pronunciation and the spelling systems of English, some 11‫ اع‬is
also shed 010 105‫ ل‬certain sounds are represented orthographically
(i.e. how 110010٧ ‫ ه‬written).

1.2 Objectives
Upon completing this unit, students are expected 10:
1. identify speech organs and their unctions,
2. draw a diagram of speech mechanism locating the principal vocal
organs,
3. describe the place 210‫ ل‬manner of articulation,
4. recognize 00 difference between sound, syllable, morpheme
and word, and
5. identify the basic characteristics 01 prosodic supra-segmental
features.

1.3 Contents
1. The 0122105 0٤ Speech
1.1 1110 Pharynx and the Larynx
1.2 The Tongue
1.3 The Oral and Nasal Tracts
1.4 The Glottis and Vocal Cords
1.5 The Uvula and Velum (Soft Palate)
1.6 The Hard Palate

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 1.7 11‫ ه‬Lips, Teeth, Alveolar Ridge and Jaws
2. 1100 place of Articulation 0٤ Consonant Sounds
2.1 Bilabial, Labiodental and Dental
2.2 Alveolar, Palate-Alveolar and Palatal
2.3 Velar
3. The Manner 0٤ Articulation 0٤ Consonant sounds
3.1 Plosive, Affricate and Fricative
3.2 Nasal, Lateral, Glide and Retroflex
4. 11‫ ح‬Place and Manner ofArticulation of Vowel Sounds
5. From Phoneme to Word
5.1 The Syllable
5.2 1100 Morpheme
5.3 The Word
6. Prosodic Supra-Segmental Features Revisited
6.1 Stress
6.2 Intonation
6.3 Rhythm

1.4 Methodology
111 addition ٤0 the general methodology described above,
the following techniques are recommended for this unit.
1. Describe briefly the speech organs 150 terms 0٤ location ‫ه‬0‫ل‬
function.
2. Present 8 clear diagram of the internal part of the mouth
showing the 00511010 of the various speech organs.
3. Suggest that students 100 at their own mouth 110 the 10011101 or
watch a motion picture 0٤ the speech organs to notice their
positions and 1005٧ they produce the sounds.
4. Explain to the students the difference 10 the articulation of ٤10
types of sounds, e.g. stops, nasals, etc.
5. Explain and exemplify the development 0٤ syllables,
morphemes and words.
6. Explain ٤0 the students the difference between segmental and
supra-segmental features.

Unit Twa Speech Production and

Reception
 1.5 Audio-Visual Aids
1100 following audio-visual 21‫ ىل‬will be used throughout
this course.
Software
!.Audio and video taped materials recorded 00 native speakers
of English.
2. Phonetic alphabets (eg. IPA symbols) 101 broad and narrow
transcription.
3. Photographs 0٤ tongue positions 011110 cardinal vowels.
4. Illustrations of ths organs of speech.
5. Illustrations 0‫"ح‬the points and manner 0٤articulation.
6. Charts of English and Arabic sounds.
7. Pronouncing dictionaries, .10 .‫ع‬. Jones, 477 English
Pronouncing Dictionary (latest edition).
8. Phonetic readers, eg. J.D. O’Connor, Aew Phonetic Readings
(latest edition).
9. Tables, diagrams, charts, pictures that 10٥110 illustrate the
material discussed 110 the course.
10. Native speakers 01 English as informants.
11. Other similar materials.
B. Hardware
!.Tape recorders.
2. TV sets.
3. Chalk and talk.
4. Realia 210‫ ل‬similar materials collected 0‫ آل‬the teacher and the
students.
5. Language 1200 (if available).
6. Computer (11 available).
7. Internet (if avaiae)

49
Unit Two Speech Production and
deception
 1.6 Evaluation
110 addition 0 the general evaluation techniques suggested
above, the following are recommended 10 this unit.
1. Ask students to describe the function 01 the principal speech
organs.
2. Ask students 0‫ ا‬locate the speech 0122108 010 a 1012110 (ie
unlabelled) diagram.
3. Check whether students identify the articulation of 1110
different types of sound, e.g. stops, nasals, etc.
4. ٨5 questions ٤0 decide whether students become aware 01
the development 01 syllables, morphemes ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬words.
5. Ask questions 0‫ ا‬decide whether students are aware of the
nature 0٤ segmental and supraegmental features.

1,7 Supplementary Reading

Ref. No. Page
1. formkin & Rodman (1993) 0^.٦16-265
2. 311005010(1970) 000. 18-40
3.^3110501(1970) 00. 42-57
4. Jones (1969) 00. 1-52
5. Ladeofoged (1993) 00. 1-22
6. Roach (1985) 000. 8-16
7. 51299001‫ )ي‬1971( 0010. 5-28

50
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
 2. The Organs 0٤ Speech
119 organs of speech indicated on diagram 1.1 (520 Unit 1,
Section 2.3) can 100 divided into two major categories: mobile (which
can 10000) and immobile (which cannot 1000٧9). Mobile speech organs
include the lips, the teeth, 100 tongue, the lower jaw 200 the velum (soft
palate); immobile speech organs are the larynx, the pharynx, the hard
palate, and the alveolar ridge. 10 ‫ ان‬when we speak, mobile organs
always move toward immobile ones. 11015 15 explained 110 the next
section.

SAQs(l)
1. What are the two processes necessary 0 produce 6109901 501111082
20
2. Try 10 produce 1100 following speech sounds, and identify which
speech organs are used 0‫ ذ‬their production: /100/‫ و‬/f/, /t/, /k/, /w/
3. Draw ‫ ه‬diagram of 121‫ل‬00 ٧0‫ ن‬tract and identify 10‫ ح‬location of the
different speech organs on it.

2.1 The Pharynx and the Larynx

110 pharynx 115‫ ح‬between the uvula and the larynx as shown
in diagram 1.1 You can see your pharynx 11 you hold 1001110 ‫ ه‬while
standing opposite ‫ ه‬source of light 210‫ ل‬opening your mouth as widely as
you can. 7٧102٤ you are going to 899 5‫ ذ‬something similar 10 the following
diagram (Diagram 2.1).

51
UnitTwo Speech 1*0^1101010 and
Reception
Diagram 2.1 1100 pharynx (AA pharyngeal sides‫ ؛‬pp pharyngeal cavity.

110٥ sides 01 the pharynx can he held towards each other, leaving
a 108110٢٢٧ opening between them. Practise widening and narrowing the
opening between the 15٧0 pharyngeal sides while looking into ‫ ه‬mirror.
1100 quality 01 109 sound is greatly affected by the shape 0٤this aperture
(i.e. opening).
The back 5٧211 01 the pharynx can 2150 be considered 10‫ه ىه‬
articulator since ‫ اه‬this point the airstream can escape through 00
mouth 01 the nose. 110 fact, another articulator 1‫ ى‬involved together with
the pharynx to perform this operation.
Although English does 00٤ include any pharyngeal 5011005 (i.e.
sounds produced ‫ اه‬the pharynx), Arabic has 1600 pharyngeal sounds:
10 ،100 45 <‫ ع‬first sound 110 <92‫( عين حمآل‬eye) and the ‫ ح‬2‫ و‬the first
sound 10 <haar> (10٤) respectively. 10 fact, 561٥0 we produce these 500
sounds, the walls 0٤ pharynx approach each other so closely 102٤ there
18 only ‫ ه‬small aperture from which air is allowed ٤0 flow.

1. Explain with examples the importance 01 the pharynx 110 00

production 0‫ ا‬speech sounds.
2. While looking 11010 2 mirror, find Arabic words which begin with
،‫ >ح‬and ‫ع‬ and notice 100٦5٧ they are produced ‫ اه‬the pharynx.

52
Unit Two 500901 Production and
Reception
 When air 15 pushed out 0٤ 1109 lungs, 1025525 ‫ ا‬freely through the
windpipe (technically known 48 trachea) ‫ القصبة الهوائية‬. At the top 0٤the
windpipe lies a muscular structure known as the larynx (Adam’s apple
‫ )تفاحة آدم‬you can feel your larynx with your finger, and ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬can make 1٤
move 1110 and down.
What makes the larynx a ٧01‫ ل‬important speech organ is 10‫ اه‬1‫ا‬
contains the vocal cords and the glottis. The larynx is normally 010010 101
breathing. But when we speak, it 15 sometimes partially closed, 25 will
be explained in 2.2.
SAQs (3) 0

1. What 15 the difference between the pharynx 2114 the larynx?

2. What is the trachea?

Exercise(!) ‫لكا‬
What are the 019805 0٤ speech involved 110 pronouncing 110 following
sounds?
[m], [p], [b], [θ], ‫ ح‬,]‫]ع‬

2.2 11‫ ه‬Tongue

The Tongue 18 the most active articulator. Since 1٤ 15 a mobile
organ, it 15 involved with 01191 articulators 110 producing many speech
sounds. You see, for example, 100٦0٧ the t sound 15 010411004 when 1100
tip of your tongue is pressed against your alveolar ridge. What makes
the tongue 2 very important speech organ 1‫ ى‬that it is the only articulator
involved 110 producing vowel sounds 25 will 09 explained 110 3.3 below.
The tongue can be divided into several sections. These are: 110 tip
(0 apex), the blade, the back, and the root. Each of these parts 18 an
important articulator since it is used to produce different speech sounds
(see diagram 1.1).

53
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
Exercise (2) 70
Identify ‫ ها‬part of the tongue that 1‫ ى‬used 10 the articulation of
11‫ ه‬first sounds 10 100 following words:
car ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬rest test west date late 2910 chat sat.

2.3 The 01‫ له‬and Nasal Tracts ‫املمران الشفوي واألنفي‬

When air is released from the larynx, it passes through the vocal
tract which 0005101 ‫ لناى‬two main pats: the oral tract inside 1100 mouth
40‫ ل‬the pharynx 200 the nasal tract within the nose (see Diagram 1.1).
These two tracts represent 10 only two outlets where the air is released
when ٧‫ ه‬produce different speech sounds.
The shape 01 the oral tract greatly affects the kind 0٤ sound we
produce. Some articulators such as the tongue 210‫ ل‬other parts 01 ٤00
10001110 sometimes narrow the shape of this tract while the air 15 passing.
Such narrowing enables US to produce different speech sounds, 25 will
be shown 110 the next section.
During the production 0٤ 9000010 sounds, one of these two tracts
15 open 211‫ ل‬the other is closed. If the oral is open, the nasal tract 5٧111 be
closed. 11‫ ه‬opposite 15 equally true. Say /f/ and /110/ alternately, holding
each 5011101 for ‫ ه‬while. Notice where ٤10‫ ح‬air 1‫ ى‬released with each sound.
110 fact, the air is released through the mouth for the /1/ 8104 through the
nose for the /100/. The sounds produced from the 0001110 are called oral
sounds while those produced 10100 the nose are called nasal sounds.
Consequently, /1/ 18 an oral sound and /100/ 15 4 nasal sound. The next
sub-section (2.5) demonstrates how the nasal cavity 0210 be opened or
closed.

Exercise (3) (71

1. Identify the underlined sounds 110 the following words 45 oral ‫م‬
nasal:
2.1011111 100111 sight night think feel yeal heel

------------------------------------------ 54 ------------------------------------------
Unit Two 90020010 Production and
Reception
‫مي‬ )4(
1. What is the main difference between oral and nasal sounds?
20
2. Find words that contain oral 210‫ ل‬nasal sounds 00110 110 your own
language and 110 English.

2.4 The Glottis and the Vocal Cords

110‫ و‬Glottis ‫فتحة املزمار‬
100 glottis is the space between the ٧0021 cords 110 the larynx, and
through 1‫ ا‬the airstream passes upward. ٢٧11010 we breathe, the glottis 18
widely open, but when ٢٧٥ speak 1‫ ا‬is sometimes partially closed (see
Diagram 2.2 below). 110‫ ا ل‬inhale 210‫ ل‬exhale air continuously 210‫ ل‬notice
10050 you are producing ‫ ه‬series 01 ‘hhhhhh’ sounds. 1100 /10/ sound as 00
first sound 11 ‘hot’ 15 one 01 two sounds that are produced at the glottis.
The other sound is 1100 one called in Arabic ‘alham a ‫ والهمزة‬as the 1115٤
sound 110 ‘anna’ /0/ ‫أن‬.
10 producing these two sounds, the glottis has two different states.
The /1/ 18 produced when the glottis 1‫ ى‬widely 010010 as 101 breathing,
010 the other hand, when the ‘ham a 15 produced the glottis 15 ٢001٧
narrow so that 00 air forces its way though it. Try 0‫ ا‬make a series of
/1/ and ham a sounds alternately (i.e., 0110 after 1100 other), ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬notice
how the air with /1/ passes freely through the glottis whereas with the
(10210022 109015 ‫ ا‬extra force. 130021159 these two sounds are produced at
the glottis, they are classified 2‫ ى‬،glottal’ sounds. 10 Arabic, these two
sounds are 2180 termed ‘laryngeal’ sounds, since the glottis 15 located 110
the larynx.

‫يسع‬,(,)
1. What is the importance 01 1100 121010 2‫ ى‬a speech organ?
θ
2. Describe the 1001010 of 100 glottis 110 producing speech sounds.
3. Describe 00 state 0٤ the glottis 110 the production of the h and the
‘ham a’ sounds.

Unit 1٧0 900000 Production ‫ه‬14‫ل‬

Reception
 The ٧0‫ه‬1 0115 ‫الوتران الصوتيان‬
Across the glottis there are two elastic tissues which stretch
horizontally, one 010 each side of the passage. These 15٧0 tissues are
called vocal cords. Normally, the vocal cords are 0000 0 allow ‫ ه‬person
0‫ ا‬breathe freely. But they are sometimes brought together completely
or partially while speaking. Look ‫ اه‬the following diagram (Diagram
2.2) which demonstrates the three states 01 the vocal 00105.
Diagram 2.2 States 0٤ the vocal cords

Tightly closed Wide open Vibrating

The state of the vocal cords (i.e. whether they are open 0[ closed)
affects the quality 01 the sound we produce. ٢٧10010 the vocal cords
are open, 00 air passes freely through them, and, therefore, they 00
110٤ vibrate (i.e. shake). The sounds produced 110 this way ‫ هه‬called
voiceless. However, 1٤ the 00108 are held tightly together, they vibrate
2‫ ى‬the air forces its way through them. The sounds produced 110 this way
are called voiced sounds. 10 1010 you visualize the difference between
voiced and voiceless sounds, ‫ المامم‬your fingertip against your larynx
while producing a series of (111112 sounds as the first sound 111 ‘fat’ and
a series 0٤ ‫؛‬WWW, sounds as the first sound 110 ‘vat’ alternately.01‫ل‬
should notice that with the /f/ sound the vocal cords 00 not vibrate, but
they vibrate with the /٧/ sound. 110 addition, if you put your fingertips
against your ears while producing those ٤500 sounds, you can hear the
buzzing sound that accompanies the vibration 01 the vocal 00145 during
the production of the /٢٧/ sound, whereas there 18 100 such buzzing with
the /٤/ sound. Therefore, the /٢٧/ sound is voiced and the /1/ is voiceless.
Try to 0‫ ل‬the same exercise with other pairs 0٤ sounds such 2‫ ى‬/s/ and
/2/, /t/ 200/ ‫ ل‬and /00/ 2100/ ‫ل‬/.
The feature of voicing is very important 110 that it 121005 5‫ال‬
distinguish 011‫ ه‬consonant sound from another, and, eventually, 101100

Unit Two 56 Speech Production and

Reception
words 0٤ different meanings. For example, the only difference between
11‫ ه‬words ‘fat’ and ‘vat’ lies 110 the first sound 110 each; in 'fat’ 1٤ is the
voiceless /1/, whereas in ‘vat’ 1٤ is 2 voiced /v/. 110109 0021 cords are
very important articulators since they provide voice for sounds.

2.5 The Uvula and the Velum ‫اللهاة‬

11‫ ح‬uvula 15 11‫ ه‬small part hanging down at the back 011100 velum
(0 soft palate) (see Diagram 1.1). You can easily see your uvula 11 ‫ل‬0‫ال‬
100 into 2 10011101 while opening your mouth 4111٤0 widely.
110 fact, the uvula 15 100٤ involved 10 the production of English
sounds, but 1٤ helps US make the Arabic ‘‫ ’ق‬as the first sound 110 ،qef’
90)‫)قف‬. Say 11015 sound several times 10 see that this sound is produced
when the uvula contacts 110‫ ه‬root of the tongue.
The velum (i.e., soft palate) 15 a muscular flag (1.9. a flat thin
part) that lies immediately 0901100 1100 hard palate 25 shown in Diagram
1.1. The velum 18 10000110 ‫ ه‬organ which can 00 raised or lowered. 110 a
normal breathing position, it is left hanging down or lowered. When the
back of the velum 1‫ ى‬lowered, the air escapes through the nasal cavity,
and 1‫ و‬sounds uttered 10 this way ae called 08921 sounds. But 501190 the
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
 back of 110 velum 15 raised against the pharyngeal wall, the nasal tract
15 ‫ ة‬shut off. 1118 causes the 10 ‫ه‬1‫ م‬escape through the mouth. 1100 sounds
produced 110 this way are termed oral sounds. The following diagram
(Diagram 2.3) illustrates the two different positions 01 10 velum.

Diagram 2.3 ٨. 11‫ ه‬Velum 110 8 raised position; 18. The velum 110 a
lowered 000811010.

Exercise (5) 1/j

Describe the state 01 the velum (whether raised or lowered) 10 the

production 01 100 first sounds in the following words:
set net let met get wet zest cut shut hut

SAQs (7)
1. State the finction of the 500 palate and the hard palate 110 producing
(20
speech sounds.
2. Provide English and Arabic words that contain sounds produced ‫أه‬
the hard palate.
3. Find words that begin with sounds which demonstrate the two states
of the velum.

2.6 The Hard Palate ‫سقف سك‬

The hard palate lies between the velum (soft palate) and the
alveolar 11099. 1‫ ا‬is the bony roof of the mouth. You can touch your hard
-: palate with your finger.
Since 1100 hard palate is an 11000000011٥ articulator, 25 mentioned
Unit Two 58 Speech ?redaction and

Reception
above, 1‫ ا‬is involved 110 sound production ٢501190 another organ moves up
towards it. Try ٤0 52‫ آل‬110‫ ح‬first sound 110 ‫؛‬yes’ and notice 1005٧ the front 01
your tongue moves toward your hard palate.

Exercise (6)
Underline the sounds that are produced at the hard palate 110 the
[L
following ٢5٧0145:
wrong young cue news wet yet city curefew you

2.7 11‫ ه‬Lips, Teeth, Alveolar Ridge 11‫ ل‬Jaws

The Lips ‫الشفتان‬
Both the upper and the lower lips are active speech organs. These
come into contact with each other 0‫ ا‬produce certain sounds. Say 0/ ‫ه‬/
and an /100/ and notice how your lips come into complete contact. Now
say /1/ 20‫ ل‬/٢٧/ and you will notice that your lower 110 comes 11010 contact
with your upper front teeth.
The lips usually assume 15٧0 main positions. They can 00 pursed
(1.0. rounded) 01 left 11‫( اه‬i.e. spread). Compare the first sounds 110 ‫؛‬we’
21‫‘ ل‬tea’ and notice how your 1105 are rounded 101 the first sound 111 ‘we’
and spread 101 100 first sound 110 ‘tea’. 1100 following diagram (Diagram
2.4) illustrates the two positions of the 11105.

Diagram 2.4 ٨. Rounded lips. 13. spread 11005

(A) (13)

Lip rounding is an important featureof certain voweland consonant

sounds ‫ ىه‬will be demonstrated in 3.3 below and 110 Unit Two.

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 Exercise (7) [‫]غ‬

A. Underline the sounds that are produced with rounded lips 110 the
following words:
what young you boot but put cute shut William 100٢٧
18. Underline the sounds that ‫ه‬1‫ ه‬produced ٧110 spread 1108 110 the
following words:
cheese chose meat mat fall fail ٤211 talk tail tell

SAQs (8)
1. Describe 100‫ ا‬function of ٤1‫ ه‬teeth and the 1105 110 producing speech
(20
sounds,
2. Find sounds that are produced 4‫ ا‬these two places 01 articulation.

The Teeth ‫األسنان‬

110 fact, we use the upper teeth only 110 producing speech 6011008.
Try ٤0 say the first sounds 10 ‫؛‬thin” 2114 (111022 respectively and notice
10٢5٧ the tip 01 your tongue touches your upper front teeth for the ‫؛‬th’
and how your lower 110 touches them for the /f/.

Exercise (8)
Underline the sounds that are 010014000 at the teeth :10 the following
0
words:
father fifth eighth there win with tent tenth
another although

11‫ ه‬Alveolar 181‫اللثة ع‬

The alveolar ridge behind the upper teeth (see Diagram 1.1) You
can feel your alveolar ridge with your finger 01 the tip 0٤ your tongue.
This 15 410 important articulator since many English sounds 21‫ ح‬produced
when the tip of 00 tongue is pressed against it 01 approaches it. 92‫ آل‬//
as the first sound in ‫؛‬take’ 210‫ ل‬notice how the tip 0٤ your tongue is
pressed against your alveolar ridge.
Unit Two 60 Speech Production and

Reception
 Exercise (9) ‫لكة‬
Underline the sounds which are produced at the 21090121 ridge 10 the
following words:
11٤ lid rid kiss sick 41^12 there ship chip bed

SAQs (9) 20
1. Comment with examples 010 110 function 01 the alveolar ridge 2110
10 tongue 110 producing speech sounds.
2. Give example 0٤ English and Arabic 500145 that contain sounds
produced 101109 ‫ آل‬tongue together with other speech organs.
3. Draw a diagram of the tongue and assign its different parts.

The Jaws ‫الفكان‬

The jaws are not directly involved in the production 0 speech
sounds, 110 other words, 110 sounds 10‫ ه‬produced ‫ اه‬them. However, only
the lower jaw can be raised or lowered during the production 01 certain
sounds. Try ٤0 look into 10011101 ‫ ه‬while saying ‫ا‬0‫ ه‬vowel sounds 10 ‘you’
and ‘cat’ and notice how your lower jaw 18 raised 101 1100 vowel 110 the first
word and lowered for the one 110 the second. This movement, together
with 110 rounding, can affect the quality 01 the produced sounds.
Exercise (1.0) (Zl

Describe 1100 state 01 your lower jaw (raised 01 lowered) 10 the

production 01 the underlined sounds 110 the following ٧0108:
flu flee grow agree shoot blood soup seat sue fur

SAQ٠<W> θ

State the finction 01 the jaws 110 producing speech sounds.

ً‫ انال‬Two Speech Production and

Reception
 »٨٠,(,,, (20
1. Draw ‫ ه‬diagram of the vocal tract and assign 010 10‫ ا‬211 ‫ ل‬speech
organs you have studied in this section.
2. Find five pairs 01 words 110 which the first begins 5٧110 2 voiced
sound and the second begins ٧110 a voiceless sound.
Example: bay pay
3. Find five pairs of words 10 which the 1‫ اى‬begins with an oral sound
and the second 0091115 with a nasal sound.
Example: cat mat

3. The Place of Articulation of Consonant

I Sounds
٨5 mentioned 10 Unit 1‫ و‬section 2.3‫ و‬the points at which the air
stream is obstructed are called points or places 01 articulation. 1109 points
(places) of articulation 0٤ English consonant sounds are illustrated 110
Diagram 1.2. These will 005٧ 00 discussed 110 some detail.

3.1 18 1120121 9‫ و‬Labiodentals and Dentals■

Bilabials ‫األصوات الشفوية‬
Bilabial sounds are made with 10110 lips. 1100 ٤500 1108 come into
complete contact with each other, then ‫ آلا‬are opened allowing the
air to flow through the mouth. Try to say the first sound in ‘boy, 210‫ل‬
notice how your 1105 are pressed against each other. 1110 following
diagram (Diagram 2.5) shows the place 0٤ articulation for the 001120121
/p/ sound.

Diagram 2.5 11‫ ه‬place 01 articulation for/p/

Reception
 15101150‫ ع‬has 10‫ ه‬following bilabial sounds: 1100 voiceless /p/ 28 111
*pat’, the voiced /0/ 25 in *bat’ 21‫ ل‬the voiced /100/ as 110 *mat’.
Arabic also has ٤10‫ ح‬bilabials /0/ 210‫ ل‬/[‫مم‬/ but it does not have
the bilabial /0/. Therefore, make sure that you can distinguish the two
bilabials /00/ and /b/. 110 order 10 help you produce these two sounds
accurately, hold a piece 01 paper 111 front of your mouth while producing
/p/and/b/ altematelyfor several times. Make sure that when you produce
the /10/ the piece of 00200 shakes because 01 the extra force 91٤*9 ‫ل‬0‫ال‬
which results 110 a buff 01 air that accompanies the release of this sound.
The piece of paper should 110‫ ا‬shake when you produce the /0/ sound.

Exercise (11) u

Underline the 011210181 sounds 110 the following words:

problem build bomb cup phoneme 009910 bribe 0111000
paragraph diagram __ ___ ___ ____
SAQs (12) 20

1. 110٧ 00 ٢5٧٥ produce bilabial sounds?

2. 11101‫ ؟‬ten words that contain bilabial sounds.

Labiodentals ‫األصوات الشفوية األسنانية‬

Labiodental sounds are made 5٧11 the lower 110 and the upper
front teeth. 1100 ‫ ل‬10 62‫ آل‬first sound 110 *fat’ 210‫ ل‬notice 100٢5٧ your lower
110 is raised until 1101101095 ‫ ا‬your 14101091 front teeth. Since the sound 1‫ى‬
made by activating the 110 and the teeth, 1 18 called labio-dental (i.e,,
12010 referring 10 **lip” and dental ٤0 ،،teeth”). Look at the following
diagram (Diagram 2.6) which displays 10‫ ل‬place 0٤ articulation 101 the
labiodental /0/ sound.

Unit Two Speech Production and

!Reception
 ‫ه‬ ٤
Diagram 2.6 111 place 0 articulation for /1/

English 1045 only two labiodental sounds: the voiceless /1/ ‫ وه‬in
،fat’, and the voiced /v/ as in ‘vat’,
Arabic, 010 the other hand, 1 ‫ ىه‬only one labiodental sound, the
Exercise (12) HI

Underline the labiodental sounds 110 the following words:

Phonology voice frog move receive photo arrival 11 ٤ river
stuff

S ٨ Qs(l3) (20
٧
1. 1105 210 labiodental sounds produced?
2. Find words that contain labiodental sounds?

Dentals ‫األصوات األسنا نية‬

Dental consonants are made with the lip or blade of the tongue
٧
and the upper front teeth. 11 to produce the first sound 110 "thin", 210 ‫ل‬
٧ ‫ا‬
notice 1005 the 110 or blade 01 your tongue either touches the back
01 your front teeth 0 15 inserted between the upper and lower teeth.
Because the tongue tip is sometimes inserted between the upper 210 ‫ل‬
lower teeth, dental sounds are sometimes classified ‫ ىه‬interdentals. The
place 01 articulation 01 the dental sound 110 ‘thin’ 18 illustrated 110 the
following diagram (Diagram 2.7).

64
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
 Diagram 2.7 The place of articulation for /4/

English has the voiceless dental sound 2‫ ى‬110 100111 411‫ ل‬the ٧01‫ن‬٥‫ل‬
dental ‫ ى‬٤1‫ و‬initial sound 110 ‘then’. Both 10‫ ه‬written 45 th’ in English
25 shown 110 100 given examples. Arabic, 010 the other hand, has two
classes 0٤dental sounds: 119 pure dentals 20‫ ل‬the inter-dentals. Arabic
interdental sounds include the first sound 11٦ ‘thumma’^ (then); the
first sound 10‫‘ ذ‬thaalika’ ‫( ذلك‬that); and the first sound 110 ‘Balaam’ ‫ظالم‬
(darkness). Arabic dentals comprise the first sound 110 ‘Daraba’ ‫ضرب‬
(100 11٤): 110 first sound in ٤5200101 ‫( صبور‬patient); 0‫ ل‬/t/ /d/ /5/ 202/ ‫ل‬/.
11‫ حم‬last four sounds are classified as alveolar sounds 110 English as will
0‫ وم‬shown 110 the next category 0٤ sounds.

Exercise (13) _________‫قئ‬

Underline the dental sounds 110 the following words:

thin mother eighth then father thick that think theme
breathe
SAQs(!4) 2

1. State how a dental consonant sound 15 produced.

2. Find 10٤‫ ح‬words that contain dental sounds.

3.2 Alveolar, Paiato-Alveolars and Palatals

Alveolars ‫األصوات اللثوية‬
An alveolar sound is made with the tip 01 blade of the tongue
‫ مله‬the alveolar ridge. Try to say /t/ 45 the first sound 11 ‘take’ and

Unit 1٧٧0 Speech Production and

Reception
notice how the 01 ‫ا‬1‫ م‬01 012‫ هل‬your tongue touches your alveolar ridge.
However, when you say /5/ as ‘sip’ 01 /2/ 45 in ،zip’ ‫ هلما‬tip 0٤the tongue
approaches but 1‫ ا‬does not touch the alveolar 1109. Practise saying /t/
and /5/ alternately and notice how with the /t/ the tip (or blade) 0 your
tongue touches your alveolar ridge, but with the /5/ 110950 1500 articulators
just approach 0401 01191. 11015 is illustrated by the following diagram
(Diagram 2.8).

Diagram 2.8 The places 0٤ articulation for /t/ and /8/

English has the following alveolar 6011015:

the voiceless /t/ as 110 ‘tip’,
the voiced /d/ 25 110 ‘dip’,
the voiceless /5/ as 111 (sip’,
‫ حلما‬voiced III as 110 ‘zip’,
100 voiced /10/ as 110 ‘nip’ and
the voiced /1/ 25 111 ‘lip’,
the voiced // as 110 (1100.
Arabic, 010 the other hand, has three alveolar consonants. These
are /1/, /1/, and /10/ since /2/ ‫ا‬/‫ و‬/‫ل‬/, /5/ ‫ه‬0‫ل‬/ are dentals 110 Arabic, as
mentioned above.
1٤ should be noted that in American English the // sound 1‫ى‬
produced 28 6 retroflex; that is the tip of the tongue is curled ٤0 the back
of the alveolar ridge.

66
Unit Two speech Production and
Reception
 Exercise (14) (20
Underline 10‫ ح‬alveolar sounds 10 the following words:
receive soldier demand metals cakes nice walked
know late reside

5٨)26)15(
1. State how alveolar sounds are produced.
2. Find ten words that contain alveolar sounds.

Pa ato-alveo a s ‫األصوات الغارية‬

Palato-alveoalr 01 alveo-palatal sounds are formed with the 001200
of the tongue and the back 01 the alveolar ridge. In 1‫ وأن‬the blade of
the tongue approaches the front of 1‫ا‬٥ hard palate and the 021119 0٤ 1‫ن‬
alveolar [1499, and that 15 why 10 sounds produced at this point are
called palato-alveolar. Try ٤0 produce the first sound 110 ‫؛‬she’ and notice
how the blade of your tongue 15 raised toward ‫ ه‬point between the 021‫ن‬
of your alveolar ridge and the front 0٤ your hard palate. You can 500
the place of articulation for the palato-alveolar /ʃ/ 010 the next diagram
(Diagram 2.9).

Diagram 2.9 The place 01 articulation 101

667
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
 English 1025 the following palate-alveolar consonants: the
voiceless sound ‫ اه‬the beginning 01 ‫؛‬ship’, the voiced sound 110 the
middle of ،vision’, the voiceless sounds ‫ اه‬the beginning and 000 end. 01
‫؛‬church’, and the voiced sounds at the beginning and end 0٤ ‫؛‬,’judge
Arabic has three palato-alveolar sounds: 100 18‫ ا‬sound 110 ‫؛‬shams’
‫)مشس‬11‫ ه‬sun(, ‫ هل‬first sound 110 the name ‫؛‬Gamal’ ‫ مجال‬and the ‫م‬5‫ا‬
sound 10 ‫ ؛‬Yanaam’ ‫) ينام‬٤0 61900(.

Exercise (15) 0
Underline the palato-alveolar sounds 10 the following 5 005: ٧
Treasure pressure chair jump should child issue
pleasure jail soldier

SAQs(160
٢٧
1. State 00 5 palato-alveolar sounds are produced .
2. Find 910 words 02 contain palato-alveolar sounds. ‫أ‬

Palatals ‫األصوات الطبقية‬

English has only 010 voiced palatal sound which is the first sound ‫ه‬
111 ‫؛‬yes’ and ‫؛‬you’. This sound is made with the front of the tongue and
the middle 01 the hard palate. Try to make this sound, and notice how
the front of your tongue is raised toward the middle of your hard palate.
The place of articulation 0 110 palatal sound 15 shown on the following ٤
diagram (Diagram 2.10).

Diagram 2.10 11 place of articulation for /j/. ‫ه‬

‫ى‬١‫ل‬

Unit Two Speech Production 2111

Reception

‫نبب^بجسييسيييسيينب^ييبييهببببييببمنيييبمييبببرببببببي^يييينيتبيسببسببببس‬:‫سرب‬:٠‫ ر‬. :::;.‫;دكردبرمذبلجالدش'التككس د‬٦:‫بسنت’ذح>ت‬٠'‫ ;يا‬٦٠٦٠‫الذب‬-■■ ‫رل‬٠‫تلم‬٢٧٦‫ر‬٠‫دبمد‬..‫ل’ل‬7.“‫“تذربدد’ل‬٠٦‫ب‬-:٠٣٠٩: ،‫س‬.‫تتببتمسسسشنتستتنس‬٤‫ن‬: ، '• ‫؛‬:‫ ح سمننبسنشس^ت^بمس‬.‫سس‬٣‫ سسس‬٠٠٠٠،‫ ؛'*ملج‬٣‫ث‬٦‫ ••ال‬-- <‫“ب •جج‬ ' ٣٦٠٣٠٠
 11015 sound normally 0‫النن‬15 ‫ اه‬the beginning 0٤ 5٧0105 25 the
initial sound 110 ‘young’, 210110 ‫ ل‬the middle 01 words before ‫ ه‬high back
vowel as 110 ‘pure’ and ‘new’.

Exercise (16)
Underline the palatal sounds 110 113 following words.
Yesterday young endure human queue blue you
reviewuniversity

— 0

1. State how a palatal sound is produced?

2. (31٧0 ten 9*210010195 01 words containing 8 palatal sound.

3.3 Velars ‫األصوات اللهوية‬

10 produce a velar sound, 00 back 01 the tongue 18 raised to touch
the velum (soft palate). Notice how 00 back of your tongue touches 01‫ال‬
velum when 04‫ ا‬produce the first sound 110 ‘cat’. You 0210 see the place
01 articulation for 1110 velar /k/ 011 the next diagram (Diagram 2.11).

Diagram 2.11. 1100 place of articulation 101 /!</.

The following velar consonants occur 110 English:

110٥ voiceless /k/ as 110 ‘cat’,
the voiced /g/ 2‫ ى‬in ‘get’ and
1110 voiced sound at the end 01 ‘wrong’.

69
Unit Two Speech Product on and
Reception
 k/ sound/ 1100 1002‫ آل‬be represented orthographyically 25 ،k’, ‫’؛‬ck
ch، [0’ 2‫ و‬the final sounds in the words ‫؛‬book’, ‫؛‬knock’ 210‫’‘ ل‬stomach
respectively. It can 2150 be represented by ‫؛‬c’ as in ‫؛‬cat’. Remember that
although the 001‫؛ ل‬knock’ begins with a ‫؛‬k’ we produce 1‫ ا‬with an initial
sound as mentioned above. Likewise, 100 the word /10/ ‫؛‬garage’, the first
sound is the same as the first sound 110 ‫؛‬get’ while the last sound 18 the
same 2‫ ى‬the initial 20‫ حلما ل‬final sounds 110 ‫؛‬judge’. Note also that the ‫؛‬g’
110 ‫؛‬foreign’ is not pronounced ‫ اه‬all.
for 1100 final sound 110 ‘king ٨5’, 1‫ ا‬combination of an 4 15 /10/
and ‫ ه‬/‫ع‬/ sounds. 0‫ ال‬should note the /g/ ‫ أه‬the 010‫ ل‬this word 0٤ 15
not produced. Instead, 2 velar sound is uttered. 50‫ و‬confiise this 00 100٤
see 0٦77 these sound with the alveolar consonant /n/. In order ٤0 ‫ حمه‬٤٧0
,’different sounds, compare the 6011005 at the end of (100110 and ‘thing
When you produce the sound ‫ اه‬0‫ ه‬910‫ ل‬thin’ you press the tip of‘ 0٤
your tongue against your alveolar ridge whereas when you utter the
final sound 10 ‫؛‬thing’ you press the back 01 your tongue against your
velum and keep the front ‫هم‬of your tongue down in your mouth. 1٤
This velar sound does not occur 110 initial positions. It can occur
only 111 the middle 01 words as 110 ‘singer’ or 110 final position as 110
‫؛‬words only when the suffix sing’. However, it occurs in the middle 0٤
‫؛‬-er’ or ‘-ing’ is added to a verb 25 110 ‘singer’ and ‫؛‬singing’ (i.e., sing
v.)+-er, - ing). But( 110 ‫؛‬finger’, )٤10‫ ع‬is 10‫ ا‬and the 28 ٧9100 ‫؛‬er’ 19 not 2
suffix, therefore 100 ‫؛‬separate sounds (i.e ng’ are pronounced as ٤5٧0. /10/
and /‫ع‬/(. 1‫ ا‬should also be noted that when the alveolar /0/ 15 followed
by the velar /k/ as 10 ‫؛‬think’, only the /10/ 15 produced as the velar sound
‫ اه‬the 00‫ ل‬sing’ and the /k/ is produced as‘ 01 2 //.
:Arabic, 010 the other hand, has the following velar consonants
as // ‫ل‬first sound in ‘kaamil 00’ ‫) كامل‬complete), the first sound 110
‫؛‬ghayma’ ‫) غيمة‬cloud), and the first sound 110 ‘kharaja’ ‫) خرج‬he went
occur 111 standard out). The velar /g/ as the first sound 110 /g/ does 100٤
Arabic (though 1‫ ا‬occurs 110 colloquial Egyptian as the first sound in the
name ‘Gamal’ ‫(جمال‬. On the other hand, in Arabic the velar sound at the
end of ‫؛‬thing’ occurs only 110 certain types 01 readings called ‫؛‬iDghaam'
‫ إضغام‬when the alveolar /10/ is followed 0‫ آل‬the velar /k/ as 110 ‫؛‬min-kum’

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
‫) منكم‬of you) or the uvular Zq/ as in ،man-qaala’ ‫)( قال‬whoever says(.

Exercise (17) (3
Underline the velar sounds 110 the following words:
knock claim wrong drink garage chemistry
rank sac cream rigger

SAQs (18)
(20
1. State how velar sounds ‫ه‬+‫ ح‬produced?
2. Find ٢00105 102٤ 001012110 velar sounds.

Labio-velar ‫األصوات الشفوية اللهوية‬

English contains only one labio-velar sound. 115 ‫ ا‬a voiced sound
at the beginning 0٤ the word ٤٢5٧. The 192500 500‫ ل‬it is called labio-velar
is that our 1105 111 addition ٤0 the back 0٤ 011‫ ل‬tongue and 011‫ ل‬velum are
involved 11٦ 115 production. Try to produce this sound, 211‫ ل‬notice 1005٧
your 1105 get pursed (i.e., rounded) 2101105‫ ل‬٧ the back of your tongue
moves toward your velum. The place of articulation 101 the labio-velar
‫؛‬we, 1‫ ى‬displayed 011 the next diagram (Diagram 2.12).

Diagram 2.12. The place of articulation 101 ZwZ.

You should remember that some words 009111 with 1100 letter /٢7٧/
which 15 100٤ pronounced as 110 ‫؛‬write,.

71
Unit Two speech Preduction and
Reception
 Exercise (18)
Underline the labio-velar sounds 110 the following words:
wall cow 19٢5٧ why write what news wonder allow
walk

SAQs (19)
1. Explain 10٧ ‫ ه‬labio-velar sound is produced.
2. Find words that contain labio-velar sound.

Exercise (19)
Describe each of the following sounds 110 terms of the given
information. 11‫ ح‬first 0110 is 40100 101 you.
Sound Point of Voiced or Oral or Organs 01
Articulation Voiceless Nasal Speech
lpl bilabial voiceless oral upper and
// lower 1105

hi
the first sound in
‫’؛‬thin
the first sound in
‫؛‬then’
‫أ‬
‫اعا‬
1‫س‬
‫اوا‬
‫الم ا‬
‫ا‬٠١‫ا‬

the first sound 110

51
11‫ ه‬middle sound 110

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 ‘vision’
٤15‫ و‬٦1‫م‬٤ sound in
‘chair’
the first sound 110
‘jump’
the first sound 110
‘yes’
/k/
‫جلا‬
the last sound in
‘king’
155[‫ا‬

Exercise (20)
Give 000 example 01 2 word which begins with 4 sound that 15
produced as shown by each diagram.

5٨05)20( ‫لتا‬
1. What are the two things that help 115 produce speech sounds?
2. Explain with 0210000195 0٢5٧ the places 01 articulation 100110 US
produce different speech 501010097

Unit 1٧0 902211 Production and

Reception
4. The Manner of the Articulation 0‫ ا‬Consonant
Sounds
The previous section 10‫ يه‬indicated the places where the
obstruction of 10‫ ه‬airstream helps 115 ٤0 produce ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬distinguish different
consonant sounds. As mentioned above, consonant sounds can also be
distinguished according to how the airstream is obstructed 110 the ٧0021
tract, 11015 obstruction can 0‫ ه‬complete 0 partial. 11٤0 ‫ ل‬utter 2 // sound
and notice 00٧ the airstream is completely stopped behind your tongue
tip and alveolar ridge before the sound is produced. 111 contrast, when
you say an /5/ sound, which is produced 110100 1100 same point (1.٥. place)
01 articulation, the air continues 0‫ ا‬flow out of your mouth. Thus, it 15
this difference in the manner 0٤ obstructing ٥ airstream 10‫ اه‬helps US
classify /t/ and /s/ 45 two different sounds.
110 terms of their manner of articula tion, consonant sounds can be
0125510٥4 10٤0 the following categories:

4.1 Plosives (Stops), Affricates and Fricatives

Stops ‫األصوات اإلنفجارية‬
‫ هم‬sound 18 described 28 2 stop if, during its production, the
airstream is completely (though very briefly) obstructed 2 ‫ اه‬particular
point 111 the vocal tract before it 15 released. When we produce ‫ ه‬/p/
sound two things should 10‫ ه‬noted. First, the airstream is completely
blocked behind the two 11005‫ و‬20‫ ل‬hence the resultant sound 15 called a
stop (see Diagram 2.5). For example, English 1025 00 following stop
sounds:
bilabial stops: /0/ and /b/,
alveolar stops: // and /0/, and
velar 8٤0105: /‫ا‬/ ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬/‫ع‬/.
Arabic, 010 the other hand, has he following stops:
‫اما‬,‫ألا‬,‫الال‬١‫ل‬,‫ادآا‬,‫اضا‬,٢‫اهااط واآ‬,‫اقا‬,‫عمل^لمي^ه‬lbvzal ‫لمهمزة‬

Unit ٢٢0 Speech Production 410‫ل‬

Reception
 Exercise (21)
Underline the stop sounds 110 the following words:
han tan 014 0210 ban van tick deck fig sip

5٨09 )21(
1. Describe the manner of articulation 0 500‫ ا‬sounds.
2. Find words that contain stop consonants.

Fricatives ‫األصوات االحتكاكية‬

111 contrast with stops‫؛‬, fricatives are produced by 4 partially
obstructed airstream. ٨ sound 15 called fricative because during its
production the airstream continues ٤0 flow through a narrow gap
between the two respective articulators causing a frictional sound. You
can hear the frictional sound, and you can feel how the air is pushed 01‫ال‬
of your mouth. Put your hand 110 front 01 your mouth, when producing
‫ ه‬long /f/ (ffffff) sound. Repeat this practice with 11‫ ه‬the other fricative
5011005
English has the following fricative sounds:
labiodental fricatives: /f/ and/v/,
dental fricatives: /6^/ as in ‘thin’ and /6/ as 110 ‘then’,
alveolar fricatives: /5/ and/z/, 210‫ل‬
palato-alveolar fricatives: /‫ ل‬/ as 110 ‘she’ ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬the sound / 3/ 25 in
٤1‫ ح‬middle 0‫م‬
‘vision’.
Arabic has a larger 1295 01 fricative sounds. This class comprises
the labiodental /1/ 1٥ interdentals /2/1/ ‫ظ و‬/ and /th/ 119 ‫ث‬, ‫( ذا‬alveo)
dentals /2/, /s/ ‫ ص‬and /s/, the palatal sound ‫ اه‬the beginning 0٤ ‘you’
/‫ي‬/‫ و‬the velars // ‫ خ‬and /‫غ اال‬, the pharyngeals /9/ ‫ ع‬and /1/ ‫ ح‬and the
laryngeal /10/.

75
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
 Exercise (22) 20

Underline the fricative sounds 110 the following words:

fair pleasure arrive there share think 511 photo
٢00100 mushroom
SAQs (22) 20

1. Describe ٤100 manner of articulation of fricative sounds?

2. 110٢٢٧ are fricatives different from stops?
3. Find words that contain fricative sounds.

Affricates ‫األصوات املتراخية‬

٨0 affricate sound is 2 mixture 0٤ a 00‫ اى‬and a fricative. 1٤ is
similar to a stop in that the airstream is completely, though momentarily,
stopped 110 the oral cavity. 010 the other hand, 1٤ 15 like a fricative 111 1112٤
when an affricate 15 released, 2 frictional sound 15 heard. 11٤0 ‫ آل‬make
the sound ‫ أه‬the beginning of ‘chair’ and notice 100٢5٧ 1109 air is first
completely stopped 25 15 the case with a stop. At 10 same time, you will
hear the fictional 5011114 which is produced when the sound is uttered,
English contains the following two, affricate sounds:
The palo-alveolar affricates at the beginning and endofChurch’
and the sound ‫ اه‬the beginning 20‫ ل‬end of 1‫؛‬judge’
Arabic 1045 only 0109 affricate sound, the palato-alveolar at the
beginning of the 0010 'jamaal ‫( جمال‬beauty).
Exercise (23) 2}

Underline the affricate sounds 110 the following words:

much range garage manage rich chalk such church
reach jump_________________________________________________________

SAQs (23)______________________________________ θ

1. An affricate 2 8‫ ذ‬combination of 2 stop 204 a fricative; 9*012110 this.

2. Find words that contain affricate sounds

ŋnɪt Two Speech 10011^4301 and

Reception

‫؛‬٦:;‫ص"لجر‬,‫يب‬.‫ب‬٣‫رر‬٣‫ج‬:١‫ب;;ي‬:‫ش‬:‫ر‬٦‫ث‬٦‫محذ‬-٦;٧-‫'ت‬:''١٦.‫ال"لذثدحش'خذذئئدشالا‬٦‫“ذ‬.٦٣':‫مذ‬٢‫ذ‬٣‫دالتتش‬:‫;سكتئ'ذت‬,"
‫ر‬ ‫ا‬،’.‫'ا‬.٦‫رب‬٩‫ب‬٦‫'„'ئ‬,-‫ح‬١‫ال‬:1‫ئ‬,٦‫الآلل‬.‫دددددالي‬.‫غع‬٦’‫ته‬-:،‫مال‬...،■■‫ر‬:‫س;ب‬.‫;رلممصلم‬9“‫ح‬٠‫'خت‬٠'٦‫عل‬٦‫''بم'ك•'';•'••■•■ دلال‬.‫كال‬:'‫;نذم‬:;‫ب ال‬:■
4.2 Nasals, Laterals, Glides ‫ه‬1‫ ل‬Retroflexes
Nasals ‫األصوات األنفية‬
11٤0 ‫ ل‬produce an /10/ sound and notice what happens ٤0 the
airstream and where it is released from. 110 fact, as 1‫ ل‬the case with the
/p/ and /10/ sounds, the airstream 15 stopped completely behind the 500‫ا‬
tips, but 115 ‫ ا‬released through the nose because the velum is hanging
down during the production 1 this sound. Thus, nasal sounds differ
from 211 04001 consonant sounds 110 that air is released through 00 nose
(whereas it 15 released throughout ٤10 mouth 101 all other consonant
sounds). All other consonants are therefore called oral sounds. However,
nasal sounds are similar to the oral stop 5010045 110 that the airstream 1‫ى‬
completely blocked before they are released. In fact, they are sometimes
termed ‫؛‬nasal stops,.
1100 positions 0٤the ‫؛‬speech organs 101 the 1045110/ 1‫ه‬/ are shown 010
the following diagram (Diagram 2.13).

\Diagram 2.13. The position 01 100 speech organs 101 the nasal /100/

110 following nasal sounds occur 111 English: bilabial nasal:

/100/, alveolar nasal: /10/ 210‫ ل‬the velar nasal stop at 9100 ‫ ها‬of <thing>.
Arabic also contains 1‫ و‬nasals /1/ ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬/0/‫ و‬but ٤1‫ و‬nasal ‫ه‬٤ the end
01 «thing» 0095 100‫ ا‬0‫ مالنن‬as( a standard sound, as mentioned 110 the
previous section.

77
Unit Two speech Production and
Reception
 Exercise (24) ‫ل‬

Underline the nasal consonants 110 the following words:

110٤ shrink mat 1100‫ن‬ 8010‫ع‬ ‫اه‬ among ink none
10011

SAQs (24) 20

1. 110510٧ ‫ ه‬nasal sounds produced?

2. What 1‫ و‬the main difference between nasal consonants and all other
English sounds?
3. Find words 1‫هم‬٤ contain nasal sounds.

Laterals ‫األصوات اجلانبية‬

English has only one lateral sound, the voiced /1/ 2‫ ى‬the sound ‫اه‬
the beginning 210‫ ل‬end of (little’. When we utter this sound, the sides of
the tongue remain downward allowing the air ٤0 escape laterally over
one 01 both 01 them. That is why, the /1/ sound 15 termed ‘lateral 1٤you
hold your tongue 110 the /1/ position and draw air inside your lungs, you
0210 feel the 00 11‫ن‬01‫ ه ل‬both sides 0٤your tongue. This lateral /1/sound
occurs in Arabic, ٤00.

Exercise (25)
Underline 00‫ ل‬lateral sounds 110 the following ٧0148:
wall folk 1000 little stalk bulk twinkle wrinkle lake
lateral

SAQs (25) n
1. State how a lateral sound is produced.
2. Find words that contain lateral sounds.

Gilds ‫األصوات الشبه طليقة‬

When we produce a glide, our tongue moves 110 a gliding manner
toward the next vowel sound. For example, when we utter the glide 2‫ا‬
Unit Two 78 Speech Production and

Reception
the beginning of (yes’, 011‫ ل‬tongue glides (1.9. 1000٧95) from its position
for the vowel 113 (sit’ toward that 101 the vowel 110 ‘yes’. But 110 the word
‘you’, the tongue moves from, the position for the vowel 110 (sit’ ٤0 that
10 000 vowel 10 ‘you’. Try to say “yes” 211‫“ ل‬you” several times, and
notice how your tongue 100٧28 from a forward position with ‘yes’ 0 4
backward 00511010 with ‘you’.
When we produce the sound glide /w/, our ٤0102119 moves from
the position 10 the vowel 10 ٤014 01 ‘put’ toward the position for the
next vowel 110 the respective word. For instance, when we produce the
glide 110 ‘we’, the tongue moves 11010 the position 10 the vowel in ‘put’
to that for the vowel 111 ‘we’. However, 111 the word “walk” the tongue
moves 110100 the position for the vowel 111 ‘put’ toward that 10 the vowel
‘walk’ or ‘go’. 9‫“ آله‬we” and “walk” several times, and notice how
111
your tongue moves from the front 10 the back 01 your mouth as you
move from ‘we’ ٤0 ‘walk’.
As for the third glide 111 English, the //, the tongue 1000٧95 110110
100 position for the /٢٢٧/ 211 111910 1٤5 tip 15 curled back toward the hard
palate, behind the alveolar r idge. The tongue assumes the position of the
following vowel. 101‫ ؟‬example, 110 the word “read”, 0210 11105 1‫ ال‬slightly
rounded 25 101 the /w/ sound, then we curl the tip of our tongue and
finally the tongue moves toward the front of the mouth 25 101 the vowel
110 ‘read’. 1110 first two 60105 are repeated 10+ the /1/ 110 ‘raw’ but our
tongue moves backword 111 the mouth 10 the following vowel. 11 you
contrast “read” with “raw”, you can feel the movement of your tongue
in the mouth.
Exercise (26) 20

Underline the glides 110 00 following words:

water brilliant cute year winter rubric real wonder
write get

As (26) ‫فئة‬
1. How are the glides different 110100 all other sounds?
2. 10051100 100٢٧ each 01 the three glides is produced?
3. Find words that contain glides.

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 Exercise (27)
Describe the underlined sounds 110 the )following words 2‫ى‬
shown 10‫ ذ‬the example:
Voicedor Place of Manner 0٤
Voiceless articulation articulation
apple voiceless 011200121 oral stop
ehr
stomach
match
soldier
rough
miner
teling
pure
phrase
ring
water
shower

Exercise (28)
1111 110 each block with the appropriate sound. Write the voiceless
sound first 211‫ ل‬then 145 voiced counterpart. An example 15 done for
you.

Bilabial Thin- Dental Alveolar Palatal Palatal

dental alveolar
Stop 1‫ه‬ ٦
Fricative
Affricate
Nasal
Lateral
Glide
‫ص‬

80
70٤٤ Two Speech Production and
Reception
 SAQs (27) 20

1. Give an 92101010 of each 0٤ the following categories 0‫ لم‬sounds and

describe 110٢٧ 115 ‫ ا‬produced:
Stop, Fricative, Affricate, Nasal, Lateral, glide
2. Write down all the English consonant sounds and describe them in
terms of their 0012098 ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬manners 01 articulation.

5. The Place and Manner 0٤ the Articulation of

VowelSounds
110 terms of their articulation, there 211٢500 ‫ ه‬major differences
between consonants and vowels. One is that whereas ٤10‫ ح‬vocal cords
may or may 100٤ vibrate during the production 01 consonants, vocal cords
always vibrate with vowel sounds. 110 other words, while consonants
0210 be voiced or voiceless, vowels are all voiced. The other difference
concerns the airstream which 15 obstructed 10 one way or another when
‫ ه‬consonant sound 15 produced. 110 contrast, a vowel 18 produced withan
unobstructed airstream.
110 fact the articulation 01 vowels almost entirely depends 010 the
position 01 the tongue 110 the 0121 cavity. The tongue 18 either high, mid
01 low 111 the mouth; it is 2150 either in the front, 110 the center or in
the back 01 the mouth. ٨ vowel 1‫ ى‬actually described 110 1011005 01 these
two 0005110105, high-low and front-back. Look ‫ اه‬the following diagram
(Diagram 2.14), and notice the position 010٤ ‫ ال‬tongue 110 the mouth of
the different vowel sounds.

81
Unit Two Speech Production and
deception
 Diagram (2.14). 11‫ ه‬positions 0٤the tongue for the vowel sounds.

According to the position 0٤ the tongue 110 ٤100 mouth, English

vowels 410‫ ن‬be classified into three major categories: front vowels,
cent al vowels and back vowels.

5.1 Front vowels

11‫ ح‬tongue 15 10 the front of the mouth 101 ‫ ه‬front vowel. Say
the 0014 ‘seat’, and notice how your tongue 1110 ‫ ى‬the front of your
mouth when you produce the vowel sound between the /s/ and the /t/.
According to the front-back position 0٤ the tongue, the following front
vowels can 0‫ ح‬recognized:
high-front: as 110 (59‫ ه‬210‫‘ ل‬sit’,
mid-front: as 110 ‘set’ and
low-front: as 110 ‘sat’.
Say these vowels several times one after the other, and notice
how your tongue, which is for 211 01 them is 110 the front 01 your tongue,
moves from the highest position 10 the vowel 110 ‘seat’ 10 the lowest
101 the vowel 110 ‘sat’. 115 ‫ ا‬midway between these two positions 101 the
vowel in ‘set’. Practise doing this exercise with words containing these
vowels.
Unit Two 82 Speech Production and

Reception
 Exercise (29) 0
Underline the front vowels 110 the following words, 211‫ ل‬identify
0210 110 ٤011108 0٤ the position 01 the tongue 111 the mouth:
cat 1٤ [09٤ get he sit fat sheet 1101* dead

SAQs (28)
1. Find words that contain front vowels, and practise saying
them aloud. Start from high 10 low ٧050915.

5.2 Back vowels

Similarly, if 014‫ ل‬say the vowel sounds 111 ،boot) (put’, ‫؛‬bought’,
‘pot’ ‫ه‬0‫؛ ل‬car', you can notice that your tongue which is in the back 01
yourmouthfor all these sounds, is the highestforthe first two vowels and
the lowest for last 1500 ones15 1‫ ؛‬٤ midway between 11950 two positions
for the vowel in ‫؛‬bought’.
Therefore, 110 1911005 of the position 01 the tongue 110 the mouth,
English back vowels 210‫ ن‬be described as follows:
high-back: 000٤ 110 5‫ ه‬and (put’,
mid-back: as 110 ‫؛‬bought’, and
low-back: as in ‫؛‬pot’ and ‫؛‬car’
Exercise (30) 10

Underline the back vowels 111 10‫ ه‬following words, and identify
each 110 terms of the position of the tongue 110 the 10001410:
100٤ shot put pure far sure boot saw got tar

SAQs (29) u
Find words that 0010٤2110 back vowels and practise saying them
aloud. Start 10100 high to low ٢٧07٧915.

Unit Two
883
Speech Production and
Reception
 5.3 Central Vowels
11‫ ح‬tongue is 110 the center of the 10001110 for the vowel sound
110 tout and 11‫ و‬first sound 1]0 ٤200110 .٤3‫ ر‬addition ٤0 these two central
vowels, the sound ‫؛‬sir’, 18 recognized 25 2 central vowel. 11‫ ه‬following
diagram (Diagram 2.15) shows the position 0٤‫ ها‬tongue for the central
vowels.
Diagram 2.15. The position 0٤ the tongue for the central vowels.

Exercise (31) 10
Underline the central vowels 110 110 following words:
cut ago farmer drummer sone fur hut allow mother
not

SAQs (30)
Find five words that contain central vowels and practise saying
them aloud.

In contrast with English, Arabic 12‫ ى‬six vowel sounds, three long
and hree short. The long vowels are: the second sound 110 the word
‘kaatib’ ‫( كاتب‬writer), the last sound in katabu> ‫( كتبوا‬they wrote ), and
the last sound 110 kitaabii> 000 ‫)كتابي‬100‫)ل‬. The 51001٤ vowels are: the
wel sounds in kataba ‫) كتب‬10‫ ع‬wrote), the last sound in katabtu>
1) ‫ كتبت‬wrote), and the last vowel sound 110 katabtU ‫( كتبت‬you (a female
person) wrote).

0»1 ،ً‫أهاال‬ speech Production and

Reception

‫بجتمبمندتد‬٤‫يت‬٠‫سسغ=سبد‬٣١+٠١‫يبييبدةببيتدج‬٤‫بينتيتتمحييببهعشجبسدممهب‬٠‫نن‬:‫ب‬٣٠‫س‬...٠‫ي‬:‫ندننششنسبد‬:‫س‬:‫بشنيبممسشده*يينهميتتبعزشتنشه‬٥*٧٥*٨٦٦٣٥٠‫شسةا=سن‬٠‫تت‬-,-٠٦*٠-٣--٦٠٠٧‫سثم‬٠٤٦‫ت‬٤٦٠‫ت‬,.2‫ش‬٣٨+‫س‬٣‫م‬٠١٦٦‫سب‬٤٥٣٦‫تت‬٤٠٦‫ج‬:٠٤٠٤٠٠٤‫ت‬٠*‫دنسسشننتبست‬٠٣٣٦‫ت‬
 ‫أل‬.‫ا‬0 20
Identify title underlined ٧0٢5٧91 sounds 110 the following words
111 terms 01 the front-back and high-low position 01 the tongue 110 the
1000111. The 1‫ اى‬one 15 done 101 you.
father a low-back vowel
rank
sheet
some
push
thought
red
kt
bar

6. From Sound to Word

6.1 The Syllable
The Concept 01 the Syllable
As pointed 0110 ‫ال‬٤ the previous section, consonants and vowels
constitute the basic 5100000 units. But when we use language ٤0 express
our thoughts, we 00 not use these segments 110 isolation. Instead, we
combine them 10 certain patterns to 101100 larger speech units. 1119 next
larger unit that results from combining those sounds 15 the syllable. For
example, the word 4٤‫ن‬٤ results from combining the consonants stop
k‫؛‬, the vowel sound /æ/ ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬110‫ ح‬consonant stop /t/. 11015 word is at the
same time made 010 0٤ 00‫ ا‬syllable. Thus, the whole word may consist
01 one syllable. 00 the other hand, some words may consist of two
01 0000 syllables. The ٧01‫؛ ل‬money’, 10 instance, consists of two
syllables /100٨.101/ (the symbol (.) is used ٤0 separate syllables): the word
‫؛‬motherly’ comprises three syllables /100٨.33.111/‫ و‬the word ‫؛‬aristocratic’
is made 1000 0٤five syllables, /æʃɪsdəkʃæ,tɪk/ 8114 so 01. Thus, language
users arrange sound segments 110 larger speech units to form meaningful

UnitTwo speech Production and

Reception
units 5٧1011‫ ن‬consist 01 01001 ‫ ه‬more syllables.
13‫ آل‬the same token, Arabic words may consist 01 0100 01 more
syllables. 101‫ ؟‬example, the word 14110110 ‫( هم‬anxiety) consists of
000 syllable: the word ،[Link]’ ‫( كتاب‬book) 00100011595 two syllables,
k ,taəb,, ٤150010 ‫ ه‬kitaaba” ‫( كتابة‬writing) is made up 0٤three syllables,
،1.12.12: the word ،istaqaala” ‫( استقال‬he resigned) consists of four
syllables, ،[Link].qa9. 13’; the word ،mujaabahatun’ (confrontation) is
00400 up of five syllables, ‫؛‬[Link].tu0’ ‫ مجابهة‬and 50 on.
However, there 15 100 unanimously accepted definition 0٤
the syllable. Out 0٤ the various definitions, the easiest and most
straightforward definition would be that the syllable 15 the smallest
unit beyond single consonants and vowels. 1‫ ا‬very often has an initial
consonant, 00‫ ه‬٧00٥1 ‫ ا اه‬peak, 210‫ ل‬a final consonant, 5 is the case
0110 ،cat’. 1100 vowel constitutes the nucleus of the syllable which 15
the maximum peak of sonority (i.e٠, loudness of sound). 110 ‫ حلما‬word
،cat", the vowel sound /æ/ has 8 greater sonority (1.0 1٤ is louder) than
the other 1500 consonants, the // ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬the /t/. 110 other words, if someone
shouts ،،cat” from ‫ ه‬distance you would most probably only hear the
nucleus /‫هه‬/: or ‫ ا‬least, the nucleus would be more audible than the //
and the /t/.

Exercise (33)
Analyze 1‫ ه‬following syllables into their constituent sounds:
sat boy peep not shot judge done 1110 tar
msh

Constituent Parts 01 the Syllable

٨ syllable normally 145 three constituent parts: a beginning, 2
middle 211210 ‫ ل‬end. The beginning 15 called ،،onset", the middle 15 called
،،nucleus”, and 11٥ end is called ،،coda”. However, 8 syllable does not
necessarily always contain these parts. 11‫ ه‬word 1022 1145 an onset
/٤/ and 8 nucleus /i:/, but it does 100٤ have a coda. 111 contrast, the word
،،team” has the onset /t/, the nucleus /1:/ 210‫ ل‬11‫ ه‬coda /m/. But 21‫ن‬
syllable must include at least a nucleus which can 0‫ ل‬itself constitute 2

86 --------
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
separate syllable 25 1000 /a/ at the beginning of "about”. The 01189 can ٤
be one 01 more consonants. For example, 1100 word "street" has 210 onset
5010111 15 made 01 ‫ مل‬the sequence /5/, /t/ and /r/. On 109 other hand, the
coda ofa syllable can be a sequence 01 as many as four consonants 45 the
٤
word "strengths", 1100 coda 01 this word consists 0 the consonants /10/,
/0/,/‫ع‬/ and /5/. But there are restrictions as to 100 number 01 consonants
that make up the onset ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬the coda of a syllable. And the coda cannot
exceed four as 110 "strengths".
٧ ٧
110 most cases, a 05 01 sound constitutes the nucleus 0 the peak
٤ ‫ل‬
of prominence 0 a syllable. Less frequently 810 only 110 certain varities
‫ل ه‬/, the retroflex /r/ and the lateral /1/
of English, the sonorants /110/ 10/ 11
can be syllabic (constituting the peak 0٤ prominence of a syllable) 110
unstressed syllables. For example, the word (hidden" 15 made up 01 ٤5٧0
syllables: /101/ 211‫ ل‬/dn/. The symbol 11] underneath the nasal [10] 1‫ ى‬used
٤0 :indicate a syllabic sound. Thus, 00‫ ا‬narrow transcription of the words
،،hidden‫’؛‬, "little” and ‫؛‬under” would look like the following [hldn],
[1111] and [٨103‫ ]ل‬respectively. 010 the other hand, this mark is 110‫ ا‬added
‫ا‬
0 the transcription 01 vowel sounds since they are normally syllabic.
Arabic, 010 the other hand, contains more syllabic consonant
٧
6011005.5 0108 1‫ له‬rhyming with the gerund 101100 "fa91” ‫ فعل‬end with a
syllabic consonant. These 219 but a few examples: "faqr” ‫( فقر‬poverty),
"mailh” ‫( ملح‬salt), "dam9” ‫( دمع‬tears), “naml” ‫( منل‬ants), ،،kabt” ‫كبت‬
(suppression), "kalb” ‫( كلب‬dog), ‫؛؛‬shams” ‫( مشس‬sun), ‫؛؛‬qurS” ‫( قرص‬disc),
‫؛؛‬qaht” ‫( قحط‬drought), 9‫؛؛‬un1’ ‫( عنف‬violence), etc. ٨11 final consonants
which occur 110 unstressed syllables are syllabic.

Analyze the following syllables into their constituent parts:

treat 59 ‫اه‬ smoke straight street walked mud king
church 01141

Syllable 10095
٤
According 0 the constitutuent parts 0 ٤ the syllable, we can
٧ ٧
recognize two types 01 syllable: the 0100 which ends with a 0 91 such 25
Unit ‫ة‬ Speech Production and
Reception
"tea" and the other which ends with a consonant such 25 "team". Syllables
ending with vowel sounds are termed open syllables. Those enclosed by
‫ ه‬consonant sound are called closed syllables. 115 ‫ ا‬worth noting that due
to the discrepancy between 0٥ spelling and the pronunciation systems
01 English, some words are 100‫ ا‬pronounced exactly as they are written.
101‫ ؟‬example, the 008 01 the word ‫؛‬rough” is /1/ 5٧1110 it 15 written as
‫؛؛‬gh”, and it 18 phonetically transcribed 25 /٨1/. 110 other words, 11 final
‫؛؛‬gh” 13 written but 100‫ ا‬pronounced. 10 case you 21‫ ه‬skeptical about the
pronunciation 0٤ 8 word, check 1‫ مال ا‬in a standard dictionary.

Exercise (35)
Identify the following syllables as 0000 or closed”
120
fiee fleet be been 5‫حح‬ seen 100 nor tea team

Identifying the number 0٤ syllables

1‫ ا‬is presumably easy ٤0 identify the number 0٤ syllables making
up short words such as ‫؛؛‬boy”, ‫؛؛‬car’,, ‫؛؛‬run”, etc. 1‫ ا‬may be equally easy
٤0 recognize that the word ‫؛؛‬money” 15 made up 0 15٧0 syllables, /0‫م‬٨/
and /101/. However, the number of syllables in longer words which are
made up of three 01 110010 syllables may 00‫ ا‬be always easy to determine.
This 15 due ٤0 the various pronunciations that 8 word may have 110 the
different varieties 0٤ language. 10 example, the word ‫؛؛‬laboratory” 15
pronounced diffemetly 0‫ آل‬speakers of British ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬American English.
Speakers of British English pronounce 125 ‫ ا‬/ləborətn/ while speakers
0٤ American English pronounce 1‫ ا‬as /læbrəto:n/. Differences 110
pronunciation make identifying syllables more difficult.
Likewise, speakers 01 different varieties of English 5100٢٧
disagreement over 1100 number 01 syllables 110 ‫ ه‬word containing ‫ه‬
syllabic consonant. 0 example, the word ‫؛؛‬prism” 15 pronounced either
25 /pnzəm/ (٤5٧0 syllables), 0‫] م‬011200[ 6٧111 ‫ ه‬syllabic [100]. According to
the former pronunciation, 1‫ ا‬is considered 10 have 0100 syllable. But 1٤ is
considered to be 100840 up 0٤two syllables when it is pronounced with ‫ه‬
syllabic /m/. 1118 holds true 0٤ the words which contain the retroflex /r/
0 the lateral /1/. This 2150 100145 true 0٤ Arabic syllabic consonants.
However, the number 0٤ syllables 110 a word is generally 1101
difficult to identify since a vowel sound almost always constitutes the
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
peak 01 a syllable. ٨ simple way, 111910٤0 ‫ ىم و‬count the number 01 vowel
sounds the word includes, 101‫ ؟‬example, the word ((photography" has
011 vowels, and consists 01 four syllables. These are [fətogrəfi]
(periods 21‫ ه‬used 10 separate 0110 syllable 110110 another). ٨ word 01
caution is, however, 110 order here. ٨ word 15 sometimes written with
17٧0 contiguous letters 5٧10110 both are pronounced 25 one sound 25 in
1100 word ((meat" /mi:t/. 110 this case this 15 a one-syllable word since
1‫ ا‬consists of the nasal /101/ the vowel /1:/ 210‫ ل‬the stop /t/. Since there
is discrepancy between 119 spelling and the pronunciation systems 01
English, as mentioned above, a standard dictionary must 00 consulted
when 01‫ حم‬is 10 doubt about this matter. This also holds ٤‫ مرم‬01 11‫ م‬words
containing syllabic sonorants, retroflex and lateral sounds.

Exercise (36)
Analyze the following words into their constituent syllables:
θ
‫ا‬0‫ه‬ believe believing unbelieving believingly unbelievingly

SAQs (31) 0

1. What is a syllable?
2. What are the main types 0٤ syllables? Give examples ٤0 illustrate
your answer.
3. How can we divide ‫ ه‬word into 15 constituent syllables?
4. Find words 111 English and ٨12101 210‫ ل‬practise analyzing them
into their constituent syllables.

6.2 The Morpheme

So far, ‫ل‬01‫ ل‬have 00910 introduced ٤0 speech sounds (consonants
210‫ ل‬vowels) 110 general, and how they combine ٤0 make syllables.
Neither sounds 1101 syllables spoken 110 isolation make any sense: they
give 100 meaning. The smallest meaningful unit in speech is called a
morpheme. Amorpheme may consist 01 one sound such 45 eye, written
phonetically /2/ or one syllable (that is more than 011‫ ه‬sound) such as
‫ وافن‬written phonetically as /kæt/.
010 the other hand, the 0014 cats /12915/ consits 0٤ two morphemes

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
/kæt/ ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬/s/. The 10001010100‫ ه‬/kæt/ 010 15 06010 91٧95 some meaning but
11‫ ه‬morpheme /5/ does 100٤ give any meaning 110 isolation and only when
it joins with another morpheme such 2‫ ى‬/kæt/ can it have ‫ ه‬meaning (110
015 case, it shows that we talk of ‫ ه‬number 0٤ cats, not just one cat).
It 15 clear from the above that morphemes, 100 basic meaningful
units 110 speech, ‫ه‬1‫ ه‬two kinds: free (lexical) morphemes, or those that
have some meaning in themselves such as cat, boy, girl, cat, good, etc..
20‫ ل‬bound (0010-1051021) morphemes that cannot stand 210100 which are
called affixes (5111*05 and prefixes) such as un 110 unable, e 111 writer,
re 110 react, and ness 110 happiness.
We 7٧111 return to all these 100100010005 110 more detail in Unit
Four.
Exercise (37) 20

Identify the free 110‫ ه‬bound morphemes in 1100 following:

Visiting Freemorphemes bound morphemes
Government --------------------------- ---------------------------
Replay --------------------------- ---------------------------
Interested --------------------------- ---------------------------
National --------------------------- ---------------------------
Mistake --------------------------- ---------------------------
Formalize --------------------------- ---------------------------
Active --------------------------- ---------------------------
Activate --------------------------- ---------------------------
Restrict --------------------------- ---------------------------

SAQs (32)
1. What is ‫ ه‬morpheme?
2. 1105٧ does 6 morpheme differ from a syllable?
3. How many kinds of morphemes are there?

6.3 The Word

According ٤0 7772%‫ى‬٤7‫ أ‬College /07‫ن‬%107747(( )1995(‫ و‬the word is
‫ ه‬unit 01 language, consisting 0٤ 0110 ‫ ه‬more spoken sounds or their
Unit Two 90 Speech Production and

Reception
written representation, that functions as a principle carrier of meaning,
is typically seen 25 the smallest such unit capable 0٤ independent use,
is separated from other such units by spaces 10 writing, 21015 ‫ ل‬often
distinguished phonologically, as by accent or pause(
The word, like the sound, the syllable and the morpheme, 18 a
unit 0٤ language (spoken or written). Like the morpheme, 1٤ is also 8
unit of meaning but usually larger than the morpheme. 111 other words,
‫ هما‬5001‫ ل‬consists 01 one or more morphemes. For example, boy is a
morpheme and 2150 it is ‫ ه‬word. Boys 15 a word which consists 0٤two
morphemes: one free (‫ )ئ‬and one bound (‫ )ي‬pronounced 2 and written
/2/ phonetically.
Words are divided into 100 classes. The first is 100 open class
or lexical words such as nouns (book, class), ٧0105 discover, nlav).
adjectives (good, beautiful) 411‫ ل‬adverbs (‫ وللكننباو‬easily). The second is
the closed class 01 grammatical or functional words such 25 articles (a,
the), prepositions (on, at), conjunctions (but, because) etc...
We will return ٤0 all kinds of words and word formation 110 Unit
Four.

Exercise (38)
Add bound 100010101005 ٤0 the following free morphemes to
form words.
Free Morpheme Bound Morphemes 500‫م‬٩5
form
front
1110151
teach
class
5711

hard
00٧
exist
store

91
Unit Two Speech Production 211
Reception
 SAQs (33)
1. What 18 the difference between sound, syllable, morpheme and
θ
word?
2. 110٢5٧ many kinds 01 words are there?
3. What 15 the similarity between words and morphemes?

7. Prosodic Suprasegmental Features Revisited

7.1 Stress
111 fact, stress in certain expressions has a grammatical function.
The following grammatical functions are associated with certain stress
patterns. These are summed up 110 what 101105٧5.

(1) Tarts 0٤ speech. Some words 210 function as nouns 2104 verbs
in different contexts, ٨ speaker can indicate the part of speech 01 such
words 0‫ آل‬placing the stress in a certain position 110 a word. Here some
examples:
Noun Verb
‘permit permit
suspect sus’pect
‘progress prog’ress

We notice 10 ‫ا‬04‫ ا‬these pairs the first syllable of the ٧010 is

stressed when it is used 88 a noun while the second syllable is stressed
when 1٤ fictions as ‫ ه‬verb.

(2) Compound nouns. ٨ compound noun can ‫ ه‬signalled by 1100

stress pattern ٢/]. The first word of ‫ ه‬compound noun normally receives
00 primary stress whereas the secondary stress is placed 011 the second
word. It should 0‫ ه‬100‫ا‬9‫ ل‬that the stress 15 usually placed 010 the nucleus
(which 15 normally a vowel sound) of the stressed syllable of the
respective word. These are some examples:
Unit Two 9 Speech Product on and

Reception
 Compound 1001410
blackboard
Shortstop
Whitehouse
Greenhouse

(3) Modifier + noun. 1100 two words making up a compound noun

can 00 used as 2 modifier and a noun. For example, 11 the stress pattern
[\ /] is used 110 the above compound nouns they become modifiers and
nouns. Look at the examples:
black board
short stop
white house
green house
1100 stress pattern 15 very important in conveying the intended
meaning. For example, 11 the speaker says "blackboard” with the stress
pattern [\/], he certainly means the type of board we find in classrooms.
But 110 1‫ م‬says the same expression with the stress pattern [\ /] he must
mean a board whose colour 1‫ ى‬black.

(4) ٧0105 + noun-object. 1100 stress pattern which is used ٤0 inidicate

‫ ه‬verb and a noun-object 15 the one used ٤0 signal 6 modifier+noun, 45
110 100 following example:
They love birds.
They are cooking apples.

(5) Verbs dverbs. The above stress pattern 15 4180 used to indidcate
‫ ه‬verb 20‫ ل‬adverb. These are a few examples:
You must look out.
The tent has 09910 pushed over.
The placement of the primary stress can also be affected by
the adjacent 500145 in the sentence. When said in isolation, the word
‘unknown,’ for instance, 15 stressed 010 both 611210195 (i.e. 'un ’known).

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
But 110 the phrase (210 'unknown land”, 100 stress 010 the second syllable
15 weakened, ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬hence pronounced 25 "unknown”. However, 110 the
expression "quite unknown”, the first syllable 18 weakened, 20‫ ل‬hence
said as "unknown”.
When words are used 110 actual communication, some words
are stressed more than 00015. The location 01 the main stress largely
depends on the meaning intended by the speaker. Thus 000 can stress
any word in his utterances even those which are normally unstressed. For
instance, 10‫م‬1 ‫ ل‬speaker means that both (Mary and Jane should 0100٥ 10
the party”, he emphasizes the grammatical word ‘and” which 15 usually
unstressed 110 similar contexts. 1115 holds 1‫ هل‬of the conjunction (or”
11 he means that either (Mary 01 Jane should come ٤0 the party”. Here,
(or” which is otherwise unstressed is stressed. Thus, the speaker can
emphasize any word 10 the speech continuum 110 accordance with his
intended message.
Look at the following examples:
He 'didn’t mean to' go. (٢50100 said ordinarily)
11‫' ه‬didn’t mean to' go. (when the speaker means to emphasize
(he” for contrast.)
He 'didn’t 'mean ٤0 go. (when the speaker wishes ٤0 emphasize
(mean)
11‫ ه‬speaker’s intention 2150 0‫ هن‬determmine the location 01 the
main stress in the same word. For example, the 015٤ and the fourth
syllables 110 the word (aristocratic” are normally evenly stressed. But 11
the fourth syllable is given ‫ ه‬higher degree 0٤ stress 25 110 the example
(The aristo'cratic rider galloped away”, then the speaker’s intention
would be 10 contrast this particular rider with an ordinary 011٥. Thus 0‫آل‬
uttering the fourth syllable with a higher degree of stress, the speaker
1405 60912 emphasis 00 11015 word. 11018 110 ton shows that the speaker
can 010000145120 any word in 118 utterance 110 accordance with his intended
meaning. For example, if the word (evening” 110 the phrase (ITl visit you
110 the 'evening” 1‫ ى‬stressed, then 00 speaker intends 10 make clear the
time 0٤ 115 visit. But 110 the expression. ٤٤1 read the 1095٧8 110 the evening
paper”, the word (evening” does not receive a higher degree 01 stress

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
100921150 it 15 1150‫ ل‬as 6 modifier 101 the word "paper”.
Finally, by selecting 4 particular stress pattern a speaker 211
resolve the ambiguity 0٤ 02112111 expressions. Here 15 an example:
1.2. They are cooking 2100195.
2.0. 119٧ are cooking apples.

2.. 'Flying 'planes can be dangerous.

2.10. 'Flying planes can be dangerous.

1.2. describes 100 activity which is going on, that is some people
are actually cooking some apples; 1.10010 ‫ و‬the other hand, describes some
apples 85 being good for cooking; 2.a. planes which 4‫ آل‬are dangerous;
10 2.0, 100 activity of flying planes (i.e., 10 11‫ آل‬planes) is dangerous. It is
easy ٤0 100100 100 difference 110 meaning between (La’ and lb.’ since
‫ ه‬different stress pattern 18 used 10 each. But (2.2. and ‘2.1’ have 1100
same stress pattern. Here 100 ambiguity which might arise can be solved
by resorting 10 the context 01 situation. Hence, using the appropriate
stress pattern 15 01 immense significance 10 a foreign language learner
50 that he 020 communicate ٢7٧1110 1‫ ا‬adeqately.

Exercise (39)
Listen and repeat the following words, indicating the stressed
syllable(s) 110 each:

Exercise (40)
Put the appropriate stress (primary or secondary) 110 15‫ ا‬proper
position 110 the following expressions.
Compound noun Modifier+Noun
English teacher English teacher
Whitehouse white house
blackboard blackboard
shortstop short 00‫اى‬

95
Unit Two speech Production 110‫ه‬
Reception
 Exercise (41)
State the stress 61011 111 the following expressions:
tiresome tiresome job
remarkable remarkable success
praiseworthy praiseworthy achievement
blooming blooming plant
contract (n) contract bridge

Exercise (42) 1‫لم‬

1120‫ ن‬the appropriate stress(es) 011 the following words:
contract(v.) contract (1.)
permit(v) permit (n٠)
bluebird (compound 001110) blue bird (modifier on)
lookout (compound noun) to look out (verb+adverbial)

Exercise (43) ‫لكا‬

Explain the meaning of each of these expressions as indicated 0‫ ل‬the

given stress patterns:
la French teacher ٦. French teacher
2.a, Burning oil frightened 101100 10. Burning 011 frightened 101100.
3.2. Jump 10008 are used 0‫ ل‬boxers,. They jump ropes.
4.2. The movie was 10911 over. ٦. 11‫ ح‬movie 1‫ ى‬a heldover from
last week.
5.a. They are racing horses. b. They are racing horses.

SAQs (34) lLJ

1. 110٢5٧ can stress help the learner and the speaker of a language?
2. Give examples other than those mentioned 110 1100 above exercises
which show 1005٧ stress 810 play a grammatical function.
3. Give examples that show 1005٧ a speaker can stress words which are
normally unstressed.
4. 00*1012110 with 9*21000105 how stress patterns can solve ambiguous
utterances.___________________________
Unit Two 96 Speech Production and

Reception
 7.2 Intonation
When we speak we do not say all 00‫ ل‬words 110 ٤00 same utterance
with 109 same tune. Rather, our voice sometimes rises 110100 8 10٧٧ pitch
to ‫ ه‬high one, or it falls from 2 high pitch 10 a 105٧ one; or it 15 midway
between 00٥5 1٧0 patterns. Thus, we vary our voice pitches, hence
producing different tunes. Changing pitch patterns during speaking
creates 6 kind 0٤ melody that distinguishes one language 110111 another.
English is a highly melodious language.
Intonation refers 0‫ نا‬the pitch patterns that a speaker uses when
communicating 110 6 0011210 language. The various pitch patterns are
2150 referred ٤0 as intonational contours. These contours are not solely
meant 0‫ ا‬provide our 8000001 with melody, but they 4150 0021101100
significant grammatical and attitudinal finctions. 110 addition, they can
reveal the speaker ,8 emotional and mental state 01 mind. The speaker
9811 say the same word with different intonational patterns according to
the intended meaning. 101‫ ؟‬example, the word "yes" can 0210 ‫ ه‬answer ٤0
a question. Every one 01 these attitudes can 00 expressed 0‫ ل‬saying the
word "yes" with 2 particular intonational pattern. However, the ٧01‫ل‬
retains its actual meaning 110 0 11‫ ه‬these different 2111498.
Normally, short sentences ٤01100 one intonational group; that
15‫ و‬they are uttered at 0100 continuous breath. The stressed syllable 0٤
1103 last word 10 the tone group usually constitutes the tonic syllable
over which the pitch falls (goes down) or rises (goes up). Let’s take an
example:
The girl gave the toy 10 her brother.
110 ٤1015 sentence, 5٧1101٦ constitutes one tone group, the voice
pitch starts falling on the first syllable 01 the word "brother” which 15
considered the 10101 syllable. The tonic syllable can 00 earlier in the
sentence as 110 the following example:
11‫ ح‬wanted 10 ٤0 0‫ ي‬Jordan 010 Friday.
Here the tonic syllable is the first 010110 ‫" ه‬Jordan”, Still, the whole
sentence is 010٥ tone group. Moreover, the same sentence 02811 be made
01 ‫ مال‬more than one tone group as in the following examples 110 which
the slanting stroke represents the tone group boundary:
He sat 010 the bench,/ eating ‫ ه‬sandwich.
The girl/ gave the toy/ ٤0 her brother.

97
Unit Two Speech Production and
Reception
 Breaking the sentence into one or more tone groups depends 010
the speaker. For example, 1101005 110 2 list normally 101100 one tone group
each, as 110:
He drank tea,/ coffee/ and orange juice.
110 fact, 210 intonational unit 15 ‫ ه‬unit of information. ٨ sentence
normally contains information which has already 10٥90 given 110 previous
discourse and information hat is announced for the 15٤ time. Thus,
‫ ه‬sentence contains given and 100٢٧ information. New information is
usually 110 011 ‫ اح‬one separate intonational group. Supposing that 000
talks about "iron", 11010 would 00 the given information ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬what he
says about 11010 18 the new information. Therefore, 501910 he says.
Iron is a metal.
‫؛؛‬metal" receives the tonic accent since 1٤18100 speakers comment
010 the 91٧910 topic ‫؛؛‬iron". But 1٤ he 15 discussing ‫؛؛‬metals”, 0910 ‫؛؛‬iron”
receives the tonic accent as the 10055٧ information as in the example.
Iron is a metal,

‫ا»س‬ ‫لعآ‬
Identify the tone group boundaries 110 the following sentences.
Use the stroke sign (/) to set off tone group boundaries,
11011010 stood 010 the rock watching the sailing 004٤5.
The man John was talking 10 gave 11100 the book.
111 go wherever you go.
The teacher gave many assignments 10 15 students.
1 like apples, oranges and peaches.

SAQs (35)__________________________________________________
1. What 1‫ ه ى‬tone group?
(20
2. ٧1‫ اه‬15 ‫ ه‬tonic syllable?
3. What is the function 0٤ intonation 110 English?

100110000 has already been discussed 110 Unit 1‫ و‬Section 4.2. It ٧111
be discussed 110 more detail 110 Unit 5‫ و‬Section 1.3 110 11 context of
connected speech.
Unit Two 98 Speech Production and

Reception
 8. Overview
1115 unit has dealt with speech production and reception. 1100
various organs of speech have been presented. The place and manner
of articulation were dealt with 110 detail. This included the articulation
0٤ both consonants and vowels. 10 addition, the syllable, morpheme
and word were introduced 110 a general way. Prosodic suprasegmental
features, namely stress, intonation 2114 1100110110 were revisited.
Although 11‫ ه‬these concepts were dealt with from ‫ ه‬phonetic rather
than a phonemic 00110٤ 0 view, almost all examples were given 110110
English.

9. Preview 0 Unit Three

11 Third unit 0٤ the course ٢٧111 deal with English consonants
and vowels. This will include their general characteristics 110 addition
to phonetic and phonemic variations, Arabic-English sound contrasts
will also be discussed.

10. Answer Key

Exercise (1)
[m] the lips and the nose [θ] the teeth and the tongue
[p] the lips [z] the pharynx
M the lips [‫ لع‬the pharynx

Exercise (2)
part of the tongue sound
back kin "car"
front yin ‫ م‬you,
tip [111(1982
tip or blade tin "test”

Unit 1٧0 50221 Production 211

Reception
 back win “west"
1100 01 blade 4 10 “date"
tip or blade 1 in “late”
tip or blade z in “zero”
blade ch in “chat”
tip sin ‫ م‬sat”

Exercise (3)
Oral sounds: 1‫ و‬k, ‫ وى‬r, ‫ ول‬٧٧
Nasal sounds: 110‫ و‬11‫ و‬10‫ع‬

Exercise (4)
‫م‬٨ vat 210 gate date then
B set rice roof 001110000 100‫ن‬

Exercise (5)
Raised 00111100: 5,1‫ و‬g, w, ‫ وية‬k, sh, 1
Lowered velum: 1010 ‫و‬

Exercise (6)
young cue news yet pure few you

Exercise (7)
A. hat young ‫لماوال‬ bo but ‫االم‬ ‫هاالن‬ william
now
B. cheese chose meat mat fall fa tall talk tell

Exercise (8)
her fifth 10‫هح‬ with tenth another

Exercise (9)
fit 11110 ‫ل‬ kiss sick quiz there bed

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 Exercise (10)
Raised jaws‫ ؛‬flu shot soup sure grow
Lowered jaws: fle agree blood seat fur

Exercise (11)
probleu build 10009 cup 00001091009 peep 191199 crime
paragraph diagram

Exercise (12)
Phonolog voice, 101000‫ وع‬٧, receive, photo, arrival, 1112, river,
stuff

Exercise (13)
Thin, mother, eighth, then, father, thick, that, think, theme,
breathe

Exercise (114)
Receive, soldier, demand, metals, cakes, 0100, walked, know,
late, reside

Exercise (15)
Treasure, pressure, chair, jump, should, child, issue, pleasure,
jail, soldier

Exercise (16)
Yesterday, young, endure, human, queue, you, review,
university

Exercise (17)
Knock, claim, wrong, drink, garage, chemistry, rank, sac, cream,
trigger

Exercise (18)
Wall, cow, why, what, wonder, allow, walk

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 Exercise (19)
(1100 sign (‫ )ي‬means ‫ا‬1‫ ه‬same 25 above)
5٦‫ شم‬Point of ‫ةال‬٢0‫ اة‬H Organs"drspeec٢
Articulation ‫ةةناةآل‬5‫ل؟‬ Nasal

3 voiceless oral two lips

‫س^ل‬
D ‫ستش‬ voiced ‫سع‬

m = 11282]‫س‬ ‫سسس‬

‫أ‬ """‫ل‬
-»‫ت‬
voiceless oral lower lipt upper

٧ =
II II II ill ill II II ill ‫ني‬٨٨‫ل‬ ■I I I ■I I I I I I ■I I teeth_______________
- ‫سسسلللعل‬

٣]1 n voiceless oral tongue tip+upper

. ■ ،■ ■ ]١ I I I ■I I I I I I I I I I I ‫سللععل‬
- "i :
٤ aieia Hi oral tongue 110-
1 Illi Illi alveolar ridge
‫ععلكند^هلكعاللق‬
‫سسس‬ :
n : = nasal -

5 ‫سس‬ Hi oral :

- ‫؛‬ voiced =‫ح‬ -

1 ‫سسء‬ ‫تتت‬ - :

r ‫س‬ =
■■■■_■■ ، I ‘ lɪ “ • • • • • • • • • •
“voiceless oral tongue blade - bac٢
‫ععلنللهلعالل^لع‬
٤07191010 ‫سس‬ voiced :
0^‫س‬
: voiceless- = ‫سس‬
11^1000 voiced ‫سسس‬
‫ت‬

٤‫جل‬55 palatal voiced 1 ]]010]0٤

tongue-hard palate

‫م‬ nr^— voiceless oral "back of tongue-

‫سسسللللعلي‬
velum_______________
‫ي‬ ‫ث‬ voiced oral”

Unit Two
102
Speech Production and
Reception
 ،king’ ‫*سس‬
nasal
1 . . . . _—_ ■ 1 ■
٠ . . . . ٠ ,_ _____ 1 101
w voiced lips+back of tongue
anfivelum

Exercise (20)
A: tip, B: fit :1101105010:^1,^19:101 ‫و‬, F.'yet, G: get

Exercise (21)
18210, tan, 010, pan, van, tick, deck, fig, 5110

Exercise (22)
11‫ه‬٣ pleasure, arrive, there, share, think, sir, photo,
volvo, mushroom

Exercise (23)
Much, range, garage, manage, rich, chalk, such,
church, reach, jump

Exercise (24)
‫ وامالا‬shrink, mat, net, knock, song, among, ink, non,
10011

Exercise (25)
Wall, falcon, little, bulk, twinkle, lake, lateral

Exercise (26)
Water, brilliant, cute, year, winter, rubric, real, 5001141
write, winter

Exercise (27)
‫آ‬ ‫ًاة‬١‫ةل‬ -Voicing ~~ Place of ٧721011‫ي‬1٣0‫م‬
Articulation Articulation
0110[
~ apple 5010

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 either voiced r dental ٠ fricative
^ _ ^ _^ ^_٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٨
1 ٨ voiceless velar 9٤00
= alaoieia2]]102٣

soldier voiced = affricate

1
rough voiceless 12010‫حس‬1012‫سر‬ ""fricative

mmer voiced ibial ”mil■"" nasal

telling ™I = alveolar ٥

10111 palatal — glide

phrase air fricative

ring : velar nasal

water - labio-velar glide

0 ‫سس‬ voiceless palato-alveolar fricative

Exercise (28)
Bilabial LabiO" 17 10 1 Hr ‫ ح‬٤‫ه‬ Palatal; Palatal velar
dental alveolar
-^5
Stop p b f V ٤‫سلم‬ ʃ 5

thin then she beige *‫ي‬

Fricative m ‫ى‬ ‫ة‬ tʃ ʤ

chair

Affricate
‫س‬jump
^033000
n
Nasal 10
-thing.
Lateral

-let
(w) r ) 0٢(
yes

104
Unit Two speech Production and
Reception

‫بتبييييييييسسسيبيببيسيينيبينبت^نتشيت‬-‫نبسبتتةسنتجبييسنجييتتيييييرسببيييبسننيسب^رتسبمهسبهمبثبببييي^ييبتنبميس^سيبسبعب‬ ‫بت‬-...'-‫ي‬, ‫؛نت ست‬٠‫ت‬٠‫ت‬٣‫ شةشتشتسثشتةت‬....‫؟‬٠٤٠٠ ■;‫■"■"ي‬

 Exercise (29)
Cat: low-front
Fit: high-front
Feet: high-front
Get: mid-front
He: high-front
51٤: high-front
Fat: low-front
Sheet: high-front
Mix: high-front
Dead: mid-front

Exercise (30)
root: high-back
shot: low-back
put: high-back
pure: high-back
far: low-back
sure: high-back
boot: high-back
saw: mid-back
got: low-back
‫ها‬: low-back

Exercise (31)
cut, ago, farmer, drummer, done, for, hut, allow, mother,
not

Exercise (32)
Father: low-back
Rank: low-front
51099٤: high-front

Unit 1٧٧0 Speech Production and

Reception
 Some: cental
Push: high-back
Thought: mid-back
Red: mid-front
Kit: high-back
Bar: low-back

‫) نسئ‬33(
sat judge
boy done
peepfun
100٤ tar
shot rush

Exercise (34)
Onset Nucleus Coda
٤*
‫هح‬ ٤
s ea ٤
sm o k
str ‫زو‬ t (written as ٤‫ع‬٤‫ و‬but pronounced as t)
str ee t (written as ‫؛‬Iked’, but pronounced as ‫؛‬kt’)
m u 4
k i 1‫ى‬
ch u rch
[ 011 rth

‫) نسئ‬35(
Open syllables Closed syllables
flee fleet
be been
see seen
٤1 nor
tea team

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 Exercise (36)
Word Constituent syllables
be be
believe ‫ ه‬lieve
believing be lie ving
unbelieving unbe lie ing
believingly be lie ving lv
unbelievingly un be lie ving ly

Exercise (37)
Word Free morpheme Bound morpheme
visiting visit "ing
government goven ment
replay play re
interested interest ed
national nation al
mistake take mis
formalize form alize
active act ive
activate act ivate
restrict strict re.

Exercise (38)
Free Morphemes Bound Morphemes Words
form in inform
front al frontal
finish ing finishing
teach er treacher
class 1 classify
swim —ing swimming
hard 1 ٧ hardly
boy 191 00151

107
Unit Two Speech Production 211‫ل‬
Reception
 ‫يح‬1‫ى‬٤ ence existence
store re restore

Exercise (39)
The underlined syllables 110 the following words are stressed.
forge
ban a
balloon
lingust ics
phonology
privacy
magnetic
magnification

Exercise (40)
Compound noun Modifier) noun
■ p .
English teacher Eglish teacher
Whitehouse white house
blackboard black board
shortstop short stop

Exercise (41)
tiresome tiresome job
remarkable remarkable success
praiseworthy praiseworthy achievement
blooming blooming plant
contract contract bridge

Exercise (42)
con 'tract 'contract
per 'mit 'permit
bluebird 01‫ حن‬bird
lookout look out

‫ ل‬٠ ٤٦ — 108-------------------------------------
Unit Two Speech Production 411‫ل‬
Reception

‫هتسبتيسيييييتن^عيسبسربببيبيبب^س^ننيب^^رر‬٠‫ ن‬٠٦٣٠٠٨.:.٠‫بنيسستيثببييييسيبسييمب^ب^زنننعمشستشيه^تهسب‬-٠‫م‬٦‫ب‬٣^‫بجتتتتت‬٦‫^ي‬٦^‫*برعب ؟ب‬:‫" لش‬-٨"‫يستسرت"أسيسشتيت!مهعيببييبتة‬٣٨٧٥٨‫ي‬٣٤:٠:-٠,٠.::٠:‫نمستسششةتتس؟‬٤:٤*٦٠‫ت‬٠٠٣‫ستاسسهس‬٨٤‫؟‬-٠.،.‫سشت‬٤٦‫أ‬٨٦‫ت‬٠٠٦٠٦,٣٥٨٨"‫تتش‬٦٠‫تب‬-٠٤‫سستستت‬-‫تتته‬٦‫ت‬٠::٠٦٠‫س‬٠٠٠

 Exercise (43)
1.‫ه‬. French teacher b. French teacher
(2. ٨ teacher who teaches French. 13.‫ هم‬teacher from France.)
2.2. Burning 011 frightened 10111.18. Burning 011 frightened 10110.
(‫ه‬. Oil that bums. To bum oil....)
3.2. 0010010 ropes are used by boxers. 18. They jump ropes.
(a. 10005 used for jumping. 13. 1100٧ are jumping 011 ropes.)
4.2. 10‫ و‬100‫ مزل‬was held over. 13. 1100 movie is heldover from last week.
(a. The movie 5028 postponed. 13. 110 movie was an act of heldover.)
5.a. They 219‫ م‬racing 1161595. 13. They are racing horses.
(. They are doing this activity. 18. The horses are used for racing.)

Exercise (44)
Helen stood 0٦٦ the rock/ watching the dailing boat.
1’11 go/ wherever you go.
The teacher/ gave many assignments/ to his students.
1 like apples/ oranges/ and peaches.

11. References ‫لئ‬

1. [Link](1993)An Introduction to Language,
5th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
2. Gimson. ٨.. (1970) An Introduction to the pronunciation of
English. London: Edward Arnold.
3. Jones. Daniel (1956) An English Pronouncing Dictionary, new
edition,, London: Dent"
4. Jones. Daniel (1969) An Outline of English Phonetics. 9‫ )ال‬ed.
Cambridge.
5. Ledefoged, p. (1993) A Course in Phonetics. 3rd ed. New York:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
6. Roach. 1 (1985) English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical
Course. 30 91011400 ,.‫ل‬: Oxford University Press.
7. Stageberg. N. (1971) An Introductory English Grammar. New
York: Rienhart ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬Winston, INC.

Unit Two Speech Production and

Reception
 110
Unit ٤٦٣٧0 Speech Production and
Reception
 Hee
‫؛‬-٥giC=»-i
Unit Thee 10101351‫ ي‬Consonants 411 ٧0٧٧21‫و‬
 Contents
Subject Page
1٠ Introduction 115
1.1 p eview 115
1.2 Objectives 115
1.3 Contents 115
1.4 Methodology 116
1.5 Audio-Visual Aids 116
1.6 Evaluation 117
1.7 Supplementary Reading 118

2. General Characteristics of English Consonants 118

2.1 Stop Consonants (or Plosives) 118
2.2 Fricatives 122
2.3 Affricates 126
2.4Nasals 1129
2.5 Approximants 133

3. General Characteristics 0٤ English Vowels 137

3.1 Front Vowels 143
3.2 Eack Vowels 144
3.3 Central Vowels 146
3.4 Short and Long Vowels 148

4. English Dipthongs ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬Triphthongs 1 50

4.1 Diphthongs 150
4.2 Triphthongs 151

5. English Consonants Clusters 153

6. Phonetic and Phonemic Variations 156

6.1 Phones and Phonemes 156
6.2 Allophonic Variations 158
113
Unit Thee English Consonants and Vowels
 7. Arabic and English Sound Contrasts 160
7.1 Comparison between English and Arabic
Consonants 160
7.2 Comparison between English and Arabic
Clusters 163
7.3 Some English-Arabic Constrastive Vowels 164
7.4 Some English-Arabic Constrastive Diphthongs 166

8. Overview 16‫و‬
9. Preview of Unit Four 169
10. Answer Key 169
11. References 185

Unit Three English Consonant and Voweis

 1. Introduction
1.1 Preview
This third unit of the course will deal with English consonants
and vowels. 1115 will include their respective general characteristics
11 addition ٤0 phonetic and phonemic Variations. Arabic and English
sound contrasts will also be discussed.

1.2 Objectives__________________________
Upon completing this unit, students are expected ٤0:
0. distinguish English sound contrasts and produce them
correctly,
1. make phonetic and phonemic distinctions,
2. identify and produce different patterns 0٤ English consonantal
clusters,
3. identify and produce the principal diphthongs and triphthongs,
4. describe long and 511011 vowels 110 terms 0 place 210‫ ل‬manner
01 articulation,
5. contrast English and Arabic (consonant and vowel) sounds and
combinations 0٤ sounds, and
6. read transcribed and transcribe English sounds.

1.3 Contents
1. General Characteristics 0٤ English Consonants
1.1 Plosives
1.2 Fricatives
1.3 Affricates
14 Nasals
lApproximants
2. General Characteristics of English Vowels
2.1 Front Vowels
2.2 Back Vowels
2.3 Central Vowels
115
Unit Thee English Consonants and Vowels
 2.4 Short and Long Vowels
3. English Diphthongs and Triphthongs
4. English Consonant Clusters
5. Phonetic and Phonemic Variations
6. Arabic 210‫ ل‬English Contrasts

14 Methodology
110 addition to the general procedures and techniques described
above, the following are recommended for this unit:
1. Present the major differences between English consonant
and vowel production.
2. Highlight the difference between the various types of
English consonants and vowels.
3. Present students with 410 inventory of the permissible
clusters 110 English and contrast them with Arabic.
4. Presentstudentswithatableorachartshowingthepatterns
of the English diphthongs and triphthongs 210‫ ل‬present
them contrastively with their Arabic counterparts.
5. Present students with variety of transcribed words with
different vowel and consonant combinations.

15 Audio-Visual ٨11‫ى‬
1109 following audio-visual aids will 00 used throughout
٤018 course.
٨. Software
1. Audio and ٧1490 taped materials recorded 0‫ ل‬native
speakers 0٤ English.
2. Phonetic alphabets (e.g. 11٨ symbols) 101 broad and
narrow transcription.
3. Photographs 0٤ tongue positions of the cardinal vowels.
4. Illustrations of the organs of speech.
5. Illustrations 01 the points and manner 01 articulation.

Unit Three
116
English Consonants and Vowels
 6. Charts 0٤ English and Arabic sounds.
7. Pronouncing dictionaries, e.g. 10. Jones, 477 779157
Pronouncing Dictionary (latest edition).
8. Phonetic readers, e.g. 1.10. 0(00111101, New Phonetic
Readings (latest edition).
9. Tables, diagrams, charts and pictures that help illustrate
the material discussed 110 10‫ ح‬course.
10. Native speakers of English 2‫ ى‬informants.
1 1. Other similar materials.
13. Hardware
1. Tape recorders.
2. TV sets.
3. Chalk and talk.
4. Realia 210‫ ل‬similar materials collected by the teacher and
the students.
5. Language 120 (if available).
6. Computer (if available).
7. Internet (if available)

1.6 Evaluation
111 addition 10 the general evaluation techniques described above,
the following are recommended 101 this unit.
1. Ask students ٤0 read transcribed ٢5٧0145 and phrases.
2. Ask students to transcribe words and phrases.
3. ‫ يىه‬students to produce examples 01 the different
consonantal clusters.
4. Ask students 10 describe sounds in terms 0٤ point and
manner of articulation.
5. Ask students to distinguish between 1011911290 and Arabic
vowels, using real examples.
6. Ask students 10 list words with certain vowels, diphthongs
and triphthongs.
7. Ask students to transcribe and read transcriptions 01 the
words with certain vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs.
117
Uni‫ ؛‬Three English Consonants and Vowels
1.7 Supplementary Reading
Ref. No. Page
1. Abercrombie (1967) pp. 42-50
2. Gimson (1970) 00. 144-213
[Link](1969) pp. 42-45
4. Mitchell 8 ElHassan (1989) 00. 82-141
5. 0001009(1980) pp. 24-84

2. Genera Characteristics of English Consonants

Language, any language, consists of sounds joined together 10
form syllables, syllables to 101100 words, and words to 101100 groups of
words called phrases and sentences or utterances. Sounds are divided
into ٤5٧0 types: consonants and vowels. For example, the word cat
consists of ‫ ه‬consonant /k/, ‫ ه‬vowel /æ/ 2100 another consonant /t/. The
difference between consonantsandvowels is related to sound production.
Consonants are made with an obstruction 0٤ the free passage of air 110
the mouth such as /p/, /f/, /b/ and /v/. Vowels are made with 00 such
obstruction such ‫ يه‬/i/ and /1/.
11٦ English there are twenty four consonant sounds (110 Arabic there
are more), seven short and five long vowels (110 Arabic there are 1953).
You will study consonants and vowels 110 this unit.
English consonant sounds 1‫ه‬٥ divided, according to their manner
and point 01 production (01 articulation) (see Unit One), 110٤0 four types:
stop consonants, fricatives, affricates, and 20101011002105. Now you ٢5٧111
study each type in turn.

2.1 Stop Consonants (01 Plosives)

Stop consonants are:
/p/as pipe
/1 as in table
/k/as in cake
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
 //2‫ ى‬in baby
/1/ as 111 door
/‫ي‬/ as 110 girl

As you probably 114٧0 noticed 110 producing the words pipe, baby,
table, door, cake, ‫ه‬10‫نو ل‬11‫ و‬the consonant sounds /0/, /0/‫ و‬/t/, /‫ل‬/‫ و‬/1/‫ و‬211‫ل‬
‫ع‬// are pronounced with a ‫؛‬stop, 210‫ ل‬an ‫؛‬explosive’ sound. 11‫ اه‬15‫ و‬the
air stream in the mouth is completely stopped for a 51001٤ time, then 115 ‫أ‬
allowed ٤0 0‫ ع‬quickly out 01 the mouth with an ‫؛‬explosive’ sound. For
thi s reason, these sounds are also called plosive consonants.
Stop consonants, however, diffor 110 the point 01 production (01
articulation).
11 /p/ and /10/, 100 stop involves the two 11195.
In /t/ and /‫ل‬/‫ و‬the 51010 involves pressing the tongue firmly on the
palate behind 09‫ ا‬teeth, called alveolar ridge.
110 // 210‫ ل‬/‫ع‬/‫ و‬the back part of the tongue 15 pressed firmly against
the‫ ؛‬furthest back part 01 the palate.
There 16 also another difference: /p/, /t/ and /‫ا‬/ are voiceless, 211‫ل‬
when each 01 them occurs at the initial position (01 beginning) of 4
word, it 15 produced with aspiration (or 8 puff 01 breath), /b/, /d/ and
/‫ع‬/, on the other hand, are voiced and there 18 100 aspiration when they
occur initially.
The following table sums up the characteristics of the articulation
0٤ stop consonants:

9010 Consonants

‫عحعآل‬ bhlabial alveolar Velar

‫حجححه‬ ٧/ ‫ت‬ iiii --

510105 VL VD
p b t ‫ل‬ k ‫ع‬
VL= voice Less
VD: voiced
The following diagram (Diagram 3.1) shows the 00511010 01speech
organs and the point 0٤ the articulation of each 01 the three pairs 0٤ stop
consonants.

119
Unit Three 2091191 Consonants 2111 Vowels
 1012912100 3.1. Articulation 0500‫ ا‬Consonants

1100 following table gives examples of stop consonants ‫ اه‬the

beginning, middle and end of words.

Stop ‫ ه‬HaT ””Final

lpl 10‫الما‬ sleeping lip
/b/ but rubbing job
Id tin pretty put
I‫لة‬ dog lad r road
//
‫ل^لسسسسا‬--—get
08٤ chicken
.... hungry... ‫ععل‬ dark

10 illustrate the value of the different stop sounds, the following

minimal pairs (that 15‫ و‬pairs of words 110 02 of which one sound only
differs) ٤0 show 10٢٧ the use 0٤ one stop sound instead 0‫ م‬another
changes the meaning of words.
/0,0/ pin / bin ‫ و‬pit / 101‫ ا‬: pull / bull
/td tin din ; two do ;seat / seed
/k,g/ cage / guage ‫ و‬curl / girl ‫ و‬pick / pig

Exercise (1)
Give words, not mentioned above, 25 instructed below:
1500 .‫ ه‬words with stop consonants 110 initial position.
0. two words with stop consonants 111 medial position,
c. two words with stop consonants in final position.

1120
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
Exercise (2)
٤
Give minimal pairs, 00 mentioned above 0 constrast: ٤
2. /p/and Zb/
. /t/ and /d/
c. ‫ ال‬31 ‫لح‬

Exercise (3)
‫ ه ا‬words on tape and identify which stop is used
Listen 0 10
110 initial position 0‫ ل‬putting ‫ ه‬circle around the number before it:
‫ه‬ 1 ‫أال‬ 2 /b/ f. 1 // 2 ٦‫ام‬
b 1 ‫ألم؛‬ 2 ‫اه؛‬ g ٠ 1 !‫اجأ‬ 2 ‫ليأا‬
c. 1 ‫لألل‬ 2 1‫لج‬ 1 1 w 2
1 2 /‫ل‬/ i. 1 rvj 2 ‫ل‬
e٠ 1 ‫ا‬ 2 ‫لح‬ ‫ز‬ 1 Ipi 2 ‫أةل‬

Exercise (4)
٤ ٤‫ح‬
1151010 0 1 words on tape and identify which stop is
used 110 0000121 position by putting ‫ه‬
circle around the number
before 1 ٤:
a. 1 ‫أ‬ 2 ‫أي‬ f. V ‫ا‬ 2 /٦/
b. 1 /t/ 2 ‫أةأ‬ g. 1 ‫ا‬ 2 ‫ليأا‬
c. 1 Zk/ 2 /‫ي‬/ h. /b/ 2 /‫ع‬/
1. 1 1‫أ‬ 2 /‫ل‬/ ‫ز‬. )‫لي‬ 2 ‫أدأ‬
e٠ 1 ‫ا‬ 2 /‫ع‬/ j٠ ٧ ‫أج‬ 2 /‫ل‬/

Exercise (5)
Listen 10 the words 010 tape and identify which 500 is used
111 final position by putting a circle around it:
‫ه‬. [ ‫أ‬ 2 ‫أ‬١‫أد‬ f. 1 ‫ذا‬ 2 Zb/
b. 1 ‫ا‬ 2 ‫أةأ‬ ‫ي‬٠ 1 0 2 ‫أي‬
c, 1 /‫ا‬/ 2 /‫ع‬/ 1 1 /b/ 2 /‫ع‬/
d. ] ‫أح‬ 2 /‫ل‬/ 1 1 ‫لي‬ 2
e ٠ ] ‫ا‬ 2 ‫لحا‬ j. 1 ‫أج‬ 2 ‫اها‬
Un t Three English Consonants and Vowels
‫)مهنمث‬6(
Listen ٤0 the following minimal pairs, then write the 500
0
different sounds 10 each pair 110 the order given:
1 ‫ل‬ I
I ‫أ‬٠ I I
I , ‫ا‬ j
١٥٠ ١ I I
I %‫ا ا ا‬
I , j ‫ا‬
c. , I I
I ١‫ط‬ II I ‫و‬ ‫ا‬ I
.‫ذاا‬. ‫ا‬ /
‫م‬.‫ا اا‬ ‫ا‬. ‫ا‬ ‫د‬ / ‫ا‬

SAQs (1)
1. How many stop consonants are there 10 English?
(20
2. How many of them are voiced and 00٢5٧ many are
voiceless?
3. What feature 15 common between /0/ and /10/‫ و‬/t/ and /‫ل‬/‫و‬
and/k/and /g/?
4. What is a minimal pair?

2.2 Fricatives
Fricative consonants are
|‫آل‬ as 1٣1 100٤
51 as 1 leaye
as 11 high
‫إما‬ 4‫ى‬ 11‫م‬ the
as 1‫م‬ seat
٢7‫ا‬ 1‫ى‬ 11 ^ebra
/ʃ/ ٤‫ى‬ 1‫م‬ het
|‫آل‬ as 11 vision
Zb/ as 11‫م‬ high

٨5 you have probably noticed 110 pronouncing the words foot,

leave, thing, the, seat, zebra, sheet, vision and high, the consonant
sounds /f/, /٧/, /0/ /5/ /5/ /z/, /ʃ/, /5/ and /1/ are all [Link]

Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels

a friction. That 15, ٤100 longs push the air through a narrow opening
at one point or another, and this narrowing causes the friction. 10
this reason, they are called fricative consonants.
Fricatives differ in the point 01 production (or articulation)
which causes the friction.
10 /f/ and /٧/ the bottom 110 18 very 1050 ٤0 the upper front
teeth.
In /0/ and /6/ the ٤100 of the tongue 1‫ ى‬close ٤0 the upper front
teeth.
In /5/ and /2/ the tip and blade of the tongue are very close ٤0
the alveolar ridge.
10 /ʃ/ ‫ لمه‬/‫ح‬/ there :‫ ه و‬narrowing between the tip 0 the tongue
and the back 01 the alveolar ridge.
11 /10/ a short gasp of breath 15 pushed up by the lungs causing
some friction 110 the vocal tract without very 001013 10015. The /10/
sound 21٢٧205 occurs 100101 a vowel which shapes 1‫ ى‬sound.
There is also another difference 110 the articulation 0٤fricatives.
/٢٧/ /ð/, /5/ 00‫ة‬/ ‫ه‬/ are voiced but /f/ /θ/, /8/ /‫ا‬/ and /10/ are
voiceless.
1109 following table sums up the characteristics 0٤ the
articulation of fricative consonants.
Fricative Consonants
\ Place nrDental Alveolar nn nr
Mam٦‫عج‬ dental

Fricative VL VD VL VD l ND VL VD VL VD
‫أ‬ 5‫ل‬ θ ð • ٢2 ١ 5 10 -
VL : voiceless VD^ Voiced

The following diagram (Diagram 3.2) shows the position of speech

organs at the point 0٤ 1100 articulation of each pair /f,v/, /0/ 5/ /5,/ /,
3/ /h/ is not included.

123
Unit Three English Consonants and Voweis
 Diagram 3.2. Fricatives (except /10/)

The following table gives examples 0٤ fricative consonants 2‫أ‬

initial medial ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬final positions 0٤ words.

Fricative Initial Medial Final

‫س‬
1011 after roof

HI view clee hae

/0/ hank nothing tooth

lbl hat father wih

lsi sit crossing bus

zoo easy lies

sham stat rush

5‫ال‬ pleasure garage

/1/ he behind

As the table shows, all fricatives appear at the beginning, middle

and end 0 words except that /e/ does 100٤ appear at the beginning
00511010 21010/ ‫ل‬/ does 100٤ come 110 8 final position.
11‫ ه‬following 100110110041 pairs show 100٢5٧ the use 0٤ one fricative
sound instead 01 another changes the meaning 01 words:

Unit Three English Consonants and ٢٧0٢٧218

 /f,v/ leaf /lea e; fat; vat; life/ live
/θ,v/ thicker/ vicar
/5‫ و‬/ face/ phase; sink; zinc; bus/ buzz
/ʃ, 5/ diluton/ delu 00
/5, 0/ sink / think; sort / thought
/2,6/ pleasing/ breaking
/ʃ. 6/ shock/ sock; short/ sort; pressure/ preser
/1,1/ hat/ fat; height/ fight

Exercise (7)
Give words, not mentioned above, as instructed:
a. with fricative sounds (except/ 10/) in initial position (10 words).
0. with fricative sounds 110 medial position. (10 words),
0. with fricative sounds (except/ 10/) 110 final position (10 7٧0145).

Exercise (8)
Give minimal pairs, not mentioned above, ٤0 contrast
٤ // 21011 ‫اآلل‬ f /10/ and /ʃ/
٦ /0/ and ‫اما‬ ‫ي‬٠ /b/ 21‫لم‬ ‫آل‬
c. and ٢‫اس‬ 1 /d/ and )‫أل‬
d. /ʃ/ and 5‫ا‬ 1 /k/ 201 ‫لجا‬
e. /ʃ/ and lsl ‫خ‬ !‫أل‬ ‫ه‬10‫ل‬ /‫أ‬/
Exercise (9)
Listen 10 the 500105 010 tape 211‫ ل‬identify which fricative sound is
used 110 initial 000511010 by putting a circle around it:
a. /f/ /v/ f٠ // //
٦ /^/ !‫!آل‬ gt ‫ا‬ 7‫ا‬
C. /10/ ‫إ‬7‫ا‬ h. /ʃ/ !‫اخ‬
4 !s! !‫الل‬
i. ‫اتا‬ ‫اما‬
e. /1/ !٩! j٠ /1/ 5‫ال‬

125
Unit Three English Consonants 41‫ ل‬Vowels
Exercise (10) 0
Listen to 109 words 00 tape ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬identify which fricative sounds
15 used 110 medial position 0‫ آل‬putting 2 circle around it:
a. ‫ا؟‬ ‫ات‬ ٤ Al /‫ا‬/
h // hl ‫ى‬. 1‫ه‬1 7‫ا‬
( fe.1 tai 1 /ʃ/ ‫ا‬6‫أ‬
d٠ hl tai 1 ‫اجا‬ 1‫اة‬
e. 10/ |‫ال‬ j. /h/ !‫اآل‬

Exercise (11)

Listen ٤0 the words 010 the tape and identify which fricative sound
15 used 110 final position by putting circle around 1٤:
a. Al !] ٤ Al /ʃ/
h /ʃ/ Isi g. IW tai
( /h/ hl 1 hl ‫اا‬
d٠ hl 7‫أ‬ 1. /ʃ/ ‫أا‬
‫ه‬ /h/ ‫ل إحإ‬ ztɪ/ hl

SAQs (2)

1. 1105٧ many fricative consonants are there 110 English?

2. How many 0٤ 00100 are voiced and how many are voiceless?
3. What feature 15 common between // and /9/ ٢٧/‫و‬/ and /6/‫ و‬/5/ 210‫ ل‬/z/;
5/0/‫ه‬00///‫ه‬10‫ل‬
4. What is the place of the articulation of /h/ called?

2.3 Affricates
Affricate consonants are: /٤/ ‫ وه‬in church ‫ لمه‬/ʤ/ as in judge.
Affricate consonants have 100 characteristics 01 the stop consonants
(they are 2150 called stop consonants of ‫ ه‬special kind) /t/ and /d/
‫ه‬0‫ ل‬those 0٤ the fricatives // And /ʤ/. 10 the production of affricate
consonants, the air 15 trapped as 10 the case 0٤ the stops /t/ and /‫ل‬/ (and
Unit Three 126 English Consonants and Vowels
indeed 1‫ له‬other stops) and then released with ‫ ه‬friction similar ٤0 /ʃ/ and
5‫ا‬.
Affricate consonants, however, differ 10100 the other stops 0‫ ذ‬the
point 0٤production (or articulation),
10 both /tʃ/ and /ʤ/, the tongue-tip touches the back part of 1000
alveolar ridge while 1110 soft palate 15 raised to rap the breath. The rest
0‫ م‬11‫ و‬tongue takes the position 0٤/ʃ/ and /5/ then 000٧95 away 00100 the
alveolar ridge causing ‫ ه‬short friction to 00 heard.
/‫أل‬/ is ‫ ه‬voiceless 801004 whereas /ʤ/ is voiced.
The following table sums up 1110 characteristics of the articulation
of the affricate consonants:

٦١١ ‫حعئ‬
‫حححجي^اكال‬Affricate Consonants
Palato-alveolar
I IIIIIIIH 15 lllllili.!

110 following diagram (Diagram 3.3) shows the position 01 the

speech organs ‫ اه‬the point of the articulation of /‫ال‬/ ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬/ʤ/.

Diagram 3.3. Affricate Consonants

The following table gives examples 01 affricate consonants 2‫ا‬

initial, medial ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬final 0005110115 01 words.

Fricative "I Initial ‫ب‬Medial Final

1
|١‫|ل‬ ١ ‫ن‬01‫م‬ catching Rich
/ʤ/ 10* edging Lodging

Unit Three
٦21
English Consonant 4110 Vowels
 The foilowing minimal 002115 show how the use of 00 fricative
sound (01 any other sound) changes 119 meanings 0٤ words:
/5‫ل وأل‬/ search, surgel chin/ gin; hke/oke
/tʃ, ʤ/ chain/ Jane; catching/ cadging
/ʃ, ‫ا‬/ hoe/ hew; washing/ watching
/ʒ,, ʤ/ pleasure/ pledger

Exercise (12)
Give 10 words, not mentioned above, using /200 /‫ أل‬/de/ sounds
110 initial, medial and final positions.
a............................... f....................................
0.............................. ‫ع‬...............................
c................................ 10..................................
1.............................. ‫ذ‬................................
e ‫رول‬........................... ................................................

‫ازلألآ‬٢١‫ذك‬١
Give minimal pairs, 00٤ mentioned above, ٤0 contrast
a /tʃ/ and /ʤ/٠٠,٠٠٠.٠٠ ...... t 1‫ آل‬and /45/
b /‫ا‬/ ‫ه‬0 ‫ل‬ /tʃ/.٠.٠٠٠٠,٠٠, g٠ /ʃ/ ‫ه‬01 /٤/
c ‫ا‬7‫ههلآل ل‬ ‫لم‬5‫ ا‬........ ..... ٦‫م‬. 1‫أج‬ and /ʤ/
‫ ل‬/5‫لم‬/ and ‫ الم‬......... ........ ./5/ and /٤/
e /tʃ/ ‫لمره‬ ‫ ليا‬......... ,٠.٠٠ j,/k/ and /ʤ/

Exercise (14)

115٤910 ٤0 the tape and identify which consonant sound (stop,

fricative 0 affricate) 15 used ‫ اه‬the beginning 01 each word and write
1٤ down below,
‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ٤‫ا‬ ‫ًا‬
١٥٠ ‫ا^اا‬ ‫ا‬
C. ‫إ‬ ‫إ‬ ‫أل‬٠ I ‫ا‬
.‫اا‬. ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
‫م‬. ‫اا‬. ‫ا‬

Unit Three English Consonants 2‫ ل‬Voweis

Exercise (15) (20
100 as in 100. 14 but for consonants in medial position
‫؟‬
٦٥. I ‫ا‬ %٠ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
‫م‬ ٦‫ام‬ ‫أ‬
٩. ‫إ‬ ! . ‫ا‬ 1
e. ‫ا‬ 4 ’١٠ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬

Exercise (16)
As 110 No. 14 but for consonants 110 11021 position
(20
.‫ا‬ j . I
٦٥٠ ‫أ‬ ‫ا‬ i ‫أ‬ I
. / 1. //

‫ا‬ ‫اا‬
‫م‬.‫اا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫أ‬

SAQs (3) (20

1. 110٧٧ many fricative consonants are there in English?
2. Why are they called so?
3. What are they?
4. 1090 109٧ occur 110 initial medial and final positions 110
words?

2.4 Nasals
/m/ 10‫ى‬ 110 100‫ه‬
/n/ as 110 name
/ŋ/ as 110 100‫ع‬

Nasal consonants are also stop consonants because in their

Unit Three English Consonants 201 Vowels

production the 6011 palate 18 lowered and simultaneously the passage
of air 110 the mouth is blocked (01 stopped) ‫ اه‬some point, 80 that air 15
released out 0٤ 1100 nose (and that is why they are called nasals).
111 100 production of /100/ 25 10 man, the 601 palate 15 lowered and
the air 110 00 mouth 16 blocked 0‫ آل‬closing the 1٧0 11005.
110 the production of/n/ 25 110 night, the soft palate 1‫ ى‬also lowered
and the tip of ٤1‫ ه‬tongue presses against the alveolar ridge and the sides
of the tongue are pressed against the sides of the palate.
110 the production 01 /٢٦/ ‫ ىه‬in kg, the soft palate is lowered end
the air 110 the mouth is 010000 by the back 01 the tongue pressing against
the soft palate.
/00/, /0/ and / T١/ are all voiced 6011005.
The following table sums up the characteristics 01 the articulation
0٤ ٤10‫ ح‬nasal consonants.
Nasal Consonants

١٦e nr Alveolar ٦
‫لعليلهل‬
VLVD `vl` ` ` ` ` vd
_________m __________ n
"I VL
‫لوا‬
VD ’■

The following diagram (1914212100 3.4) shows the positions 01

speech organs 000111‫ا اه‬11‫ ه‬٤ of the articulation 0٤ /rn/, /10/, and / 01/

1100 following table gives examples of nasal consonants at initial,

medial and final positions 01‫ م‬words:

Unit Three English Consonants and Voweis

 11٦
25‫ساج‬- ‫" لقلمنلل‬Medial
‫ل‬Nasal 0010010001
■ ‫ح‬ Final ..
Farm ........

n new general begin

‫____________إال‬ -longer.-------------- .spring

As the table shows, /100/ and /n/ can occur 110 211 three positions but
/ 11/ comes 110 medial and 010121 positions only. .
/n/ and / ٢٦/ are often confid 0‫ آل‬non native speakers of English.
Therefore, 0011 should 10 aware 0 the difference between them through
pratice (see below).
/n/ also Emotions 45 ‫ ه‬syllabic sound. 11015 means that it takes ‫ه‬
place at the centre ofthe syllable which is occupiedby a vowel. Compare
lesser/ lesə/ and lesson/ lesn/.
The following minimal pairs show how 1100 use 01 one nasal sound,
instead 0 another, changes the meanings of words:
/m, 10/ may/ nay; meat/ neat; skim/ skin
/m, ٢٦/ brim/ bring; ham/ hang; sam/ sang
/n, ٢١/ 120/ rang; 110/ ing; kin/ king"

Exercise(!?) 120
Give ten words, 100 ٤ mentioned above, using /100/ and /10/ 110 initial,
10090121 and final positions, and // 110 medial and final positions as
indicated below
(medial).............................. [ (1021)...................................
2.
b.
c.
(final)...................................
(1041)...................................
‫ي‬٠
1
(initial).................................
(initial+final).....................
‫إف‬ (initial+medial+final) ... i. (medial)................................
)1009014141121( ......... . .٠ j. (final).....................................

Exercise(lS)
I Give ‫؛‬imal pairs, not mentioned above, to contrast the
‫لكا‬

131
Unit Three English Consonants 4‫ ل‬Vowels
 .‫ا^ل^ل‬ 1 ‫مه لم‬٩‫اه‬
4. /s/and/m// 1. //20‫ل‬/‫ًا‬/
‫ح‬.‫لمي‬ j. ‫إ‬٦٦|‫س‬.‫إ‬٢‫ذ‬1

Exercise (19) ‫ارا‬

Listen 10 the tape and identify which consonant sound (stop, fricative,
affriacate 01 nasal) is used ‫ اه‬0‫ ه‬beginning 0٤ each word and write 1٤
down below:
a. / / f.//
b. // ‫ع‬.//
c. / / 10. //
d. / / i.
e. ‫ا ا‬ ‫ل‬.//
Exercise (20)
Listen 10 the tape and identify which consonant sound (stop,
fricative, affricate 01 nasal) is used 110 ‫ هاا‬final 00811010 0٤
٤
each word 200 write 1 sown below:
‫ه‬. // fJI
bi// g ٠//
.// 0.//
‫؛‬٠٠/ / i./ /

Exercise (21)
11 words 0011 ٢٧111 hear 00 tape have a consonant sound
(stop, fricative, affricate 0* 04521) in ‫ه‬ medial position.
Identify these sounds and write them down below:
a ٤ ٠ ‫اك‬//
0.// 9.//
. // 10.//
//.1 //.‫ل‬
‫ل‬ //..//
Unit Three
132 English Consonants and Vowels

‫?;;سسذ‬--',.,-.'.١:'‫=د‬.‫يذ‬.‫ذ;=د‬٢1‫د‬,'‫='ل‬,‫آ'==تتيآآ‬-‫;؛آ‬٣,'' .٠.-.٠;‫ييدلذتى‬.‫آذ'^^ذتذتتد‬٠-‫ت‬1'.. - :٣" -‫مم‬.;“■‘,.■-'.'.'',.‫دي‬:-

SAQs (4) (20
1. 110٢٢٧ many nasal sounds are there in English?
2. Why are they called nasal?
3. What else 210 they called?
4. Why?
5. Does // come 11011121 ‫ اه‬positions 110 words?
6. Are nasal sounds voiceless or voiced?

2.5 Approximants
Approximants are either glides 01 liquids. The glides 219 /j/ 110 ‫ىه‬
ya; /w/ 110 ‫ ىه‬watch; and /1/ as in read. There 1‫ ى‬only one liquid sound
10 English which is /1/ as 110 loud. This is called the clear /1/ which 15
used by all English speakers. Many speakers, however, 2 450‫ ا‬dark /1/
such as 00 one 110 h (0* in the Arabic word ‫ )الله‬but it is 00‫ ا‬used by all
speakers 0٤ English. The two /1/ sounds are the same and using 0100 ‫ه‬
the 01101 does not change the meaning of words.
/j/ and /w/, although described as consonants, are really 4 kind
of vowel: /j/ 15 a rather short /1/ vowel placed immediately before
some other vowel. It 18 produced by spreading the lips rather than
rounding them. 010 10 other hand, /w/ is 8 rather short /u/ vowel placed
immediately before some 011101 vowel. 115 ‫ ا‬produced by rounding the
lips, 110‫ أ‬spreading them.
/r/ 1‫ ق‬also a glide 01‫ ال‬unlike /j/ or /٢٢٧/ 1‫ ا‬does 110‫ أ‬sound like a vowel.
110 its production, the tongue 15 curved with its tip pointing towards the
hard palate 01 ‫ اه‬٤1‫ ه‬2‫ كن‬the alveolar ridge, the 11105 are rather rounded
(especially when /1/ is ‫ اه‬the beginning 01 words), and the soft palate 18
raised.
10 the production of the liquid /1/ (also called lateral consonant)
the soft palate is raised, 1100 tongue tip 211‫ ل‬the sides of the tongue 012‫ل‬
are 110 firm contact with the alveolar ridge (thus obstructing the centre
of the mouth) and the remainder 01 the tongue is free.
Many English speakers use two varieties of the /1/ sound: a clear
/1/ at the initial position 10 ٢500145 such as 110 light, 211‫ ل‬dark /1/ before
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
consonants 410000511008 1‫ لم‬10 010‫ ه‬such 45 110 killed 210‫ ل‬i respectively.
The clear /1/ and dark /‫ا‬/ ٢5٧111 0‫ ه‬discussed 110 detail in section 5 (Phonetic
and Phonemic Variations).
/‫ل‬/‫ و‬/w/, /1/ and /1/ are 11‫ ه‬voiced sounds.
The following table sums up the characteristics of the articulation
of the approximant sounds.

Approximant Consonants
١١‫ل‬ ‫ \ جعهآلآل‬Hi \ Alveolar Post, Palatal
-‫لعمههل‬ ‫ممعامحناو‬
VL VD VL ٧‫ا‬ VL VD VL VD
Liquid (Lateral) w r j

11‫ ه‬following diagram (Diagram 3.5) shows the position 01

speech organs ‫ اه‬the point of the articulation 01 /1/ and /1/. (10‫ ل‬diagram
15 drawn for/j/ and /٢٧/ since their articulation varies depending 010 their
respective following vowels).

Diagram 3.5. Approximants

11‫ ه‬following ٤21‫ ه‬gives examples 0٤ approximants 2‫ ا‬initial

medial 2114 final positions 01 words:

134
Unit Three English Consonants 4‫ ل‬Vowels
 j
‫لقنلنهلل‬
‫ لقنلهلل لقللللل‬-‫لقليكل‬
w white reward
r rain tiling far away
leaf ____ field..— ...j ‫ب‬ -sell ____

As the table shows, /1/ occurs 110 211 three positions; /j/ 20‫ ل‬/w/
occur 11 initial and medial positions only. 011 ‫ هال‬other hand, /r/ occurs
in initial and 10000121 positions, 01‫ ال‬when 1‫ ا‬occurs 110 101021 position, its
production depends 00 whether there 15 another vowel occurring after
it, in which case it 5‫ ذ‬pronounced /1/ as in ‫ ئ‬25‫ل‬2‫ آل‬or whether there are
100 other vowels after 1٤ 110 which case ‫ انم‬is pronounced /ə/ (see Section
2 010 vowels) as in writer/ raitə/.
1100 following minimal pairs 5100٢5٧ how the use of 0100 approximant
consonant (or any 01001 consonant) changes the meaning 01 words:
/j,w/ yet/wet
/w,r/ heel/ eel
/r,l/ light/ light; led/ red/ alive/ aiiive
/1/ let/yet
/j,ʤ/ yoke/ke
/w,v/ wheel/ veel

Exercise (22) ‫بكا‬

Give words, 00٤ mentioned above, using /j/ and /w/ 110 initial 2104
medial positions.
..................... ...................
0.................................. ‫ع‬..................................
c...................................... 10......................................
‫ل‬.................................. i......................................
e...................................... j. .....................

135
Unit Three English Consonants 411‫ ل‬Vowels
Exercise (23)
Give words, not mentioned above, using /1/ ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬/‫ا‬/ in initial,
medial and final positions.
‫في‬
٦
c.
1
e.

Exercise (24)
Give minimal pairs, not mentioned above, to contrast the
following consonants:
a /j/ and lwl................ ........ t |٦‫س‬ ‫ه‬101 ‫إ‬٦‫ل‬
b /1/ and ‫اذا‬ ....... ٠. ‫ك؛‬
١ and ‫ ا‬.
....... h./t/
c /1/ and |‫اًا‬............. and ‫ا‬١‫إيي‬
d /1/ and /w/................ ....... .‫أى‬ and M
e /j/ and ‫املا‬............ ........ .‫ال‬ and /d/

‫)مهن]ح*ش‬25(
Listen to the 2000 2104 identify which consonant sound (stop,
fricative, affricate, 112841 01 approximant) is used ‫ اه‬the beginning of
each word. 110910 write the symbol 01 each sound below:
a
٦
‫ي‬
4
e

‫يشجيتييمي‬٢‫يةياتيتيايريي‬
Exercise (26)
I
m
I the following words. Then write the symbol of each sound below: 2

1136 --------
Unit Three English Consonants and ٧0٧218
 f.

1. 110٢٧ many consonant sounds are there 110 English?

2. How many 01 them are approximants?
3. Which approximants occur 110 final position?
4. ٢٧1010 approximants occur 110 11‫ ه‬positions?
5. Which approximant 15 bilabial? alveolar? post-alveolar?
palatal?

3. General Characteristics 0٤ English Vowels

By 105٧ you are aware of the ٤‫ ان‬that language is primarily
speech, and speech 0005155‫ ا‬of sounds. Sounds 110 language, as you have
seen 11 Unit 1, ‫ ومه‬normally divided into two types according to their
articulation. The first type consists 01 those sounds which are produced
with or without ٧0021 cord vibration or voice, and very 011010 5٧1110 an
element 0 friction and ٧1111 1110 tongue assuming different positions 110
the mouth. These are called consonants such 210 ‫ ى‬/ 00‫ ول وا ول و‬10‫و‬/ etc. 110‫ح‬
second 100‫ ه‬consists of those sounds 110 whose production 100 soft palate
is 110 its raised position, the vocal cords vibrate and the tip 0‫ ل‬the tongue
is behind the lower teeth, and the air 0045995 through different positions
01 the tongue (behind the lower teeth 211‫ ل‬the 11005). These sounds are
called 000015 such as /1/ in six, /٨/ 110 cup, /110 .010 50 ً‫ال‬:/ 110 ‫ وئ‬10‫ ل‬this
section, you will study English vowels.
There is another distinction between vowels and consonants.
Vowels are central ٤0 the formation of syllables110 ‫ ؛‬other words, every
60112101 must have a vowel or vowels. Consonants 010 109 other hand, 210
100٤ central to 1110 formation 0٤ syllables; 110 other words, 8 syllable may :
have a consonant or more, and it (100 syllable) may have 00 consonants
Unit Three English Consonants and: Vowels
‫ اه‬all. 101‫ ؟‬example /21/ eye, /1/ ear, /4‫وال‬/ our.
110 English here 210 twelve simple vowels seven of which are
short (10 Arabic, there are less) and five are long (110 Arabic, there 410
less). 10 addition, there are vowel combinations 01500 or three vowels
called diphthongs and triphthongs. The following is 4 list of the phonetic
symbols 0٤ these vowels with examples:

!.Simple vowels
/1: / as 110 /si: / ‫( ههى‬long)
/1/ as 110 /wit / wit (short)
/e / as 110 /wet / w (short)
/40/ as 110 /pæn / pan (short)
/٨/ as 110 /bʌt / but (short)
/a:/ as 110 /da:k / dark (long)
/0/ as 110 /lost / lost (short)
/0:/ as 110 /00:1 / 1‫( الف‬long)
/u/ 2‫ ى‬in /pul / pull (5101٤)
/u: / 25 110 /pu:l / pool (long)
/a: / 2110 ‫ ى‬/hə:d / heard (long)
/ə/ as 110 /bəna:nə / banana (short)
2. Diphthongs
/ou 10: ‫ يه‬/snou/ snow
/211/ as 110 /nau / now
/ei/as in /ɪeit/ late
/ai/as 110 /fall/fie
/oi/ as 110 /bo:/bov
/:ə/ asin/iə/ ear
/eə/asin/heə/h
‫إ‬١‫ل‬٦‫لألصل اجفك‬

3. Triphthongs
/aiə / as 111 /faiv/ five
/aiə/as in /auə/our
/eiə / 26.110 /pleiə /payer

Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels

/03‫ ال‬/ as 11٦ /‫ع‬10‫ ال‬/grower
/013 / as 111 /roiəl /royal

Exercise (27)
Listen to the tape and repeat the following words which
have simple short ٢٧05٧215:
a.................................... f......................................
0.................................. ‫ع‬..................................
c..................................... 1......................................
d..................................... i......................................
‫ح‬............................ .. 1....................٠

Exercise (28) ‫لكا‬

Listen to the tape 210‫ ل‬repeat the following words which have
simple short and long vowels

0.................................. ‫ع‬..................................
c............................... 10...............................
d...................................... ‫ذ‬...............
e...................................... i......................

/
Exercise (29)
Listen 10 the tape and repeat the following words which
have diphthongs and triphthongs:
‫و‬.................................................... 1........................................... ..
b.................................................... ‫ل‬............................................
c........................................ k................................................
1.................................................... 1.............................
e٠٠٠٠,٠٠٠٠.٠،٠،......................٠. 1101................................................
‫م‬............................................. n..................................................
g.................................................... o..................................................
10.................................................... 0..................................................
‫و‬................................................ ٤............................................
5......................................................................................................................................
٤ ........................ -
139
Unit Thee English Consonants and Voweis
Exercise (30)
Make ‫ ه‬list 0٤ simple vowels and give an example 01 each ٧001‫ه‬
110 ‫ ه‬separate word. Then write these words 111 phonetic transcription.
vowel example transcription
a. ‫ا‬ I ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
b. / / ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬
c. ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
d. ‫إ‬ ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬ I
e. ‫إ‬ I ‫ًا‬ ‫ًا‬

f. ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ ‫إ‬

g. ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬ / /
1 ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ I
i. ‫إًا‬ ‫إ‬ ‫إ‬ ‫إ‬
‫إ‬ I / /
k. ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ ‫ًا‬ ‫ًا‬

1. ‫إ‬ I ‫أ‬ ‫أ‬

Exercise (31)
Make 01 ‫ ه‬115‫ ا‬eight Eglish diphthongs and 13٧0 triphthongs
and give 40 example of each 110 2 separate word‘ Then write these
words 110 phonetic transcription:
Diphthong/ example transcription
triphthong
. / / //
h /. / / /
c. / / //
. / / //
. / / //
/ / //

h; / / ‫ر‬ /
/m. /
/
/
///

Unit Three English Consonants and Voweis

 The following diagram (Diagram 3.6) 0٤ the tongue is
usually used ٤0 decide 0‫ ل‬position of the vowels 110 articulation,
11‫ ه‬diagram, 43 ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬see, 15 divided 1100 sections 010 ٧110 09
various vowels ‫ه‬1‫ ح‬plotted.

٠
Diagram 3.6. Position of Vowels in Articulation

1110 ٨3 11100 represents the greatest height reached by the tongue

in the articulation of vowels and the 100 the lowest height. 11‫ ح‬EF
represents 1100 height called ((half-open” and line 311 00 height called
half-closed. 1100 AD line represents 1100 tongue 110 extreme front position
and the BC 110 extreme back position. 1100 triangle XYZ represents the
central area 01 10 tongue. Accordingly English vowels are divided 100‫ا‬
front, back and central:
1. Front vowels :/i:/, / i/, /e/ and /æ/.
2. Back vowels : / u: /‫ و‬/u/, /0: /, /0/ and /a:/
3 Central vowels /ə/, /‫ أنه‬and /٧

1100 above diagram (Diagram 3.6) 15 re-drawn below showing the

position 01 the English vowels:

141
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
Exercise (32)
1115 is 2 diagram 0 the ٤00919‫لم‬. Without looking at the previous
page, ‫ المم‬each of the twelve simple English vowels 110 its point 0٤
articulation:

Exercise (33)
Make three 115٤5: one for front vowels, another for
0‫ ن‬vowels and a third 10 central vowels. Also ‫ع‬1٧‫ ه‬words
representing these ٧05٧015 and transcribe these words:
Front vowels example transcription
‫ه‬. ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫؛‬ ‫ا‬
b. / ‫إ‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ا‬
c, ‫ل‬ ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ I
‫ه‬. I ‫ا‬ ) j
‫ح‬. ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫أ‬ I
Eack vowels example transcription
e. / ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ I
٢. I I ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
%٠ ‫ا‬ ! I
1. / ‫إ‬ I I
. ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬ I
Central vowels example transcription
‫ل‬. / I I ‫ا‬
‫يًا‬. ! ‫ا‬ I I
١. ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
m. / ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
SAQs (6) ٠ 20

1. What 15 1‫ و‬difference between ‫ ه‬consonant ‫ه‬10‫ ه ل‬vowel?

2. Can a syllable consist 0‫ ت‬consonants only?
3. How many 81100010 ٧0٧015 are there in English?
4. How many 0٤ them ‫ همه‬shot: Front vowels? Back vowels? Central
vowels?

3.1 Front Vowels

110‫ ح‬front vowels 110 English are:
/ 1: / 2110 ‫ و‬sea, he, she, tree, leaf.
/1 / 2110 ‫ ى‬sit, city, give, pretty .
/e/asinbed, set, dead, [Link] .
/ æ/ as 110 sat, ‫ واهن‬has, fact, happy .

The following is 2 description of these vowels:

/ i: / as in/bi:/be.
The front 0٤ the tongue 15 raised 10 a height slightly below and behind
the front position 2110 110‫ ه‬lips are spread.
/!/as in/sit/t.
Part of the tongue is nearer ٤0 the center 110210 10 the front, 210‫ ل‬raised just
above the half-close position. 1100 11105 are spread.
/e/ ‫ ىه‬in/bed/bed.
110 front of the tongue 15 raised between the half-open and half-close
positions. 100 11195 are neutral (neither spread nor closed).
/20/ as in / sæt/ sat.
1100 tongue is raised just 00105٧ the half-open position. 1100 1115 10‫ه‬
neutral.
Exercise (34) 0

Read the following ٧0105 20‫ ل‬write the ٧0٧01 10 each of them
in the space given.
a. wheat/ / f. bad / /
1.1291 / / g. tan / /
c. fill // h. bit / /
d. pen / / i. least / /
e. six / / [Link] / /
Un Three 1 English Consonants and Vowels
 3.2 Back Vowels
11‫ ه‬0‫ نه‬vowels in English are:
/u:/ as 110 food, moon, move, group. June.
/ ‫ال‬/ as 10 ‫ ولالم‬book, could, wolf, wood.
/ o: / as 110 horse, bom, saw, jaw, salt.
/ 0/ as 110 dog, watch, cough, cod, lock.
/4:/ 45 100 dark, part calm, laugh, bath.
The following is a description 0٤ these vowels:
/u:/as in/fud/food.
The tongue 15 quite close 10 the upper roof 01 the mouth and
the back (0٤ the tongue) is somewhat raised, and the 1108 are closely
rounded.
/u/as in/put/put.
The part 0٤ the tongue nearer to the center than to the back is
raised just above 2 half-close position. The 11005 are closely but loosely
rounded.
/0: /asin/ho:s/horse.
110‫ ه‬back of the tongue is 121994 between the half-open and half­
UnitThree English Consonants and ٢٧0٧915
close position. The 11105 have a medium rounding.
/0/2‫ ى‬in/dog/dog.
The hack 0٤ the tongue is in the full 0090 position and there is ‫ه‬
slight, open lip-rounding.
/a: /as in/ da:k/ dark.
1110 part 0٤ 1110 tongue between the centre and the back 18 110 an
00910 position. 110 lips 10‫ ه‬neutrally opened.

Exercise (36)
Read the following words and transcribe the vowel sound 110
each 01 them in the space given against 110910:
‫ه‬. lark // f. farm / /
b. lost / / g. should / /
c. pant / / h. pool / /
1.0014 / / [Link] / /
‫م‬.0‫ه‬88 ! (

Exercise (37)
2. (100 as 110 No. 36 above:)
١ cfafrek i I 6٠١‫إأاآل‬
٠
2. lack/ / 7. wet/
3. check/ / 8. bat/
4. tan/ / 9. box/
5. dark/ / 10. could

Exercise (38)
Listen to the following minimal pairs and attempt ٤0
identify whether the vowel phonemes 110 each are similar or
different ٧""٥ (s) ‫ ئ‬similar and () if different:
......
bn..../. (( ) ٠٠٠٠ ) (( ٤‫تت‬
‫م‬. .....‫ ا‬.
d. 1..../ ٠
....../
‫ت‬---— :— "145 - """""" '‫—ت‬
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
SAQs(8> 20

Describe the state of the 11108 and the position 0٤ 00 tongue 110
the production 01 each 01 the English back vowels.

3.3 Central Vowels

1100 central vowels 110 English are:
/2/ 10 5‫ ه‬banana, obey, dinner, pilot, adore,
/ə:/ as in bird, her, turn, word, worse.
/ʌ/ as 0‫ من‬cut, son‫ ؛‬done, blood, does‫؛‬

1109 following 1‫ ه ى‬description 01 these vowels:

/ə,/ as in /bəna:nə/ banana.
This 15 the commonest of the English vowels. It is known as the
schwa. This is a central vowel with neutral 110 position. 110 a nonfinal
position, 1٤ 1029 a tongue-raising between 1411-00210 and half-close e,g,
aw (initial position) and perhaps (medial position), 110 131021 position,
the tongue-raising 15 half-open to open, e.g. sooner.
The schwa is also used in weak forms of certain words such as for
vou/feju:/,
/‫د‬: / ‫ وه‬in/bə:d/bird.
11‫ ح‬centre 01 the tongue is raised between half-close 210‫ ل‬half-
open, and the lips are neutrally spread.
/٨/ ‫ ىه‬in/kʌt/e .
The centre 01 the tongue 15 raised just above the folly 010011-
position, 20‫ ل‬the 1108 are neutrally open.

Exercise (39) 0
Read the following words and write the vowel 110 9400 01
them 10 the space given against it:
^.‫الممالما‬ ! ‫؟‬.^‫هه‬5‫م‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
b,bag/ / g. short / /
‫ن‬.‫ذ‬3‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ١‫تسللم‬ ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬
d. harm/ / i,will / /
e. heard/ / j, fool / /

Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels

Exercise (40)
(100 45 110 No. 39 above.')
2.‫أهماوح‬ ‫ا‬ [. reader I I
٦‫م‬.‫ام^؟‬ ! g. 192010 ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
‫م‬.‫مم‬٣٩‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ 1. stoim 4 ‫ا‬
‫ة‬.‫ا<؟‬1 1 1. rough / I
‫ه‬. ink / / [Link]

Exercise (41)
Listen ٤0 the following minimal 02115 transcribe them and state
whether the vowel phonemes 111 9200 pair are similar or different. 11
similar write (5) and 11 different write (10):

٠ ٠ ٠/٤٠ ٠ ) ( !٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ /٠ ٠ ٠ ٠) (
‫ريي‬..) (
(
:.....‫ر‬.....)
1......../)
(
(

Exercise (42)
(100 as in No. 41 above:)
a......../.......( ) f.
( ‫ع‬
c. ) 1
d. ) 1.
) j.

SAQs (9)
Describe 1109 state 0٤٤100 1105 and the position 0٤the tongue
111 the production 0٤ each of the English central vowels.

147
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
3.4 51001٤ ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬Long vowels
‫ل ىه‬0‫ ال‬have already noticed, the above-mentioned twelve simple
vowels are two types, 5001٤ and long.
The short vowels are:
!,Front vowels:
/i/ ‫ وه‬in/lit‫؛‬/rich.
/e/ as in/pen/pen.
/ æ/ as 110 /bæt/bat.
2. Back vowels:
/u/ as 110 put/put,
/0/ as in /boks/ box.
3, Central vowels:
/ə/ ‫ ىه‬in /su:nə/ sooner ،
/٨/ 25 ink / up.
The long vowels are:
!.Front vowels
/1:/ ‫ وه‬in/h:f/leaf,
2. Back vowels:
/٠/ as infu:d/food.
/0:/ as in /so:/ saw.
/a:/ as 110 ha:t/ heart.
3. Central vowels:
/ə,: / as in/gə:l/ girl.

11250 long vowels should 100‫ ا‬be confused with diphthongs

(a sequence 0٤ two vowels) which 5٧111 ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬study in the following
section.
Exercise (43) o

b. bag / beg (both short vowels)

Unit Three
148
English Consonants 44 Vowels
. calm / come (long / short vowels)
61101‫ل‬. ٤ / shot (long / short vowels)
9. stood / stored (short / long vowels)
fi pull / 00001 (short / long vowels)
g٠ bird / bed (long / short ٧05٧015)
10. 010 / earn (both long ٧05٧918)
1. she / 61010 (both 1 long vowels)
‫ل‬. oom / 145٧10 (both long vowels)

Exercise (44)
Listen to the following pairs, and identify the vowel sounds 25
long or short( Against their numbers write (55) 11 the two sounds are
short, (LL) 11 they are long, and (91) 11 they are different 210‫ ل‬the first
15 short and the second long, 21115) ‫ )ل‬when the first 15 long and 110
second short.

٤ [
b g
c 1
1 1.
e j.

Exercise (45)
(100 as 110 No, 44 above:)
4
b g,
( 0
d 1.
e -i.

1. What are the short vowels 111 English?

2. What are the long 010957
3. What 15 1100 main difference between the two types?

Unit Three
149
English Consonants and Vowels
 4. English Diphthongs and Triphthongs
4.1 Diphthongs
1100 term ‫‘؛‬diphthong”, as you have probahly noticed, refers to
the sequence 0٤ 1٧0 vowels functioning as 00‫ ه‬vowel (110 one and the
same syllable). ٨ diphthong, in other words, 15 2 glide from one vowel
to another and 015 glide acts 25 one vowel. 10 this way, 2 diphthong
is considered 010‫ ه‬separate phoneme. The diphthongs in English (see
٠ ,‫اهحلمة اة ا‬١‫ل‬٦‫ا ة‬.
‫ننمة‬002‫ه‬00‫الملها(هل‬,‫ا‬0٦‫ا ل‬,‫اةا‬,‫ها‬،‫أ‬1,‫اجأا‬
you notice, the first element 10 100 diphthong is either ə, 2‫ و‬e, 01 ‫ ذ‬u, and
the second 1‫ ى‬either i, u or ə .
Diphthongs are characterized by that:
1. the length 10‫ ه‬stress associated with the glide lie on
the first element, except for 13 and OU, and
2. they are equivalent 110 length to long vowels.
Diphthongs could 0‫ ه‬divided into three groups according 10 the
second element 110 the group 48 follows:
group 1
/ou/ as 110 /koul / coal, /klouz/ close, /soup/ soap.
/‫اله‬/ as 110 /12115/ ho, /kau/ cow. /‫االهل‬/ doubt.
901410 2
/ei/ as 110 /‫ذهل‬/ ‫ وآلهل‬/leit/ late. /00910/ paper
/ai/ ‫ ىه‬in /rais/ [‫ وين‬/leik/ like, /dai/ dye.
/oi/ as 110 /boi/ boy. /101/ toy, /ʤeint/jn
group 3
/13/ 45 110 /iə/ ear, /jiə/ year, /kliə/ clear.
/eə/ as 110 /he/ hair, /ste/ stare, /peə/ pair.
/uə/ as 10 /puə/ poor, /kju/ cure. / kjuə/ sure.

‫هةًاجألآ‬۵‫الم‬١
Find out whether the vowel sounds 110 the following words
are long vowels or diphtongs. Write (٢٢٧) 11 the Vowel 15 long and
(D)ifthe vowel is a diphthong.

150
Unit Three English Consonants 41118‫ ل‬٧0٢٧‫ه‬
 a. (owns) ( ) f. (plough) (
0. (921105) ( )‫ع‬. (paid) (
‫ن‬. (shows) ( ) 1. (buys) (
‫ل‬. (bursts) ( ) 1. (toys) (
e. (bought) ( ) j. (chairs) (

Exercise (47) (20

٤
Listen 0 the following words on the tape, and write the vowel
sound you hear in each case:
./ / / /
0./ / ‫ع‬./ /
c. / / 1./ /
‫ه‬.‫؛‬ I ‫ا‬ ,
SAQs(ll) (20
1. What is the difference between a long vowel 210 ‫ ه ل‬diphthong?
2. How may diphthongs are there in English?

4.2 Triphthongs
1110 term ‫؛؛‬triphthong” refers 10 the vowel sequence where one
vowel follows a diphthong, 1110 most common such sequence 110 English
٧
(599 Section 2 2000 9) is when the vowel sound /3/ follows 8 diphthong.
There 15 usually ‫ ه‬smooth glide between the two, 101 example:
/tai/ 5‫ ه‬in tie followed 003/ ‫ل‬/ becomes /taiə/ 25 in tyre.
The more frequent triphthongs in English are:
/aiə/ as 111 /taiə/ tye.
/auə/ as 110 /kauəd/ cowad.
‫و‬
1100 195 frequent 010 as are:
/eiə/ 28 110 /01913/ payer.
/ou/as in/slou/slower.
/oiə/ 25 110 /loiəl/ oya ٠
151
Unit Thee English Consonants 4101 Vowels
Exercise (48)
Write down the following words 10 phonetic transcription:
‫اةاآلة‬
٠ !٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠,٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠‫؟ ؟‬,tower !٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠,,٠!
١‫د‬.‫آ‬0‫لةآل‬ !.................. ‫ج‬.toe .٠٠.٠.٠ ٠٠٠٠ ٠٠٠!
‫ة‬٠‫دآف‬ !٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠! Wtoe٥ !٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠!
[Link] 1. greyer
[Link]‫؟‬ ‫ا‬٠.٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠! ١٠
' ‫لمج‬05‫حل‬1 ............٠

Betoi (49)
Listen to the following words and write 0‫ه‬2‫ ن‬of them 110 phonetic
transcription:
a. ! ! . !
0. // g ٠/ /
c. / / h. / /
.
e. ‫ر‬
/
/
/ 1./
j,/
/
/

Exercise (50)
Listen ٤0 00 following minimal pairs, and write (5) 11 ٤‫ه‬
٧06٧01 sounds are similar and 10 11 they are different. Then transcribe
the 002118
‫ج‬

‫يس‬
٣٠٣٠٢ ‫م حج‬

. (/
b.)( / ‫و‬
‫ي‬ ‫يس‬

d.‫؛‬ ‫؛‬ / :
٣ ‫م‬- ‫مس‬

e. ) ( / ,
‫ب‬
5٨05)12(
٧104٤ is 2 triphthong and what are the more 01001000 triphthongs
‫ا‬ 20
110 English?

Unit Three English Consonants and ٧0٧05‫ا‬

 5. English Consonant Clusters
50 far, ‫ل‬0‫ لما‬have studied single consonants 110 English. ٨5 ‫ل‬01‫ ل‬have
probably noticed, these consonants are usually followed 0‫ آل‬vowel
sounds 0[ cone at the end 01 words. The following are 0*21000195 for
revision:
Consonants followed by vowels:
fast yery, thin, hen, sink, zink, sham, peak, two, 40‫ و‬cape,
gave, chin, gin, mine, nine, leaf, yard, w ch, reward.

Consonants occuring at 100 end 0٤ words:

Safe, saye, boh, loa e, bus, buz, finish, range, robe, rope,
la e, laid, pik, pig, r h, ridge, room, soon sang, al.
You have also seen 10٢٧ two consonants can come together
without a vowel sound between them such as spin, kin, team.
Consonant sequences 0 two or 100010 consonants, without a vowel
sound separating them, are called consonant clusters. 110 English.
100, three, four 01 even more consonants can follow each other ٤0
form consonant sequences or clusters. 101‫ ؟‬example:
Two consonants: sphere, sleep, cut , dogs.
Three consonants: reet, re k , plunged, fi his.
Four consonants: ne Sunday, tempts.
Five consonants: mixed sweets.
Six consonants: first street.
Seven consonants: tempt angers.
Consonant clusters may come ‫ أه‬initial 01 final positions 111
English words. 110 following are the commonest cases:

1. Two consonants ‫ اه‬the beginning of words:

/5/ followed by /p, 1‫ و‬k, f, m, 10‫ و‬1‫ و‬w,j/ 2110 ‫ ى‬spare, team, ky, sphere,
510011‫ وو‬n er, low, swear and suit.
/p/ followed by /1, w, ‫ل‬/ as in tim, twin, tune.
// followed 0‫ آل‬/1‫ و] و‬5٧‫ن و‬/ as 110 clive, crime, queen, queue.
/b/followed01/‫ل‬, r,110 25/‫ل‬blame,blight,bautifil.
/d/ followed 00‫ آل‬/1‫ و‬5‫ن ول‬/ as 110 ‫ وآللل‬dwell, duty.

ً‫ لوال‬Three English Consonants and Vowels

 /‫ع‬/ followed by /11 ‫و‬/ as 110 glare, 1055‫ي‬.
// followed 0‫ آل‬/1‫ و‬r, j/ 210 ‫ ى‬flare, fane, few.
/0/ followed 00‫ ل‬/r, w/ as 110 hree, hwart.
/ʃ/ followed 0٧ / r/ as 110 shrink.
/v, m, 0‫ و‬h/ followed by /j/ 25 in yiew, mute, news, huge.

2. Three constants at 11٥ beginning 0٤ words

/500/ as 110 spray, spread, spng.
/str/ as 110 r gle, aw, ess, strict.
/skr/ as 110 scream, e'een, screw, cipt.
/stj/ 110 ‫ ىه‬student, sfupid.
/140 25 /‫ نكاى‬skew. (This sequence is rare in English).
/spl/as in splash, splendid, split.
/skw/ 25 110 squad, square, squash, squeeze.

3. 1٧0 or more consonants ‫ه‬٤ the ‫ح‬10‫ م ل‬the word.

2. /5/ and /2/ at the 910‫ ل‬of 10013108 ٤0 ٤0110 the plural 110 ‫ىه‬
books, dogs, facts, fields.
0. /s/and/z/attheendofverbsinthethirdpersonsingular
:1٦ 100 present tense: eats, give , risk, yield .
c. /t/ and /d/ at the end 0٤the verbs 110 the past tense: as
110 wished, raised, risked, plunged.
d. /θ/at the end ofnouns and numbers:
e. width, strength, seventh.
f. / 0/ followed 0900 ‫ ل‬/5/ ‫ اه‬10‫ ه‬of plural nouns and
numerals as in breah, seventh .

4. Three or more consonants at word boundaries as 110 best

man, long skirt, twelfth street.
5. /10/ and /1/ are sometimes syllabic‫ ؛‬that is, each 0٤ 1119100
occupies the place ‫ أه‬the centre of the syllable which ‫ىذ‬
usually occupied by 2 vowel. 10 this way, they create
‫ ه‬consonant cluster. For example lesson 15 prononuced
/lesən/ with ‫ ه‬vowel /3/ between /5/ 210‫ ل‬/n/, 0 /1950/

10103٤ Three English Consonants and Vowels

 without 2 vowel. /p/ means that /10/ is syllabic. Similarly,
the word level is pronounced /level/ with 4 vowel or /
lev‫؛‬/ without a vowel.
/1/ means that /1/ 15 syllabic.

Exercise (51)
Listen 10 the following words and phrases and identify the
consonant cluster 110 each of them. Write down the consonants 110 each
cluster:

0....................................... ‫ع‬.......................................
c........................................... h. ........................
‫ل‬....................................... i...........................................
e........................................... ‫ل‬.......................................

Exercise (52)
Listen ٤0 the tape and repeat the words and phrases after ‫ل‬0‫ال‬
11‫ هح‬the letter before them:

0....................................... ‫ع‬.......................................
‫م‬........................................... 10...........................................
d....................................... ‫ذ‬.......................................

Exercise (53)
Now listen 10 the same words and phrases 110 Exercise 5 1 above,
and against 020 letter write the number 01 consonant sounds you hear
in the consonant cluster in each word 0 phrase given.
a. next student . glimpsed
0. a perfect square ‫ع‬. finished
c. mybetrame h. angry boy
‫ل‬. she loojhght 1. songs
e. extra lesson j. girls

Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels

Exercise (54) I ‫اك‬

Listen ٤0 the foliowing words and identify whether /1/ and /10/ sounds
are syllabic 0 non-syllabic. Write 5 against the numbers 0[ 00145
with syllabic /‫إ‬/ 40‫ ل‬/ŋ/ and 155 against those without them ‫ الماط‬having
‫ و‬vowel sound instead.
‫ه‬ f.
%. g.
c. 1.

s٠،l3> ‫ج‬

1. What is ‫ ه‬consonant cluster?

2. Are consonant clusters in Arabic 2114 English similar?
3. What is a syllabic consonant?

6. Phonetic and Phonemic Variations

6.1 Phones and phonemes
10 discussing the approximant sound, the lateral /1/, 1‫ ا‬was
mentioned that there 215٧0‫ ا ه‬types 0٤/1/ sound: the clear /1/ and the dark
/1/. Although the clear /1/ and the dark /1/ are 110 fact two different sounds,
they are treated above as 00‫ ه‬sound. That is, 11‫ م‬one 01119100 replaces the
other 110 minimal pairs, 0 indeed any where else, the meaning of 1110
word does 100٤ change, as 110 the case of other sounds. For example, if
we pronounce the word el ٧10 a final dark /V or clear /1/. the word /
sei/ remains one the same. 11010 ‫ و‬the other hand, the 101‫ ه‬sound /٤/ 1‫ى‬
replaced 0‫ ل‬/d/ sound, 11‫ ه‬٥٢٢٧ word is pronounced, and, which 0٤ course
has ‫ ه‬different meaning.
The difference between the dark /1/ and the clear /1/ is said 10 be
‫" ه‬phonetic” difference. 1‫ ا‬1‫ ى‬a difference between two ‘‫؛‬phones” 01
sounds and this 4095 110‫ ا‬change the meaning. The two phones /1/ 1/ ‫ه‬10‫ل‬/
are allophones and they 21‫ ه‬two different readings (i e , pronunciations)
of the same phoneme and they do not change the meaning of words. 010
the other hand, the difference between the /1/ sound and the /d/ sound,
Unit Three 6 English Consonants and Vowels
‫ ىه‬110 10‫ ه‬example above, is 521٤0 ‫ ل‬be 2 "phonemic” difference. It is a
difference between two (‘phonemes” 01 ،،distinctive” sounds, 210‫ ل‬each
01 the 15٧0 phonemes contributes 0‫ ا‬changing the meaning of words.
Put differently, /1/ and /‫ل‬/ are two different sounds 0 phonemes.
٨‫ ى‬we have seen 200٧9, 110 English there are twenty four different
consonantal phonemes.
010 the other hand, the ٤٧0 sounds, the clear and dark sounds 01/1/
are treated as 0100 phoneme. The two versions, the dark /1/ and clear /1/
are said 00 0‫ ا‬two "allophones 01 the 52100 /1/ phoneme”.
10 sum up so far, phonetic differences are differences between two
(or more) allophones 01 52100 ‫ هال‬phoneme. When one 15 used instead
0٤ the other, it 15 100‫ ا‬meaning-distinctive. 010 the other hand, phonemic
differences change the meaning 01 words when one phoneme is used
instead of another. —
Exercise (55) 0

Listen 10 ٤100 tape and attempt ٤0 recognize whether the /1/ sound
15 clear 01 dark. 110 the space 100105٧ write c 11 the sound is clear and 10
if the sound dark:

0.......................................... ‫ع‬.......................................
‫ع‬...................................... 10 .......................................
d. ٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠ ! ٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠

Exercise (56)
Listen 10 10 tape and attempt 0‫ ا‬recognize whether the pairs
0٤ words you are going ٤0 hear are the same 01 different. 110 the spaces
below write 5 11 the two words 01 921‫ ن‬pairs are the same 21010 ‫ ل‬if they
are different:

b....................................... ‫ع‬.......................................
‫ه‬........................................... 0...........................................
1.......................................... i...........................................
‫ه‬....................................... ‫ل‬.......................................

157
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
SAQs (14) 20

1. What is 100 difference between phones and 010109100087

2. What 15 the difference between phonemes and allophones?
3. Are phonetic distinctions meaningful?

6.2 Allophonic Variations

111/ ‫ه‬/ sound 01 phoneme 15 00٤ the only consonant 110 English that
15‫ ه‬allophones. (٨8 you know, 18‫ ا‬allophones 00‫ ل حلم‬clear /1/ ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬the
dark/!/.
10 English, the use 01 allophones (or the different realizations 01
the same phoneme) 18 brought about 110 two cases:
I. When the position 01 the phoneme 110 the word or syllable changes
its pronounciation.
These positions are:
a. ٨ clear /1/ is used ‫ اه‬the initial position 01‫ م‬the word or syllable, e.g.
li ght, and a dark /1/ 2‫ أ‬the final position of the word 01 syllable before
consonants, e.g. dull and silk.
II. ٨10 aspirated /p/, or /٤/ or /k/ (that is, having ‫ ه‬stronger sound
with more breath producing a /1/ sound along with 1٤) 15 used at
the beginning of words or syllables such as /phin/pin, Ain/ /tin 20‫ل‬
ku:l/ cook but 00 aspiration when preceded by an /5/ sound such 28
/spin/ spin, /sti:m/ steam and sku:l/ school.
[Link] adjacent sound (usually ‫ ه‬vowel) changes the quality 01 the
consonant phoneme producing an allophonic variation e.g. kt/
cat, / kʌt/ cut and /keim/ came/. In these words the // sound tends
٤0 be affected 0٧ the following vowel. ٠
In 2. and 0. above, the allophonic variation is conditioned 0‫آل‬
the 00911010 0٤ the phoneme 10 the word or syllable (initial 0 final or
occuring before 2 consonant 28 in /1/) or preceded 05/ ‫آل‬/ or not as 110 /p/,
/t/ or /k/. 111 ‫ن‬, however, the variation in the allophones 15 conditioned by
the phonetic context (that 15 the vowel sound following the consonant
110 the ٧010 ‫ [ل‬syllable). 11‫ ه‬allophones 110 4, 0 0‫ ن‬are said ٤0 be 110
complementary distribution: that is one allophone 0٤ the same phoneme
Unit Three 158 English Consonants and Vowels
15 used 110 0100 000511010 in the 001‫ ل‬or 50112001‫ وح‬and another allophone 0٤
the same phoneme is used 110 another position.
2. When the same speaker produces slightly different pronunciations
01 the same sound. Such differences produce different allophonic
realizations hut these realizations 01 the 521009 phoneme 10045٧ 1121199
and therefore ‫ ومره‬called free variations.

Exercise (57)
Pronounce the following words:
.‫هم‬1 ٤ skin
h. speak ‫ع‬. leak
٢٠‫هثآل‬ 10. else
d. stand 1. 10111
e. kin j. lull

Exercise (58)
(0
149011109 dark/!/and aspirated/ph/,/t,and/k in the following
words. ٢٢٧1110 10 (for dark /1/) and A (for aspirated sounds):
a. purse................ ............... f. soldier......................................
b. holding........... ............... g. caught.....................................
. teach................ ............... h. tumble.....................................
1. national......... ............... 1. pure...........................................
e. alter.................. ................ j. catch..........................................

Exercise (59)
Identify ٤0 consonant sound following the vowel sound 110
each 01 the following words. Write down the consonant sound you
identify below:
‫ه‬. look.......................... ... f. put.............................................
b. like............................ ....... g٠ pit.............................................
‫م‬. late............................ h. peep..........................................
1. leave........................ ...... 1. catch...........................................
e. pat.............................. ...... ‫ل‬. caught........................................

Unit Three
159
English Consonants ‫ له‬Vowels
SAQs (15) 20

1. ٧1‫ اه‬are three 01 005‫ ل‬allophonic variations?

2. ٧10‫ اه‬15 ‫ ل‬difference between complementary distribution and
free variation?

7. Arabic-English 50004 Contrasts

7.1 Comparison between 1210211910 and Arabic
Consonants:
!.stops:
English Arabic
Voiced b d g b d ‫(ض)ال‬٩)‫)ق‬
Voiceless ptk - ٤ 1(‫)ط‬
/0/ 1005 not occur as a phoneme 10 Arabic except 110 loan 700105.
Learners usually have difficulty with English contrasts such 28 /pan/
ban ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬cap/ cab. Arabic articulation 0٤ /t/ and /d/ 15 dental rather than
alveolar as 110 English. Standard Arabic /‫و‬/ ‫ ق‬has allophonic variations
110 dialectal Arabic such 25 /g/ (25 110 good) and 2 (the hamza sound,
though this hamza is also a phoneme 111 ٨12010).

2. Fricatives
English Arabic
Voiced vðz ʒ -62-(‫و ك(ظ‬
)‫(ع‬
Voiceless fθsfh f θ s f s (‫ )خ) * (ص‬h (‫ )ح‬h
Sounds 5٧100 occur 110 Arabic but not in English (‫ وت‬٢, ‫ و‬, s,
ʃ, X, h) are not our concern here. We are concerned ٧1110 009 sounds
/v,e/ which occur 110 English but not 110 Arabic, /e/ however, occurs 110
dialectal Arabic but 100 110 standard Arabic. /٢٧/ does 10‫م‬٤ occur in Arabic.
/0/ 200 /0/ in standard Arabic are replaced 002/ ‫ل‬/ and /5/ or /t/ 110 dialectal
Arabic. With some Arabic learners of English, the same pattern 1‫ ى‬used
in speaking English. Therefore, English contrasts such as thing/ sing:
path/ pass: breathe/ breeze 210 troublesome.
Unit Three 160 English Consonants and Vowels

-٨‫بب‬.٦.٦:‫؛ب‬::‫ئ‬:‫;^بح‬:،;٣‫;حد‬٠٠٣'٠،‫ال‬-‫ر‬--٠٠-‫ى‬--٠-'--‫ذ‬٣‫حد‬٠‫د‬٩‫;آلتبتذ‬٣٠‫“ب‬٠:7^;;.‫عب‬٠-‫ب‬،‫;;بب'ب‬٠'٠7‫ت‬،-:‫اردس‬٠‫ب‬٦‫عالاًح‬٠‫ب‬٣‫'ت‬،‫ت‬
 3. Africates
English Arabic
Voiced /ʤ/ /5‫لم‬/
Voiceless /tʃ/

/ʤ/ occurs in Arabic dialects, but /5/ occurs 10‫ م‬standard Arabic and some
in some dialects. Some Arab learners, therefore, use /5/ for both /ʤ/ and
/5/ when using English. A word such as ٥ 18 pronounced /medʒə/ instead
of/mʤə/. Similarly, / tʃ/ which 0098 not occur :11 standard Arabic :5
010910 replaced by /ʃ/. Thus the word cheap : pronounced like 110 ٧014
sheen.
4. Nasals
English Arabic
Voiced 1111111 111-11

// 128 100 counterpart in Arabic, 2100 where 111٦ 19‫ ا‬00‫ن‬1‫ ل‬English it
is pronounced by some Arab learners of English as /10101/ /‫ع‬/, e.g. /sing/
instead 0٤ /sip/ (sing). In such English words as sink, finger, longer.
there 15 100 problem.

Approximants
English Arabic
Voiced ljwr ljwr

Approximants 110 English and Arabic are similar 110 many ways
but there are differences. The glide 01 lateral approximant /1/ appears
in 000 languages 110 1‫ ىا‬clear 210‫ ل‬dark allophonic variations. Clear
/1/ in Arabic is commonly used 110 initial medial ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬final positions.
Dark /1/ in Arabic is only used in ‫ ه‬final position 48 in the word /21121/
(004), unlike the dark /1/ 110 English which 1‫ ى‬used 110 101021 positions
110 words. Arabic learners therefore use the clear /1/ excessively in 11
positions when speaking English.
The gliding approximants (‫ل‬/ 211‫ ل‬/w/) cause 110 0100191108 ٤0

Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels

Arab learners. However, the approximant /r/ is realized differently
in the two languages. In Arabic /٣/ 15 a tongue tip trill and 15 01010
used before consonants 210‫ ل‬before a pause, .‫ع‬. /raʤeul/ (man) 410‫ل‬
/əlʤa:r/ (trees). 1‫ م‬English /[/‫ وه و‬you now know, is alveolar,
frictionless continuant. English /r/ is also reduced before consonants
and in final positions.

Exercise (60)
Write the phonetic symbol for the first sound 110 each 0٤ the
following words:
a. judge................................................ ficivic...............................................
٥. contact............................................ g. cut..................................................
‫ن‬. thought........................................... h. pat..................................................
‫ل‬. though........................................... i. tease................................................
e. physics.......................................... ).bought............................................

(70
Exercise (61)
Write the phonetic symbol for the 15‫ ا‬sound 110 940‫ ن‬of the
following words:
‫ه‬. fleece.............................................. . rags..................................................
10. long................................................ ‫ي‬. civic...............................................
‫ن‬. health............................................ h. physics..........................................
!d. watch............................................ i. fricative..........................................
‫ ع‬cheese ........................................... ‫ل‬. bathe................................................

(20
SAQs (16)
1. What 00105010210٤5 are found in Arabic but not 110 English?
2 What consonants are found in English but 0030 ‫ ا‬Arabic?

162
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
7.2 Comparison between English 20‫ ل‬Arabic
Consonant clusters
Consonant sequences (or cl usters) in Arabic and English differ
greatly. You have 59910 above that 110 English, two, three, four 0٤
even more consonants can follow each other to form ‫ ه‬consonant
sequence 01 cluster, e,g. sphere, street, 109٤ Sunday, mixed sweet,
etc. 111 many 1011115 of Arabic, there are 00 sequences 0٤ 10199 0
more consonants. 11‫ و‬following table summarizes English ‫ه‬10‫ل‬
Arabic consonant clusters or sequences (‫ = ن‬consonant):

Initial Medial Final

c c c
English cc )٧ ٧
ccc ccc ccc
i cccc 0٧٧
Aabicc c c c
» cc cc

11115 situation causes problems ٤0 Arab learners of English.

Very often, these learners use what is called 0‫ " ه‬intrusive ،، ٧0٧01
sound 0‫ نا‬break the clustering 01 English consonants, 110 imitation, 01 25
2 95111٤ 01 the mother tongue patterns. 101‫ ؟‬example:
/tʃaild/ (child) becomes /*ted/ (000 asterisk means wrong use).
/bə:nt/ (burnt) becomes nə:met/ *hrint/
/əksəsaiz/ (exercise ) becomes */iksirsaiz/.
Exercise (62) 720

Listen and repeat:

a. 10111 ‫ لم‬spring
b. bread ‫ع‬. finished
c. grandfather 10. lesson
1. burnt i. quite
e. exercise i. beauty

163
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
Exercise (63) ‫يشا‬
110120 ‫ ل‬other examples 0٤ words pronounced wrongly byAi'ab
learners of English:
8.............................................. ft..........................................
b.............................................. ‫ع‬........................................
c.............................................. h.............................................
1................................... i..................................
e.............................................. j.............................................
SAQs (17) 2

1. Are there consonant clusters ‫ [م‬more than two sounds in Arabic?

2. How do Arab learners of English break a consonant cluster?

7.3 Some English-Arabic Constrastive Vowels

110 this diagram, small-print letters represent the English vowels
and the large-print letters represent the Arabic vowels, ٨8 you can
see, there are three 501٤ vowels in Arabic, 110 English, 25 you 100٧
know, there are seven short vowels, Arabic short vowels are:

/1/ as 110 /silsila? (chain).

/a/ as 110 /kataba/ (wrote)

/u/ 110 ‫ ىه‬/kursi: (chair)

‫ ىهلم‬shown 110 the diagram, the distribution of the simple short

vowels in the two languages 15 not the same,
٢٧9 have also seen that there are five simple (01 pure) long
vowels 110 English: /1:/‫ و‬/a:/, /o:/, /u:/ and /u:/, In Arabic there are also
five long ٧06٧915.

Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels

 /1:/ as 110 /1:10‫ل‬/ (religion).
/‫ح‬:/ as 110 /19:10/ (debt). This long vowel appears only in some
Arabic dialects. 110 standard Arabic, 1‫ ا‬1‫ ى‬replaced 10‫ آل‬/‫ذة‬/ and this
60115 ‫ ل‬therefore pronounced /04110/.
/a:/ 28 in /ka:n/ (was). 11115 vowel 15 close to the English short
vowel /00/ as 110 /12010/ 110 its stressed, strong pronunciation. In Arabic,
it has an /a:/ sound as 110 /da:r/ (house) as an allophone.
/0:/ as in /0:100‫ن‬/ (day). 1115 is the vowel found 110 some Arabic
dialects. 110 standard Arabic, the diphthong /au/ 15 used instead, as 110
/jaum/ (day).
/u:/ as 110 /du:r/ (houses).
These differences 11٦ the ٧05001 systems of English and Arabic
cause problems to Arab students learning English as well as ٤0 other
Arabs using English. 110 01010101005 arise 11 Arab users of English
have only a limited experience 10‫ ن‬English. They often, therefore,
110000050 the Arabic vowel system onto English, by which they use
only a limited number 01 vowels, equivalent to the Arabic vowels.
For example, 1‫ ه‬word 15 ‫ وي‬often wrongly pronounced as /go:/
instead 0٤ /gou/. 1110 problems ٨120 learners and speakers of English
have in speaking English will be discussed 110 Unit 7.
Exercise (64) 3‫ا‬

Write the phonetic symbol for the vowel sound 10 each 0 the
following words:
a. coa / / 100٤ / /
b. steel/ / [Link] / /
c. play/ / [Link] / /
d. fright/ / [Link] / /
e. cool/ / ‫؛‬.tease ... / /

Exercise (65) g
The following words have been wrongly transcribed by
some Arab students like you. Read the words again 2104 correct the
transcription (*means transcribed wrongly):

Unit Tee English Consonants and Vowels

. winter ‫؟‬/wentar/ ‫ مكا‬eight */e : ٤/
٦. better */bettar/ 1. ear/i:ər/
c. pretty */preti:/ m. bear ‫؟‬/be:e.r/
‫ل‬. catching ‫؟‬/kating/ 1٦. picture ‫؟‬/pikt a /
e. lump ‫؟‬/110000/ o. bird ‫؟‬/be: rd/
‫ لم‬0‫ه‬100 ‫؟‬/*‫ه‬: 1100/ ‫مم‬. tear */tier/
‫ع‬. 00‫؟ ع‬/dug/ q. surely ‫؟‬/‫؛‬u:rli/
1‫م‬. work ‫؟‬/work/ r. hair ‫؟‬/heir/
1. boast ٠/bo:st/ pure .5 ‫؟‬/pjur/
[Link] ‫؟‬/bo: θ/_________________ t. obey ‫؟‬/ubei/

20) ,«,),‫بسع‬
1. Are the vowel systems in Arabic 210‫ ل‬English similar?
2. If not, what difference are there between the two systems?

7.4 Some English-Arabic Contrastive Diphthongs

In Arabic, only the pure vowels, 18 ‫ اها‬the short vowels /i, 4‫ و‬u/
and 00 long vowels /i:, a, u:/show contrast 110 meaning. All other vowels
1‫ ه‬allophones 0٤ either one or the other 01 ‫ا‬1‫ ه‬pure vowels. English, on
the other hand, has more phonemic contrasts than Arabic. 10 ٤1‫ ى‬way,
English diphthongs are phonemically distinctive.
٨‫ ى‬we have seen above, there are eight English diphthongs:/ OU,
au, ei, ai, 0‫م‬1‫ و‬iə, ‫ ووح‬uə/.
Using one of these diphthongs instead of another changes the
meaning, e.g.
/nau / now and /nou / know.
/laud/ loud and /loud/ load.
/wait/ white and /weit/ wait.
/hiə/ here and /1003/ hair.
/puə/ poor and /pai/ pie.
/011/ oil and /ail/ isle.
When English ٧050015 (410‫ ل‬consonants) and Arabic vowels (and
consonants) are similar, there is usually little or 110 problem ٤0 Arab
Unit Three 166 EngHsh Consonants and Voweis
learners of English, However? when these sounds 210 different, or
when ٤00 sounds 00 100٤ exist ‫ ىه‬phonemes 110 Arabic, there 15 usually
8 problem to ٨120 learners. 110 Unit 7, Problematic Areas, you will see
105٧ Arab learners of English often mispronounce English sounds and
words under the influence of Arabic.

Exercise (66)
Complete 00‫ ال‬following diagram and put all English short and
long vowels in the position of articulation on the tong :

Exercise (67)
Complete the following diagram and put all Arabic short vowels

Exercise (68)
Eist words illustrating the occurrence 01 the following vowels
in initial, 10090121 and final positions 11 possible. 11 110‫ ا‬possible write
(NP) instead.
Vowel initial medialfinal
‫ه‬. /1/
b, /1/

Unit Three
167
English Consonants and Vowels
 ‫م‬ ‫|ئأا‬
٩. IN
‫ح‬. ‫احا‬
/:٠/ £
‫ت‬. .l
Ia٠
10. /oi/
i٠ /iə/
. ‫ا‬0‫أ‬

Exercise (69)
٢٧11٤٥ 211 the 5٧0105 you listed in the above exercises in phonetic
transcriptions.
Vowel initial medial final
a. ٢٦٠٠‫؛‬ I ; I ‫إ‬ ‫إ‬ /
b. /1/ I [ ‫ا‬ I I /
c. I‫؟‬el / I ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ /
d. ‫إم‬ ‫إ‬ I ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ ‫إ‬ /
e. ‫ا‬ / / j I / /
f. ‫م‬٠‫ا‬ I / I ‫ا‬ ‫أ‬ /
‫ى‬٠ !٩٠! ‫ا‬ I ‫ا‬ I I /
h. /oi/ ‫إ‬ / ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ / /
1. ‫أحذا‬ I j ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ /
j. Id ‫ا‬ I ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ ‫أ‬ /

5 ٨05)19(
1. 110٢٢٧ many diphthongs are there 10 Arabic?
2. Are they the same 110 standard and colloquial Arabic?
3. Are diphthongs the same in Arabic and English?
4. Which language 1025 more diphthongs?

168
Unit'Three English Consonants and Vowels

‫ب‬-‫م‬:::٠-‫ب‬٠:‫مب‬:::‫تتتًا‬:;٩‫'ت‬٦٠‫د‬٠7'‫تشتيك‬::‫ت‬:“٦'٢‫ح‬::7‫حل‬٦'‫م‬:"٦?::=‫ت‬:‫م‬٠:;'‫م‬-'’,,'''-'٦٠‫ء‬:'٠'’‫بت؛‬٠:'‫'~ت‬٦'٠''':’‫'''■''''■■'ملللبب''’ب؛ر‬:
8. Overview
1110 gene a characteristics 01 English consonants and vowels
were discussed 10 this unit. 10 addition, English diphthongs and
triphthongs were introduced, together with English consonant clusters,
210‫ ل‬phonetic and phonemic variations. 110 final section was devoted
٤0 Arabic and English contrasts.

9. Preview of Unit Four

111 the following unit the concepts ‫؛‬phoneme’ ‫؛‬morpheme’ and ‫؛‬word’
will be discussed. 11 addition word coinage in 1٤5 various forms will
be given.

10. Answer Key

Exercise (1)
a. book: good
0. 2400: repeat
0. ink: spot
(or any similar answer).

Exercise (2)
a. park, hark
b. 11٤‫ و‬101‫ل‬
c. ankle, angle
(or any similar answers).

Exercise (3)
.(1) 2 f.l (2)
. 1 (2) g-(l) 2
c. 1 (2) h. (1) 2
d. 1 (2) 1. (1) 2
e. (1) 2 jll (2

Unit Three
169
English Consonants and Vowels
10*22359 (4)
2. (1) 2 f. 1 (2)
bl 1 (2) ‫ع‬.1 (2)
c. (1) 2 10. 1 (2)
d. 1 (2) ii 1 (2)
‫ح‬. )٦( 2 ‫ل‬. 1 (2)

Exercise (5)
2. (1) 2 [1 (2)
0. (1) (2) ‫ع‬. 1 (2)
c. 1 2 1. 1 (2)
dll (2) 1. (1) 2
e. (1) 2 i. (1) ‫بم‬

Exercise (6)
8. ‫ أم‬, Pol f,/k/ ‫و‬ ‫لج‬
0. /‫كا‬/ ‫و‬ ‫لحا‬ ‫ة‬.‫ا‬١‫اه‬ , I®
.1‫ جل‬, /k/ h,/d/ ‫و‬ //
d. Zb/ ‫و‬ /p/ .‫ لجا‬, ‫أ‬
‫م‬.‫أأ‬ , ‫لةا‬ ‫ز‬. /k/ ‫و‬ ‫الل‬

Exercise (7)
a. fight, vast, same, 2‫ح‬10‫ و‬shame, thinner, there, hear, shave, zigzag.
0. laughing, moving, refuse, author, decision, mother, pleasant, loser,
Stan, usual.
‫ن‬. ash, harsh, rouge faith, worth, class, nose, eyes, roff. tooth.

Exercise (8)
a. safe ‫ا‬ 54‫ي‬ ]10٤ ‫إ‬ 5100٤
0. thaw ‫إ‬ tough g. hury ‫ا‬ ery
0. 1‫ول‬ I buz 1. day I hey
di diluto j delusion i. came I game
e. hine ‫ا‬ sign j. nd ‫ا‬ hine

.................... - ™ ‫سسسسسسسسسسس‬

Unit Three English Consonants 2114 ٧0٧٧215

Exercise (9)
a٠ (1)
/f/ 2 f ٠ 1 (2) /ʃ/
b. 1 // 2 g. (1)// 2
c. 1 (2٨ III h. 1 (2 )/6/
1 () )si 2 i. ٠ )٦‫ا‬5‫أ‬ 2
() /h/ 2 j (1)// 2

Exercise (10)
a. () 2 l١l f ٠ 1 (2) /ʃ/
b. () 2 ‫ألم إ‬ g. )٦10‫أ‬ 2
c. () 2 /‫ل‬/ h ٠ 1 (2) /6/
d. () 2 ‫ا‬1 i. 1 (2) ‫ إ‬j
e.
(1)
2 lei j. (l)/h/ 2

Exercise (11)
a. 1 ‫ا‬ 2 f. 1 /ʃ/ 2
h 1 /5/ 2 g. 1 l%l 2
‫ي‬ 1 /ʃ/ 2 h ٠ 1 /6/ 2
d. 1 ‫ا‬7‫ا‬ 2 1 1 /ʃ/ 2
e. 1 Id 2 j. 1 15 2

Exercise (12)
‫ه‬. cheer j )eer ٠
f ca h ‫إ‬ cadge
0. chin I gin g. larch ‫إ‬ large
٠
c chock / ioke h. 110 / ridge
‫ل‬. r hes ‫ا‬ ridges i. baths / badges
e. hest I iest ٠
j etching ‫ا‬ edging
(Any suitable answers are 2150 acceptable).

Exercise (13)
a. chew / (ew f. leisure / ledger
b. shin / chin g. wash / watch

171
Unit Thee English Consonants and Vowels
 c. sham / ‫؛‬am [Link] / ‫؛‬am
d. ‫؛‬ew / sue [Link] / ehew
e. coke / ‫هون‬ j. la* / large
(Any suitable answers are 2150 acceptable).

Exercise (14)
a. ٢‫ا‬ [.//

١٥٠ 1‫اال‬ g-/h/

c./θ/ h. /tʃ/
. !‫اآل‬ i. /ʤ/
e. ‫اى‬ j-/p/

Exercise (15)
a. /0/ [./
b٠ /‫ال‬/ ‫ج‬.‫ألا‬
C. 1‫ك‬ h./p/
. ‫إما‬ 1. /b/
e. /‫مم‬/ j./v/

Exercise (16)
a. 1‫آل‬ //
‫اآلل ج‬ .9‫ا‬
‫م‬. ‫اآلم‬ 10. /t/
‫ة‬. ‫ائ‬ i. /t/
‫م‬. 5‫ا‬ j ,/ʤ/

Exercise (17)
‫ه‬. linger (10090121) ٤٧101100 (final)
0. Fighting (final) g. number (101141)
55٧1100 .‫( ن‬final) h. matching (initail + final)
‫ل‬. naming (initial+medial+final) i. conquer (medial)
e. longing (10000121+0041) j washing (final)
(Any suitable answers are 2150 acceptable).

172
Unit Three English Consonants and ٧0٧218

:‫بي‬: ::"‫^ت‬...‫ب‬:‫نسسشيي^ته^بين‬:‫ند‬:‫ميمجنشبممسيي^^يسيييييي^سييببجبمشستننن‬:‫بسبمببييب‬:‫تنبيبييتب‬٤-٦٦‫يب منتةسيبييجتم‬:‫يسبب‬٢‫سنتستل‬٠٣‫بتاشسيي‬.‫بنتش‬-‫ن‬:٣-٤٢‫ء‬٠.‫ت‬:‫تنتهدن»نشسششتبنهبب‬٤٦:٣‫شب‬،،‫هي‬٣‫ستس‬٤٧,3٦‫نت‬٦‫ب‬٣٤٥5٠٠-٠٠‫^شنش‬٦‫ش‬٦‫ت‬-‫خ‬٠٠٠٠‫شر‬٥٠‫ تت*ت‬2‫ب‬٣‫تنثسبت‬٣١٥٣2٦‫ختت‬٠-٦٣٨٣

Exercise (18)
a. might 1 night ٤. lean ‫ا‬ leaf
0. ram ! rang g٠ nest/ best
٤. 9110 ‫ا‬ sing 1. neck / 00*
d. sight / might 1. sing / sit
٠ mere ‫إ‬ fear ‫ل‬. earn ‫ا‬ eart
(Any suitable answers are also acceptable).

Exercise (119)
a. /f/ ff/ʤ/

b, /0/ ‫ع‬. /1/

. Ini .‫ج‬
٥٠ lml ٠٢٠ ‫ام‬
e٠ /tʃ/ ‫ل‬./‫ل‬/

Exercise (20)
‫ام ة‬ ft /ʃ/
00. /tʃ/
‫ج‬. ‫أحا‬
‫م‬. ‫لم‬ 1. /0/
d. /ʤ/ 1./‫ل‬/
e٠ /m/ ‫ن‬./0/

Exercise (21)
a٠ // . ‫ام‬
٦٥. /n/ ‫ع‬. /0/
c٠ lzl h /ʤ/
‫مل‬. ‫أجا‬ ،‫ا‬٠ 5‫ا‬
‫ ج‬٩‫ل‬ j./m/

Exercise (22)
a٠ your . ward
bwait g. unusual
c. used 10. awkward

Unit Three Engfish Consonants 2‫ ل‬Vo١veis

 ‫لم‬. walk 1. unutilized
9. U.K. j. awardv
(٨0‫ آل‬suitable answers are also acceptable).

180521189 (23)
2. reward [ dul
b. bright [Link]
‫ن‬. bright . 1. lower
.410٢٢٧ i, arising
e٠ writer of ‫ل‬. below
(٨10‫ ل‬suitable answers are 2180 acceptable;).

Exercise (24)
a. year/ wear [ wail/ veil
0. lot/yacht g٠ high/lie
‫ن‬. lime/ rhyme 1. chip/ whip
‫ل‬. leave/ weave 1. sane/wane
٥. yam/ ‫؛‬am j. lead/dead
(Any suitable answers are 4150 acceptable).

1‫اةأ‬٠‫ة‬١
a. /ʃ/ f,/k/
.‫ام‬ ‫ع‬.‫الا‬
‫اذل‬ .‫اذا‬
‫ه‬٠ lzj ٦.‫لل‬
e. /ʤ/ ‫ن‬./1/

Exercise )26(
4/1/ /6/
١٥٠ 1‫ًا‬1 ‫ إ‬lθl
‫ن‬./h /10,/‫؛‬/
‫ه‬. M ‫اا‬٠ lzj
e. /j/ ‫ ن‬./‫ل‬/

Unit Three English Consonants and ٢٧0٧25

Exercise (27)
(Listen ٤0 the tape 101 810 21055001)

Exercise (28)
(Listen 0 the tape 101 an answer)

Exercise (29)
(Listen to the tape for an answer)

Exercise (30)
Vowel Example Transcription
a. /:/ ead /11:1/
٦ /1/
1111
/111/

/e/ led /11/

c.
d٠ ‫أه إ‬ ‫وط‬ /bd
e. ٨ shut /٨/
f. ‫آلإ‬٠‫ل‬ part /pa:t/

g. 0 001 /101/
h ‫إ‬0٦‫إ‬ caught /ko:t/
1 // look /luk/
٦٠‫ا‬ suit /su:t/
‫ي‬ ٠‫ا‬ shirt /jə:t/
1 ‫إحا‬ adore ‫حم‬٠‫ا‬

Exercise (31)
Vowel Example Transcription
a٠ /ou/ 5110٢٧ /sno/
٦ ‫س‬ loud /laud/
c. /ei/ paper /09102/
d٠ /ai/ find /faind/
e٠ /01/ join /ʤoin/
1 ٠)
‫جآلا‬ heard /bid/

Unit Thee
٦15
English Consonants 411‫ ل‬Vowels
 ‫ى‬٠ /ei/ stared ZsteidZ
1 ‫اح^إ‬ 011‫ه‬ /kjuə/
1 ‫أجذهإ‬ trial /traiə/
. /auə/ tower /tauə/
k. !‫!آلة‬ player /pleiə/
1 !‫أحلم‬ grower !‫دج‬.!
/0:/
11٤ lawyer /loiə/

(٨11‫ ل‬similar answer is acceptable)

Exercise (32)
3: ‫سحسمسنتسسعصتتسححسم‬ —‫ ا‬u
‫تى‬
١ ‫آلع‬٠‫هتعت ئتالئتالا‬
\ ‫ج‬٠
‫ه‬٦‫ك‬3‫لم‬32‫ت‬٤‫تحث‬
i 1 ‫ ل‬I L l.'JJJ.•—‫راآب?لي‬٢٢‫ًا‬

5٤
e\ ٥:

‫\ا‬ ٨ I٤
‫ه‬

Exercise (33)
Front Vowel Example Transcription
a. !٠٦٠٠! deen /si:n/
/1/
٦ sit /sit/
c. ‫احا‬ set /set/
1 !‫إهح‬ sat /sæt/
Sack Vowel Example Transcription
e Zu:/. 0001 /pu:l/
f. !‫لآل‬ 100 /Ink/
gl ‫مإ‬٠‫إ‬ border /bo:rdə/
h. ‫اما‬ shot /ʃot/
1 !‫اه‬ smart /sma:t/

Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels

‫اد‬.‫آ‬.-.‫آل‬.٦‫آ^د‬.٠..;'.'‫ر‬,.٠‫؟‬.'^-‫يآا‬٣-‫دد‬.‫صبأ‬.‫؛ءحت=داح‬::‫م‬.'.,'..'.٢٠'٠‫تقال"أ‬-’‫ءتي‬٠"٠‫ت‬-'‫'''ج‬-‫’'"’'آ‬-'''٣‫ت='ب‬-'‫"ب‬-‫'؛؛''ت‬-'‫ذ"'ت‬
 Central Vowel Example Transcription
j. ‫ا‬ annoy ‫امما‬
k٠ /e:/ girl /ge:l/
1 /ʌ/ shut /ʃʌt/

(Anysimi lar answer is acce table)

Exercise (34)
‫ه‬. wheat /1,./ f. bad /æ/
. feel /ɪ:/ g. tan ‫أحا‬
c. 111 /1/ 1. ٦1 /1/
‫ل‬. 00910 ‫احا‬ i٠ least ٦٠‫ا‬
e. 51‫ي‬ /1/ j. bet /‫ل‬

Exercise (35)
a. ‫ا‬,‫ذ‬.‫أ‬ (4) f. /11 ‫و‬:/ (0)
0. /1‫و و‬/ (4) ‫ج‬. ‫هجا‬,‫أه‬ d)
‫ ن‬.‫أمح ا‬ (s) ‫م‬.‫أهحا‬ (5)
‫ل‬. ‫أههه^ا‬ (5) j ,/e,æ (d)
‫م‬. ٢‫ل‬, el (d) ‫ذ‬.‫لذوحا‬ )‫(ل‬

Exercise (36)
2. lark lad f٠ farm !‫ائه‬
. 105‫ا‬ /0/ ‫ع‬. should ‫ا‬٦‫لل‬
c. part ‫ا‬١‫ل‬٦‫ا‬ 1. pool ٦3٠‫ا‬
1. card /9:/ 1. lick /1/
3. pass ‫إىإ‬ j. look ‫ا‬١‫ال‬

Exercise (37)
a. cheek /‫؛‬:/ ٤ wit ‫ا‬
b. lack ‫إى؛‬ g. wet ‫اج؛‬
c٠ check ‫احا‬ 10. bat ‫اى؛‬
4. tan ‫اجةإ‬ i٠ box ‫اما‬
‫م‬. dark ‫’ةا‬٠‫ا‬ ‫ل‬. could ‫ا‬٦‫ال‬

Unit Three
٦11
‫؟‬Consonants and Vowels 51^0114
 Exercise (38)
:‫و‬
2. /1 1:/ (5) ‫؟‬٠‫ه‬٠,‫<ح‬.٠‫ا‬ (5)
bi/i:,i/ (10) ٥٠ ‫ه‬.,٦‫ال‬ )1 ‫(ه‬
c٠1e,d (5) 1. ‫ وه‬1/ D)
‫ة‬٠‫اذاه‬ (10) /1 1/ (10)
e٠l٠١o*٠l (10) ٠/
j I:1:/ (5)

Exercise (39)
2.‫لح‬ ‫أحا‬ f. please ‫ا‬٠١٦‫ا‬
0. 0‫عه‬ ‫أه‬ g. 50011 ‫اه‬
Cijug /٨/ 1. harsh ٠
‫ل‬. harm ‫اه‬ i, ٢٧111 ‫ا‬
e. heard ‫ح‬٠‫ا‬ ‫ن‬. 1001 ١٠‫أ‬

Exercise (40)
a. 2011 ‫ح‬ /ʌ/ ٤ reader ‫ا‬٠‫أ‬
٦. foot ١3 ‫ع‬. teach ‫اه‬
c٠ cord ‫اه‬ 1. storm ‫اه‬
1. fool ٦٠ 1. rough /٨/
e, 0k ‫ا‬ jbest ‫أحا‬

Exercise (41)
^.‫أحما‬ (10) ٤٠ ‫ه‬٠)‫أ‬ (D)
‫ ه‬٦٢٠,‫كآل‬ (5) g. 0:0:/ (5)
‫اح‬.‫ه‬.,١٢.‫ا‬ (5) ‫أل‬٠ ‫ه‬٠, ٠ (10)
. .,٦‫ل‬.‫ا‬ (5) ٠١٠ 1a, ٠ (D)
‫ة‬٠ ‫إ‬٦‫ل‬, ‫أم‬ (10) .‫لشم وحا‬ (10)

Exercise (42)
a. /٨‫هه و‬/ (10) 1 /‫ذ ووه‬/ (10)
0. /‫ وحج‬æ/ (5) ‫ذهح‬ (10)
‫م‬.‫حا‬,‫أه‬ (10) h. /1:1 ‫و‬:/ (5)

Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels

 .1.0 (5) i٠ /u:, u:/ (5)
9. /ə , 9/ (5) j. /i, u:/ (1))

Exercise (43)
2. /li:v/, /11٧/ f/pul//pu:i/
b. /bæg/j /beg/ ‫ع‬. /109: ‫ل‬/‫ و‬/bed/
‫ع‬. /ka:m/, /٨10/ h. /on/, /9:10/
‫ل‬. //0:‫ا‬/ /ʃot/ i. /ʃi:/, /ʃo:/
‫و‬. /8٤11:‫ل‬/‫ و‬/910:‫ل‬/ ‫ل‬.111:100/‫ و‬/10:10/

Exercise (44)
..‫كآل‬ (1) ft /1 1/ (15)
١٥٠ ‫ا‬٠‫ل’م‬ (15) 9. '٠٦٠/٠٦٦‫؛‬ (SL)
.‫ما‬:,‫أم‬ (15) 1. /e, æ/ (55)
‫ل‬. /e:,o:/ (15) 1. /o:, 0/ (LS)
9.‫م‬.,0.‫ا‬ (11) j-/o:,o:/ (EL)

Exercise (45)
‫ه‬. /‫ح‬: ‫م‬:/ (1) ±٦ /ə, ə/ (55)
١٥٠ 40*. ,‫لآل‬ (19) ‫ي‬.1..0.‫ا‬ (LL)
c. Ie٦,o٦l (1) ٦0.‫؛‬١٦٦, Ki (LS)
d، /u:‫ ح‬æ/ (15) 1. /θ, 1:/ (SL)
e./e:,o:/ (1) ‫ن‬./0‫ و‬0:/ (SL)

Exercise (46)
a. (10) f. (10)
b. (LV) ‫ي‬٠ (10)
c٠ (10) ht (10)
)٦‫(ل‬ i٠ (10)
e. (LV) j. (10)

179
Unit Three English Consonants and Vo els
 100180 (47)
a، /o:/ f. /ai/
bl /uə/ gi /ei/
c. /‫حح‬/ hl /911/
d. /iə/ i. /011/
‫ح‬.‫ألوا‬ .‫اهما‬
Exercise (48)
a. trial/ aiə/ f. tower/ auə/
b. royal/ 013/ ‫ع‬. fire/ aiə/
1101 .‫ع‬/ ate/ h. tried/ aiə/
di follower/əuə/ ‫أحذه أ^جالمحع مل‬
e. powerfill/ auə/ j. grower/ouə/

Exercise (49)
a. /disθiə/ ٤ /haiə/
. /flauəz/ g. /haiər/
‫ن‬. !‫ايآلألم‬ 10. /daiəri/
di /leiəz/ i. /tauərip/
‫ه‬. /baiəz/ ‫ل‬. /31001305/

Exercise (50)
2. (10) /baiə, baiəz/ f. (5) /kjuə, pjuə/
b. (s) /auəauə/ 10) .‫ )ي‬/stiəd, steəd/
10) .‫)ن‬ /taiə, tauə/ h. (5) /fiə, riəl/
10) .‫)ل‬ /greiə, 3‫ع‬101‫ل‬/ 1. (8) /noiz, 0012/
e. (5) /roiəl, 1011/ j. (10) /reiz, 1212/

Exercise (51)
2.5‫ ال‬,5‫أ‬ [. /pks/
bl /01/ ‫ع‬. /lkdr/
‫ن‬.‫إ‬٠‫ أ‬Ji' 10. /ntsel/
‫ل‬. /str/,/nde/ i. /sks kw/
dii ‫إللل‬ ji/kst 601/
٢‫ س‬٠ ------ 180 ______________________________ —
Unit Three Egish Consonants 244 ٧owe4s
 Exercise (52)
\
Follow the instructions

Exercise (53)
‫ه‬. ð/kststj/ 1 4/mpst/
b. 6/fktsqw/ ‫ى‬٠ 2///
. 4/stfr/ h. ‫ألمجأح‬
d٠ 4/ksbr/ ii 2‫أ‬٢2‫أ‬
e. 4/kst:/ n
Exercise (54)
a. 5 ‫ى‬
b٠ NS g. 15‫ل‬
c. s h. 005
‫ل‬. NS i.s
e. NS j٠s

Exercise (55)
a٠c ٤1‫ه‬
b. c ‫ي‬.
h. 10
d. D 110
e. D j.c

Exercise (56)
a. D ٤5
b. s g٠D
C.D 10. 5
1. 10 110
Q, 1) ‫ل‬. 5

Exercise (57)
٨‫ ى‬instructed but listen ٤0 the tapescipt 101 ‫ ه‬model Pronuncition.

181
Uni‫؛‬: Thee English Consonants and Vowels
 Exercise (58)
a. A ٤1)
b. D g. A
c. A h. A
d. D :.‫ه‬
e. D j.A
Listen 2150 ٤0 the tape 10 a node‫ ؛‬pronunciation.

Exercise (59)
a /k/ . bl
b ‫ليأا‬ ‫الإل‬
c ‫أ‬ 1. /‫م‬/
d i, /tʃ/
e ‫إ‬ j٠/t/
Listen also 0 the tape for 2 model pronunciation.

Exercise (60)
2
/ʤ/ f. kl
٦ lkl g. IVJ
c. IN h. ‫أ‬
d. IN i. ‫ا‬
e٠ Ki j. /b/

Exercise (61)
a. Is! f. ‫ ا‬،‫اس‬
٦ ٦‫ا‬ ‫ي‬٠ ‫لكآ؛‬
c. /θ/ isi
1 /tʃ/ i. ٦[
‫ه‬ ‫ارا‬ ‫ل‬. ‫إ^ا‬

Exercise (62)
٨5 instructed 00 tape.

182
Unit Three English Consonants 41‫ لم‬Vowels
 Exercise (63)
a٠ climb f. cheese
b. street g. black tie
‫ن‬. quite 1٦. protects
‫ل‬. screw :. talked
[Link] j. heartless
(Another reasonable answers are also acceptable).

Exercise (64)
‫الما‬ ‫؛‬.hot ‫اما‬
. steel /1:/ g. cut Ihl
c. play /ei/ h. put ‫إ‬١‫ل‬
‫ل‬. fright/ai/ :. pat /æ/
‫م‬.‫ممم‬ ٦‫ن‬٠‫ا‬ tease ‫ألا‬.1

Exercise (65)
a. winter/winte/ k. eight/ eit/
b. better/ betə/ l. ear/iə/
c. pretty/pritl/ m. bear/ piktʃə/
‫ل‬. catching/ kætʃiii/ 10. picture/ 02:3/
9. 11110000/ 1٨10010/ 0. bird/be:ə/
f٠ calm/ ka:m/ 00. tear/ teə/ 01/112/
g. dog/ dog/ q. surely/juəli/

10. work/ wə:k/ r. hair/ heə/

i. boast/ boust/ 5. pue/pjuə/
jf both/ bouθ/ t. obey/ əbei/

183
Unit Thee 1‫ ؟‬Cowsonants 1121351 40‫ ل‬Vowels
 Exercise (66)

Exercise (67)

Exercise (68)
Vowel Initail Medial Final
a٠ !٩٠ even sleep he
b. ‫ا‬ ink give city
8‫اجًا‬ at back NP
d. /ʌ/ under cut NP
e. ‫جا‬ alive correct writer
f. ٥٠ 0 sort law
gf ٥٠ arm harm star
h. ‫اةا‬ 011 boil boy
1 ٢١‫إج‬ ear hears ]‫موة‬
lol off top NP

(Any similar answer 15 acceptable).

Unit Three English Consonants 41٢٧0٧٧218 ‫لم‬

Exercise (69)
Vowel Initail Medial Final
a. /i:/ ٦"‫لمحل‬ /511:0/ /hi :‫ا‬
٦ /i/ /iŋk/ /glv/ /siti/
c. ‫؟أ‬el /‫حح‬٤/ /bæk/ ‫لم‬1
d. /ʌ/ /ʌndə/ ‫ياا‬٨‫ال‬ NP
e. ‫اج‬ /əlaiv/ /kərekt/ /raitə/
[ !‫م‬٠‫ا‬ ‫م‬٠‫ا‬ /50:11/ )٦‫م‬٠‫ا‬
‫ى‬٠ lwj /a:m/ /100:1 ‫م‬/ /sta:/
1. I‫اة‬ /oil/ /boil/ /01/
i. l٠v٥l 1١’‫ج‬1 ‫ارمحأ‬ /‫و‬/
‫اما‬ ‫اة ا‬ /top/ NP

11. References
1. Abercrombie, 10. (1967) Elements of General Phonetics,
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University 101988.
2. Gimson. A,c. (1970) An Introduction to the pronunciation
of English. London: Edward Arnold.
3. Jones. Daniel (1956) An English Pronouncing Dictionary.
new edition,, London: Dent.
4. Jones. 10200101 (1969) An Outline of English Phonetics. 9 ‫)ا‬
ed. Cambridge.
5. Mitchell, 1 1‫؟‬. and Shahir ELHassan (1989) English
Pronunciation for Arabic Speakers. London: Longman.
6. O’Conner. .10. (1978) New Phonetic Readings. Bern:
Francke.
7. O’Conner J.D. (1980) Better English Pronunciation.
Cambridge University Press.

185
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
 186
Unit Three English Consonants and Vowels
HHfH
Unit Four 5٧1140198 and ٢٧045
 Contents
Subject Page
1٠ Introduction 191
1.1 Preview 191
1.2 00‫ز‬91٧98 191
1.3 Contents 191
1.4 Methodology 192
1.5 Audio-Visual Aids 192
1.6 Evaluation 193
1.7 Supplementary Reading 194

2. The Concept of ‫‘؛‬Phoneme” 110 English 195

3.1110 Syllable in English 199

3.1 Syllables and Clusters 111 English 199
3.2 Strong 2104 Weak Forms 201
3.3 ٢٢٧014 Stress 21

4. The Concept of "Morpheme” 11٦ English 213

4.1 Derivational Morphemes 213
4.2 Inflectional Morphemes 214

5. 1100 Concept 0٤ 110 "Word” 216

6. Word Coinage 217
7. Overview 218
8. Preview of Unit Five 219
9. Answer Key 219
10. References 223

189
Unit Four Syllables and Words
 190
Unit Four 9701140128 and Words
 !.Introduction
1.1 Preview
This unit deals with the 10251 concepts of speech, namely
phoneme, syllable, morpheme 211‫ ل‬word. 110 this respect, syllables
and clusters, strong 210‫ ل‬weak forms 200 word stress are discussed. 110
addition, derivational 210‫ ل‬inflectional morphemes 2104 other forms of
word-coinage are given 110 some detail.

1.2 Objectives
Upon completing this unit, students 819 expected ٤0:
1. identify the concept of "phoneme”,
2. identify the concept of "syllables",
3. distinguish syllable stress and word stress 110 1100 utterance,
4. distinguish between strong and weak syllables, and produce
them correctly,
5. recognize and produce English consonantal clusters correctly,
6. distinguish the various pronunciations 0٤ derivational and
inflectional morphemes, ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬produce them correctly, and
7. distinguish 110 pronunciation of various forms of word coinage
and produce 109110 correctly.

13 Contents
1. 110 concepts 01 the ('phoneme’, in English
2. The Syllable in English
2.1 Syllables and Clusters 111 English
2.2 Strong and Weak Forms
2.3 Word Stress
3. The concept of the "morpheme”
3.1 Derivational 11011000009‫ى‬

191
Unit Four Syllables and Words
 15. Word Coinage Morphemes
3.2 Inflectional
4; The concept of the Word
‫ا‬
\

1.4 Methodology____________________________
In addition to the general procedures and techniques described
above, the following are recommended 101 ٤115 unit.
1. Present the target point simultaneously 5٧110 its demonstration on
the 1200.
2. 10014110 with examples what is meant 0‫ آل‬strong and weak forms;
that the voice 1‫ آ‬usually raised ‫ هم اه‬strong forms, but the speaker
goes over the weak 1011108 very rapidly.
3. Explain the concept 01 rhythm 48 the time interval between any
٤5٧0 stressed words 110 the sentence, that 11018 time 15 roughly divided
between the stressed syllables.
4. Explain what 18 meant by "morpheme”.
5. Explain the use 01 English consonant clusters.
6. Explain ٧110 examples the various pronunciations 0‫ م‬inflectional
and derivational morphemes.
7. Explain the distinction 01 10 pronunciation 0٤ various forms 01
word coinage.

1.5 Audio-Visual Aids

1100 following audio- visual aids ٢٧111 000 used throughout ٤018
course.
A. Software
1. Audio and ٧1490 taped materials recorded by native speakers
ofEnglish.
2. Phonetic alphabets (e.g. IPA 5010000016) for broad and narrow
transcription.

Unit Four Syllables and Words

 3. Photographs of tongue positions 01 the cardinal vowels.
4. Illustrations 01 the organs of speech.
5. Illustrations 0٤ the points 211‫ ل‬manner 0٤ articulation.
6. Charts 01 English and Arabic sounds.
7. Pronouncing dictionaries, e.g. 10. Jones, An English
Pronouncing Dictionary (0‫ذذلحأهعماها‬ .
8. Phonetic readers, e.g. J.D. O’Connor, New Phonetic Readings
(latest edition).
9. Tables, diagrams, charts, pictures that 109110 illustrate the
material discussed in the course.
10. Native speakers of English as informants.
11. Other similar materials.

13. Hardware
1. Tape recorders.
2. TV sets.
3. Chalk and talk.
4. Realia and similar materials collected 0‫ ل‬the teacher 21‫ ل‬the
students.
5. Language 120 (11 available).
6. Computer (if available).
7. Internet (11 available).

1.6 EVALUATION
110 244111010 to the general evaluation techniques described above,
the following are recommended 101 015 unit.
1. Ask students to identify different syllables by listening to taped
material 01 by reading written material.
2. Ask students whether they can differentiate between weak and
strong 1011005 110 English connected speech.

Unit Four . Syllables and Words

 3. Test students 10 identifying different stress patterns 110 words
written in ‫ ه‬similar way, e.g. ‘content ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬con’tent.
4. Ask students to provide definitions and examples of different types
0٤ morphemes.
5. Ask students ٤0 9*0012110 and illus rate the characteristics of
derivational 20‫ لم‬inflectional morphemes.
6. Check ٤100 students’ understanding 01 0‫ ه‬difference between
morphemes and words.
7. Ask students ٤0 define 210‫ ل‬illustrate 00 various ways 0٤ coining
words.

1.7 Supplementary Reading

Ref. No. Page
1. Akmajian ‫ أح‬al (1992) pp.11-53
2. Formkin & Rodman (1993) 000. 36-66
3. Gimson (1970) pp. 51-53‫ ؛‬146-149‫ و‬222-242
5. 01095(1969) 0‫م‬.251-26٦
6. Ladeofoged (1993) 00. 243-267

194
Unit Four 501120128 214 Words
 2. The concept ©،“phoneme” 111 English
110٥ dictionary definition 01 a "phoneme”, according to 076275٤27‫أ م‬
College 97671079470 15 that 1٤ 15 "any 01100 minimal units 01 speech sound
110 a language that can serve to distinguish one word from another. The
/00/ of /01٤/ and the /0/ of /bit/ [110 English] are considered ٤5٧0 different
phonemes while 1100 unaspirated [0] 0٤ /spin/ 211‫ ل‬the aspirated [00] 0٤/
pin/ are not.” 110 other words, it is possible 10 divide up completely every
linguistic utterance into segments which belong to a limited inventory 01
consonant and vowel sounds. These sounds are called phonemes. 10 this
respect, we have to differentiate between "phones” and ('phonemes”.
0010 refer ٤0 sounds 01‫ل‬٤ the first refers to human sounds 10 general
without reference to any specific language. The study of human sounds
(0 phones) 11 general 110 terms 0٤ the organs 0٤ speech involved and 109
manner 0٤ their respective articulation 15 called phonetics. 00 the other
hand, the study 0٤ human sounds 25 they constitute a part 0٤ ‫ ه‬specific
language (or phonemes) is called phonology. These points have 009910
explained 110 detail 110 Unit 1. As we 5٧111 599 110 the following sections,
phonemes are joined together in certain ways 10 make syllables and the
syllables into morphemes and words.

Exercise (1) (20

Transcribe the following words. Refer ٤0 your dictionary to
check your transcription.
!.measure................................ 2. 1002001 ..............................................
3. chin........................................ 4. 9110....................................................
5. vision.................................... 6. beige................................................
7. version................................... 8. maths...............................................
9. share........................................ 10 chair..............................................

195
Unit Four 5٧1120128 and Words
Exercise (2)
Say the following words aloud ‫ه‬1‫ ل‬then find in your dictionary
words that have the sounds indicated between / / 10 the righthand
column so that the two words make a minimal pair.
The first one is done for ٧010‫ ال‬2‫ ه ى‬example.
!.sheep cheap /tf/

2. chair.............................. . ‫اأ‬
3 version........................ /ʤ/

4. jeep.............................. /٤/

5. March......................... /ʃ/

6. joke.............................. /tʃ/

[Link] .............................. /tʃ/

8. leisure.......................... /ʤ/

Exercise (3)
Transcribe the underlined words 110 ‫ا‬1‫ ه‬following utterances.
Refer ٤0 or dictionary 0 check your answer.
1. Anong ٤10 monks. ...............................................
2. Banks close on Friday. ...............................................
3. Write it in nk. ...............................................
4. You can’t sing here. ...............................................
5.1 invited my kins. ...............................................
6. 1135 coming over. .............................................
7.1 met the kg. ...............................................
8. You’re W0g about 1‫ا‬.................................................
9. You win. ...............................................

196
Unit Four Syllables and Words
Exercise (4)
The past-tense morpheme 110 the following verbs 15 pronounced /‫ا‬/.
Findin your dictionary ten more examples ofpastense 1001100211098
pronounced 110 the same way.
1 watched ‫_________أ‬
2. lapsed 2...........................................
3. kicked 3...........................................
4. missed 4...........................................
5. jumped 5...........................................
6. launched 6...........................................
[Link] 7...........................................
8. splashed 8...........................................
9. coughed 9. .............
10. licked 10.........................................

Exercise (5)
110 regular plural ٤5 10 English ‫ ىذ‬pronounced 111 three ways: /s/, /z/,
0 /12/, depending 010 the 128‫ ا‬sound 111 the singular( Read the following
transcriptions aloud, and then:
1. provide one more example 01 each s-plural ending you read,
2. Transcribe 1.
3.
Transcription another example transcription
1, /dogz/ ...................................... .................................
2. /leidiz/ ...................................... ................................
3 ./129105/ ....................... ...................................
4. /fænz/ ...................................... .................................
5. /sta:ts/ ...................................... .................................
6٠ /sta:z/ ...................................... .................................

197
Unit Four 957112^0198 and Words
 7٠ /blauziz/ ......................................
8./00٨102/ ..................................
9، /leiks/ ......................................
10، /pots/ ......................................
ll,/rəvziz/ .......................

Exercise (6)
Listen to the following dialogue 210‫ ل‬then answer the questions
which follow.
1. Listen again and complete the following sentences.
1. Pam attended a........................................
2. Most of the lectures were...........................
3. Some lectures were............................... because they ................
4. Most ofthe lectures were about...................................
5. She stayed in the.............................................
IL Thefollowing utteranceswere mentioned in the [Link]
100100. Check your answers 110 your dictionary.
1. thanks............................................ 2. conference..........................
3. lectures........................................ 4. boring....................................
5. only............................................... 6. were.......................................
7. discussed.................................... 8. advertising..........................
111. Below, ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬have utterances together with their transcriptions.
Listen again to the ٤2000 and write down words which have the same
underlined ٧0٧218/ diphthongs.
L pictures /piktəz/ ...................................................
2٠ post /put/ ...................................................
3. puns /0٨10‫ة‬/ ..............................................
4. played /pleid/ ...................................................
5. surface /s^:fis/ ...................................................
6. burst /0 /‫و‬:5‫ا‬...............................................
‫؟‬.pasted /peistid/ ...................................................

Unit Four Syllables and Words

Exercise (7) (2
Listen and write the missing word 110 each 01 the following
utterances.
1. 1 ‫ي‬0٤ .......... .....‫ م‬111
2............................... ........ there, please.
3. 11‫ م‬............ .......110‫ ح‬battle.
4. Remove the. ................................. 130110 this place.
5. Well......... ........... the beginning 0٤ the film.
6. Count those. ..........
7. 1’11 post the. ............. for you.
8. I bought a... ....... of pens.

(20
SAQs (1)
1. What is meant 0‫" آل‬phoneme”?
2. What 15 the difference between (‘phone” and "phoneme”?

3. The Syllable 111 English

3.1 Syllables 211‫ ل‬Clusters 110 English
The concept 01 the syllables is very important 110 that 1٤ 19105 5ً‫ال‬
0991100109 which sound clusters are permissible 11٦ 4 language. For
examples, the sequence/tl/is permissible when each occurs inaseparate
syllable as 110 the words "bootleg” /bu:tləg/, "atlas” (atləs), "partly”
/pa:tli/ and "little” /1.1/. But the sequence /It/ in one syllable 18 100‫ا‬
permissible. English does 100‫ ا‬allow the syllable eg/. Such restrictions
apply to the sequence /10100/ which 15 allowed in separate syllables but
not 110 the same syllable. 110 the word “[Link]”, 101 example, the /b/ and
/m/ occur :10 two adjacent syllables. Similarly, 1118 English affricates /
tʃ/ and /ʤ/ can 100‫ ا‬be preceded or followed by another consonant when

199---------------------------------------------------
Unit Four Syllables 41٢٧0145 ‫ل‬
they occur word initially. In the words “cheap” and “judge” each of the
initial affricates is followed 0‫ آل‬a vowel. But English does not allow
words 111‫“ ه‬bcheap’ 01 heap”, “pjudge” or jrudge”. 1115 holds true
01 the ٨12010 affricate /ʤ/ which cannot 009 preceded 0 followed by
another consonant sound when occurring word initially. Thus, the
affricate 110 the name “jaber” is followed by a vowel. 1‫ ا‬cannot be either
“Bjaber” 01 Jbaber". ٨ word of caution 1‫ آ‬necessary 11٥. You should
be carefill 1100‫ ا ا‬confiise standard with colloquial dialects. 110 colloquial
Arabic, it 15 110‫ ا‬unusual to hear the word “jbaal" (mountains) which 15
110 standard Arabic “jibaal”.
110 standard Arabic, however, consonantal clusters are 1001
permissible word initially. There is 00‫ ا‬011‫ ه‬single 00111 ‫ ل‬standard
Arabic which begins with ٧0 consonants. Rather, consonantal clusters
may occur medially 0 finally 110 Arabic. Thus, 111 the word “mustami9"
(listener), the cluster /st/ occurs 110 a 11090141 position: the cluster /rq/ 110
the word “farq” ‫( فرق‬difference) occurs 111 ‫ هما‬final position. Differences
between Arabic and English 110 the number of consonants 080 ‫ اهلما‬cluster
together and the place where they occur may cause problems to ٨120
learners 0 English as will 0‫ ه‬seen in Unit 7.

Exercise (8)
1055 ‫ المام‬the words that 121091151 110 ]‫ل‬0 00‫ ا‬0‫ن‬1‫ل‬:
1111‫ن‬ ‫ن‬ ltip 51110 sunbeam nbike
bcheack jpump chin junk

SAQs (2)
1. 110005٢٧ ‫ ل‬the concept of the syllable help US 10110 English words?
2. Find ten English and ten Arabic words that have unpermissible
clusters.

200
Unit Four 501129128 41‫ ل‬Words
 3.2 51010‫ ع‬and Weak Forms
Words consist 01 01 1^101110000 ‫ ه‬syllables 5٧101013 range 110100 one
syllable up 0‫ ا‬six, or probably eight. 111 words 01 two or 100010 syllables,
one 01 those syllables 15 pronounced 100019 strongly than the others. 1100
strong 01 stressed syllable is said with 2 lull ٧0٢5691 sound. The weak
syllables 10‫ ه‬called unstressed 210‫ ل‬they are said with ‫ ه‬reduced vowel
sound. The word "banana" consists 0٤ three syllables, the first and the
third are weak syllables containing the reduced vowel /2/. The second
syllable is, 010 the other hand, a strong syllable containing the strong
vowel /æ/. The vowel which occurs 110 100 first and the third syllables 01
the word "banana” is the main 1311911510 reduced vowel. 1‫ ا‬always occurs
110 unstressed syllables. 11113 reduced vowel may occur ‫ اه‬the beginning
01 words, in the middle 01 words (before the stressed syllable) 0 110 110
middle 01 words (after 1110 stressed syllable). It may as well occur 2‫ ا‬the
‫ح‬0‫ ل‬0‫ م‬words where 1٤ has a different sound which :5 between /‫ج‬/ and
/٨/. 100 at the following examples which are adapted from O'Conner
(1970 :
/ə/ as 110 “banana”
At the beginning 01 words: about... around... Arabic
g in... avoid... around
110 the middle 0٤ words before the stressed syllable:
correct... forget... surround
r g rd... tonight... 12٤21
110 the middle 0٤ words after the stressed syllable:
handsome... venus... nation
woman... London .. careless
٨٤ the end 0٤ words:
better... bigger... river
sugar... butter... Africa
The other reduced vowel 02110 15‫ ا‬0‫ لنن‬unstressed syllables is the
short /1/ such ‫ هه‬1‫ ه‬vowel 110 the second syllable 0‫ م‬the word "money”.
Unit Four Syllables and Words
1‫ م‬order 10 know 110‫ ح‬difference between these ٤70 reduced vowels
compare the following 02115.

/ə/ /1/
affect/əfkt/ effect/ifekt/
dancers/dænsə(r)z/ dances /dænsiz/
chattered/tʃastə(r)d/ chatted/tfetid/

When ‫ ه‬word occurs 110 isolation, 1‫ ا‬must have ‫ ه‬stressed syllable.

101‫ ؟‬example, the first syllable 011100 word "actor" is stressed, the second
syllable 01 100 word ‫‘؛‬refer” 15 stressed and the only syllable 01 the word
“cat” is stressed. But when words occur 111 connected speech, 00‫ ا‬all of
them 210 stressed. Many 01 the one-syllable words 210 unstressed. For
example, in the sentence “Have a cigarette”, the word “a” 15 unstressed
while the other two words are stressed. ٨٦ unstressed word is normally
less important than 1000 other words 10 the sentence. Thus words 110
connected speech may have strong or weak forms. Weak words are 621‫ل‬
with 4 reduced vowel sound, schwa /2/ 25 explained above. However,
‫ ه‬weak word may assume different forms 110 different contexts. For
example, the conjunction “and” is pronounced as /ænd/ when it stands
alone. But 10 the phrase “black ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬white”, “and” is pronounced as
/ə,nd/ or /310/ 0 9٧90 /0/. These are three weak (1.٥. unstressed) forms.
110 fact, in connected speech “and” may have both a ٧05001 reduction 45
110 /ənd/, or the vowel may disappear 45 110 /10/. The consonant /d/ may as
0011 completely disappear as in /310/ and /0/. 110115 while ‫ ه‬word has one
strong form, it may have more than one weak 10110.
110 Arabic, 010 the other hand, words may consist 01 weak and
strong syllables. 11‫ ه‬words “munaafiq” ‫( منافق‬hypocrite), 101 instance,
has three syllables, 100 first and ‫ ه‬third 0٤ which are weak while
the second 18 strong (stressed). 01‫ ه‬should easily distinguish weak
‫ه‬0‫ ل‬strong syllables 110 Arabic since the Arabic long vowels sharply
Unit Four 202 Syllables and Words
contrast with their short counterparts. 10 the word "sahaaha" ‫( سحابة‬a
10114), the short /ə/ 111 the first and the third syllables can 00 easily
distinguished 110110 their long counterpart /a:/ 110 109 second syllable. 110
the transliteration of Arabic, long vowels are usually written 88 ‫ ى‬double
letter, as 10 ،،sahaab” ‫( سحاب‬clouds).
English 500145 can 10‫ ح‬classified 110٤0 lexical words and grammatical
[Link] words are nouns,mostverbs,adjectives and most adverbs.
Grammatical words are articles, auxiliary /modal verbs, prepositions,
pronouns 210‫ ل‬conjunctions. Lexical words always have strong forms.
But some of the grammatical words have strong or weak 1011105. The
following examples (adapted 10100 Ladefoged, 1975) shed light 01٦ the
different forms grammatica l 5 ords can 102٧9.

Word Strong 101100 Weak form Example 01 ‫ ه‬weak 101111

a I‫اة‬ ə aeup/əkʌp/
and /ənd/ /,ənd,nd,ən,n/ you and me/’ju.'n’mi:/
25 !rad ‫حا‬7‫إ‬ as good as /əgudəz/
at /æt/ /ət/ at home /ət'houm/
can /kæn/ /1‫ك‬9210‫ و‬1‫م‬/ lean go /aikng/
has /hæz/ he’s left /hi:z left/
he
1015
/٠
101 /
/mʌst/
/032,92,2,5/
/i:,hi,i/
/mt, məs, 1005/
will he go? /60111 go/
I must 9911 /1 ms, si/
she /::/ /ʃi/ did she go? /’did ʃi,gou/

that /ðæt/ /ət/ 1‫ و‬said that it did.

/101: 5٠1‫لي‬٤ did/
to /tu:/ /tu, ‫ما‬/ to Mexico /tə/meksikə/
would /wud/ /wəd,əd, ‫ل‬/ it would do/itəd)du:/

Some 0٤ the words 110 00 examples change their 1011005 according

٤0 the following sound. For example, the indefinite article “a” has
119 form /ei/ before consonants 210‫ ل‬/əɪ/ before vowels. Therefore,

203
Unit Four Syllables 411 Words
 ٢٧9 say (٤2/‫ع‬/ cake and an /210/ egg," 11‫ ه‬definite article is pronounced
/ðə/ before a consonant 2108 001010 /81/ ‫ ل‬vowel. So, we say “the /ðə
/ lion and the /ði/ elephant. Finally, the preposition “to’* also has two
forms, /tə/ before consonants and /tu:/ before vowels; hence we say “to/
tu:/ Amman and to /‫وا‬/ Jerusalem.”
Some words can have two functions ‫ من‬two different contexts.
According to the function 8 word performs, a word may have ‫ ه‬strong
or a weak form. This 15 explained in the following examples:

Word Function form Example

Who question word strong who/hu:/ 11‫ ل‬it?
Relative pronoun weak The boy who /u:/ 01‫ ل‬it.
That demonstrative strong That’s /bats/Mary.
Relative pronoun weak The house that /bət/ 1 live 110.
There demonstrative strong He lives there /beə/

Introductory 5٧0‫ل‬ weak There /ðər/ is ‫ ه‬bird 010 the tree,

Men gentlemen/mən/
Land Scotland /lənd/
Fenny compound nouns weak halfpenny /pinl/
Fence twopence /002115/
Sense nonesense/səns/
Day birthday/di
The word "has” 11932/2" ٤ 10 29 1594 ‫ن‬210 0‫ه‬/ gone” 0 as ‫ ه‬main
verb as 110 “He has /11202/ ‫ ه‬car.” Thus, it 15 100 auxiliary 101100 0٤ this
word that can have the weakest form. Likewise, when the word "as” 1‫و‬
used 45 a subordinating conjunction, 1‫ ا‬always retains 119 strong form.
101‫ ؟‬example, we always say ٤11٥ broke 119 ankel 25 /202/ 100 was riding
1015 bicycle.” But 110 the phrase "as good as” the word “as” has the weak
form/92/.
Most 0٤ the words 110 the examples retain their strong forms when
204 -------
Unit Four Syllables and Words

;.‫احت‬,-‫ع؛‬:.‫;=;;;ذ‬:-‫ي‬:‫ت‬:::‫تبآل‬:;‫ح;ت‬٦٦';-;'';‫ب‬:-‫^ة؛ق‬٠:‫صثحيل'غي‬:;‫ت"ت‬-:--‫ل‬:٠‫ل‬٠‫تلى;ائ‬:''٨‫ش‬-‫؛‬٦':'‫ًا‬::;;‫ي‬
they are used ‫ اه‬the beginning 01 utterances. 101 9721100019, we always
say "she /ʃi:/ works ‫ ه اه‬bank” or "He /hi:/ studies phonetics.” This also

20101125 ٤0 501000 01 the auxiliary verbs. 111118, we always say "Must /

mʌst/ 10‫ ح‬leave?” “Would /wud/ 1٤ rain?” and ،،Has/ hæz/ it rained?” But
the auxiliary verb (*can” may be used 11٦ its weak 10110 as in saying ،،can/
ilgo ?”
Finally, 60100 0٤ the above grammatical words may have strong
1011115 11 the speaker wants to emphasize a 09114110 point. The word which
conveys the intended point will retain its strong form. If, for example,
you want to emphasize the 1‫ هل‬of ،(addition”, you should say "I want
money and /send/ food, not money 01 /‫ د‬:/ food.”
Likewise lexical words 111 Arabic have stong forms whether they
occur in isolation or 111 connected speech. But some particles (i.e.
prepositions and pronouns) may have strong 1011108 or weak 1011108 110
isolation 410‫ ل‬in connected speech. For example, the particle “hi” ‫في‬
(in) has 1119 strong ٤01100 /hi/ 110 isolation and 111 certain contexts such 4‫ى‬
“jalasnaa ‫ ذًا‬baytihim” ‫) جلسنا في بيتهم‬٢٧ 5‫ اه‬in their house). 111 other
contexts, it has a weak 01110 /fi/ as in the phrase "fi 1-maktabi” ‫في المكتب‬
(in the office). However, 018 does 110‫ ا‬necessary apply 10 11‫ ه‬Arabic
prepositions. This point is worth further investigation, which is beyond
the 6000 0٤ this textbook. Arabic pronouns 2180 have forms 110 isolation,
but in certain contexts they 1114٧ have weak forms. For example, the first
person singular pronoun.
“annaa” 1) ‫ )أنا‬has the strong form /ðnæ/, but the weak 101100 /3103
/ in the phrase *‘ana laa a91amu shay? An” 1) ً‫ أنا ال أعلم شيائ‬don’t know
anything). Try to find other Arabic prepositions and 01010011108 that have
strong and weak forms.

205
Unit Four 500312101^8 2114 ٧0‫ل‬8
Exercise (9) 8‫لكس‬
Listen ٤0 the following short dialogues, and choose the correct 101100
from 201 list.
Do(d, du:,də)
4100 (2100‫ و‬m, ‘asm)
15 (52 12 ‫و‬ ‫)و‬

Are (4:, 313)

٧25 (7٧32‫ و‬،woz)
Have (əv, V, h v)
Has (s, ،h æz, 1032)
Will (٧111 ‫)و‬
Some (səm, ٨100‫ و‬sm)
Not (nt, (not)
ʌnd(ən, ænd)
13‫)اال‬929‫ وا‬bʌt)
1‫؟‬0)10:‫ و‬lb, 1‫)ه‬
θf(əvov)
10 (<tu:, 1910 ‫)و‬

Exercise (10) ‫لكأ‬

Decide whether the underlined 5011110 is /3/ 0 /1/ 110 the following
words:
Forgive od ncity 9*21001100 driver utrance
Country American similarly

SAQs (3)
1. Give examples other than the 01095 mentioned 110 exercise 6‫ و‬in
‫لغة‬
which 19 words “and, 2‫ وى‬can, has, he, must, she, that, would”
have weak forms.
2. Explain with examples how grammatical words can have strong
forms.
3. Discuss weak and strong syllables 2101 words in Arabic.

Unit Four Syllables and Words

 3.3 Word- Stress
Stress 110 its genera sense has been discussed 110 Unit 1. 110 order
to understand what stress 11 English 15, ‫ا‬1‫ ل‬to tap with your finger when
you produce each syllable 110 the word "about”. Surely, 01‫ ل‬can hardly
tap during the production of the first syllable "a” /2/, 01‫ ال‬you can easily
00 60 with the second syllable "bout” /baut/. So the stressed syllable 110
0:‫ و‬word 15 more salient and longer than 00 unstressed 0109.
110 Unit 1‫ و‬we have seen how stress 110 one-syllable words 15
maintained throughout the whole word, in two-syllable words, the
(primary) stress 15 normally placed ‫ اه‬the beginning 01 the stressed
syllable and 10 other syllable is understood to 009 unstressed. Here are
some examples:
/2:62/ (11101)
/ə,raiv/ (arrive)
/ə,baut/(about)

The location of the main (primary) stress 110 long words 18 not
difficult to assign. In bi-syllabic (two-syllable) nouns, 115 ‫ ا‬usually 010
the first syllable 25 11 the following words:
‘father ‘actress
‘worker ‘champion
‘mountain ‘forger

1‫ م‬the two-syllable word begins with the sound /9/, the main stress
falls 010 its second syllable as 110 the words, “a ‘go, ‫‘ ه‬rrive, a
‘live, a ‘mount”, etc. 110 words consisting 0٤three 01 more syllables, the
primary stress 15 placed 010 the second syllable 10110 00‫ ا‬right 0+ 010 the
third syllable from the 11110 ‫ اع‬2‫ ت‬the following words:
Arithmetic economy
Electric American
Arabian ‘!Mexican
Unit Four Syllables and Words
 110 all the words 110 the first column, the second syllable from
the right 15 stressed whereas 110 the words 11 the second column the
third syllable (1010 the right) is stressed- The difference :0 placing the
primary stress 110 1100 words 01 the ٤5٧0 columns 15 due to which syllable
(the second 0 the third) 1025 ‫ ه‬long vowel, 30 the word ‫ م‬arithmetic”, 10
example, it is the second 1010 the right, /tnæ/, which includes the long
vowel. In the word "economy”, 010 the other hand, the third syllable
110100 the right, /‫د‬/‫ و‬1028 10‫ ه‬100‫ ع‬vowel 2111 hence receives the primary
stress.
As we have seen 111 Unit 1‫ و‬although the position 0٤the stress does
‫م‬0‫ ا‬change when a word occurs 110 isolation, the stress can ‫ ه‬shifted ٤0
a different position when the word 15 used 11٦ a word group. It follows,
then, that, there 15 only 0111104110 ‫( ه‬primary) stress 110 a word group 110
English. The main stress 21٢5٧405 1105 near 01 ‫ اه‬the 0100‫ ل‬٤ the word
group. 10 50٢٧ 105٧ this takes place, ٤٢500 degrees of stress, the primary
/ ‫ ر‬/ and the secondary / ١ / will 0‫ ه‬used in the following examples:
‫؛‬handsome handsome ‘man
‘academic academic research

،flourishing flourishing industry

،painstaking painstaig ‘task

110 fact, 81998 111 certain expressions has a grammatical finction.

1100 following grammatical functions are associated with certain stress
patterns. These are summed 1110 110 what follows:

(1) 10215 01 speech. Some words 0310 function 29 100005 and verbs
111 different contexts.‫ ه‬speaker can indicate the part 0٤ 5009010 01 such
words 00‫ ل‬placing the stress 110 a certain 0051100 10 2 word. Here are
some examples:
Noun Verb
‘permit 0912 1001‫ا‬
‘suspect sus’pect
‘progress prog’ess
Unit Four 208 SyHables and Words
 We notice that 110 these pairs the first syllable 01 the word 15 stressed
5٧10010 1‫ ا‬is used as ‫ ه‬noun while 1100 second syllable 1‫ ى‬stressed when it
functions ‫ ىه‬a verb.

(2) Compound nouns. ٨ compound noun 210‫ ن‬be signalled by

the stress pattern [ .]. 1110 first word 0٤ a compound 10000 normally
receives the primary stress whereas, the secondary stress 15 placed 010
the second word. It should 00‫ ا‬noted that the stress 18 usually placed 010
the nucleus (which is normally a vowel sound) of the stressed syllable
of the respective word. These are 601000 examples:

Compound noun:
‘black board
‘short stop
‘white house
‘green 1001150

(3) Modifier-nun. The two words making up a compound noun

can be used as a modifier and 4 1101111. For example, 11 the stress pattern
[.115 used 110 the 2000٢٧0 compound nouns they become modifiers and
101041٤5

Modifier+noun:
black ‘board
short ‘stop
white ‘house
green ‘house
1100 stress pattern 15 very important 110 conveying the intended
meaning. For example, if the speaker says “blackboard ’, with the stress
pattern[ ١ ‫] ثم‬, he certainly means the type of board we find in classrooms.

Unit Four Syllables and Words

13‫ والما‬if he says the same expression with the stress pattern [110 must
,a board whose colour is black

Verb + n0un-0bject The stress pattern which is used to indicate)4(

verb and 8 noun-object is 8 ‫ هلم‬signal one used ٤0 ‫ ه‬modifier+noun, as
:the following examples 110
They are love ‫؛‬,birds
They are cooking ‫؛‬.apples

Verb )5(‫ ؛‬adverb. The above stress pattern 15 also used 0 indicate
:a verb and adverb. These are a few examples
You must look ‫؛‬.out
The tent has 109910 pushed ‫؛‬.over
Furthermore, the speaker can emphasize any word 110 the speech
his intended message continuum 110 accordance ٧110.
100 ‫ ها اه‬following examples:
‫؛‬He didn't mean 10 ‫؛‬go. (when said ordinarily(
11‫ ه‬didn’t 1009810 to g’o. (when the speaker means 10 emphasize
‫؛؛‬.)he" for contrast
He didn’t ‫؛‬٤0 go. (when the speaker wishes mean emphasize ٤0
‫")؛؛‬mean
the The speaker’s intention 080 also determine the location 0٤
main stress in the same word. For example, the first and the fourth
syllables 110 100 word ،،aristocratic” are normally evenly stressed. But 11
‫ ها‬fourth syllable 18 given a higher degree of stress 28 110 the example
‫؛؛‬The aristo’cratic rider galloped away”, then the speaker’s' intention
would be ‫ما‬contrast this particular rider with 410 ordinary one. Thus, by 0
uttering 0 fourth syllable with ‫ ه‬higher degree 01 stress, the speaker
lays special emphasis 010 this word. This 110 turn 500٧5 that the speaker
can emphasize any word 110 118 utterance 110 accordance with 18 intended
meaning. For example, if the word ‫؛؛‬evening” in 008 phrase ‫؛؛‬visit you 11’1

Unit Four Syllables and Words

110 the evening" 15 stressed, then the speaker intends 10 make clear the
11100 0٤1018 visit. But 110 the expression “I read the news in 100 evening
paper", 110 word "evening” does not receive 6 higher degree of stress
00921150 it 15 used 25 ‫ ه‬modifier for the word "paper”.
Finally, by selecting a particular stress pattern 4 speaker can
resolve the ambiguity 0٤ certain expressions. Here is an 9*21000019:
1. 2. They are cooking apples.
1. b. They are cooking apples.

2. a. ‘Filing 00161095 0810 be dangerous.

2. 0. (Fining planes can 00 dangerous.

1. a. describes the activity 5٧01011 15 going on, that 15 501000 people

are actually cooking some apples, 1.0, on the other hand, describes some
apples as being 101 ‫ع‬00‫ ل‬cooking; 2.2. planes which fiy are dangerous;
1110 activity of fiying planes (10., to fly 012005) is dangerous 110 2.10. It is
easy to notice the difference 110 meaning 09٤٢7٧990 ‘1.2.’ and 1.00. since a
different stress pattern 15 used for 02011. But ‘2.2.’ and (2.10 have the same
stress pattern. Here, the ambiguity which might arise can 0‫ ه‬solved 0‫آل‬
resorting 10 the context of situation. Hence, using the appropriate stress
pattern 15 0٤ immense significance 101 a foreign language learner 80 that
1٥ 0210 communicate with it adequately. ‫يي‬
Exercise (11) ‫ك‬

Put the appropriate stress (primary 01 secondary) 111 its proper

position 111 100 following 9*10198810115.
Compound noun Modifier-‫ا‬-Noun
English teacher English teacher
Whitehouse White house
Blackboard black board
Shortstop short stop

211
Unit Four Syllables and Words
Exercise (12)
State the stress shift 110 the following expressions:
tiresome tiresome job
remarkable remarkable success
praiseworthy praiseworthy achievement
blooming blooming plant
contr act (11) ‫ن‬0‫ ام‬ract bridge

Exercise (13)
Place the appropriate stress (95) 010 the following words:
Contract (v.) contract (10.)
Permit (V.) pennit (0.)
Bluebird (compound 001010) blue bird (modifier+noun)
Lookout (comound noun) to 100 out (verb+adverbial)

Exercise (14)
Explain the meaning of each of these expressions as indicated
by the given stress patterns:
1.. French teacher. b. French teacher
2.‫ه‬. Burning oil frightened him, b. Burning 611 frightened him.
3.. Jump ropes are used by 00*15. . They Julilp ropes.
4. The movie was held over. ٦. The movie is ‫ ه‬heldover from last week.
5. a. 111٧ are racing horses. . They are racing houses.

SAQs (4)
1. 110٢5٧ can stress help the learner 410‫ ل‬the speaker 01 2 language?
2. Give examples other than those mentioned 110 100 above exercises
which show 0٧ stress can play a grammatical function.
3. Give examples that show how a speaker cant stress words which
are normally unstressed.
4. Explain with examples how stress patterns can 01٧‫ و‬ambiguous
utterances.
212
Unit Four Syllables and Words
 4. 11001190‫ ه‬٤ of “Morpheme” 10 English
Word-forms 110 English 45 well as 110 other lanauges may consist 01
4 number of elements. These elements are, 2‫ و‬we have 5910 above, are
sounds (01 letters 10 the written form) joined together 10 make syllables.
101‫ ؟‬example, English 5٧014- forms such 45 visit, to, visited and
visiting consist of one element visit /vizit/ (two syllables), and 4 number
01 other elements, namely or /ə,(r) /, -ed/id/, -1102/11/. All these elements
210 described 25 10001010010095. The definition 01 4 morpheme is "a minimal
unit of meaning or grammatical function”. Thus the mo heme visit 14‫ى‬
its 191021 meaning; -0 15 an affix (here, it 15 a suffix) which changes the
word visit 111٤0 a noun visitor; -ed denotes the 0045٤ tense; and 50 01. Lets
take another example. 110 the sentence "The judge reopened the trial".
the word reopened consists of three morphemes: one 100110110021 unit 01
meaning is ٠, another unit 01 meaning 15 re-(meaning grain’), and
2 unit of grammatical fin tion is ‫س‬9‫( ل‬indicating past tense).
From these two examples, we 210 make ‫ ه‬broad distinction
between two types of morphemes: free morphemes which 0210 stand
by themselves (25 words) in 20‫ ل‬given sentence such as visit and open,
and bound morphemes which cannot stand alone 110 the sentence but are
attached before certain forms such as e ‫ مم‬after certain foims such as
o, -ed, - ng. 110090 bound morphemes 10‫ ه‬called affixes: those which
come before free morphemes are called prefixes and those that come
after 1109100 are called suffixes. The bound morphemes (01 affixes) are
two types: derivational 0001110010098 and inflectional morphemes.

4.1 Derivational Morphemes

Derivational morphemes are conjoined 10 other morphemes (01
words) ٤0 derive (01 form) new words. 1100 derived ٧010 may have a
different meaning from the original word and may even be 110 4 different
grammatical class. 101 example, we may form a word with opposite

213 ---------------------------------------------------
Unit Four Syllables and ٢٧0٣08
meaning 0‫ آل‬prefixing un before 4 word like 0200‫ا ل‬0 ‫ اهع‬unhappy (a
different meaning), 0 we may suffix a verb with able 0‫ ا‬get an adjective:
desrive (verb) and 00511201 (adjective). Derivational morphemes are
prefixes such 45 1000 (impossible), 1 (illegal), r (irregular), 110‫( ل‬unhappy),
dis (disobey), mis (misunderstanding) 2104 1000 (nonexistent). Or
they may be suffixes such as able (comfortable), en (wooden), ical
(biological), ish (foolish), etc,,

4.2 Inflectional Morphemes

Inflectional morphemes are always suffixes‫ ؛‬they never come as
prefixes. They are also limited innumber, unlike derivational morphemes
which are unlimited. They have ‫ ه‬grammatical function. They are added
٤0 the noun, the verb 01 the adjective and the adverb:
(a) 5‫ س‬or e (pronounced /s/, /2/ or /12/ are used to 101100
(i) the plural noun, eg a - cats, dog - dogs, brush"
brushes, (ii) the possessive noun e.g. cat, cat’s, dog-
dog’s, James- James’s, and (iii) the third person singular
present tense of the verb, e.g. smoke- smokes, 0‫ي‬- goes,
catch- catches,
(b) d 01 d (pronounced /d/, /t/ or fid/ ‫ همه‬used to 101100
(1) the ‫ اىهم‬tense of the verb, .‫ع‬. play- played, smoke-
smoked, hand- handed, and (11) en 15 used 10 form the
past participle 0٤ the verb, e.g.‫اهح‬- eaten.
(‫)ن‬ ng is used 101100 0‫ ا‬the present participle 0٤ the verb,
e.g. go-going.
(‫) ل‬ e and est are used ٤0 form the comparative and the
superlative respectively 0٤ adjectives, e,g. short"
shorter- shortest.

Inflectional suffixes (0 morphemes) are restricted 10 the above-

mentioned functions 110 English. However, this list of inflectional
morphemes includes only the regular and most common 01105. They
Unit Four 1 Syllables and Words
are not however the only ٤011005 used 101 these purposes. There are
alternatives (01 2110100010106) ٤0 these forms such as:
(2) alternative suffixes, e.g. 0*-0*010 (noun plural).
(10) alternative suffixes, plus 2 consonant or vowel change, e.g٠ child-
children (noun plural wife- wives (1001110 plural; weep" wept (verb
past tense), bring- brought (verb past tense); speak- spoke (٧210
past tense); speak spoken (verb past participle).
(c) vowel change, e.g. goose- geese (noun plural); speak spoke (verb
past tense); sing- sung (verb past participle).
(4) 100 change ‫ه اه‬11‫ و‬e.g. sheep-sheep (noun plural); put- put (verb
past tense and past participle), ٧2110) 20‫ن‬811- ‫ ن‬third person singular
present tense); judge’s- juddges’ (001110 plural possessive- but note
the change 110 the placement of the apostrophe).
(e) 2 completely different word, e.g. go-went and am- was (verb past
tense).

Exercise (15)
Divide the following words by placing 4 1 between their separate
morphemes:
!.retroactive 6. realism
2. befriended 7. woollen
3. unpalatable 8. oldest
4. 1000005510010 9٠eageness
5. agreement 10. disorder

Exercise (16)
Decide whether the underlined are inflectional 01 derivational
morphemes:
1. happy 6. shortened
2. happiness 7. fain
3. happ e 8. children
4. write 9. cries
5. shorten 10. bringing

Unit Four Syllables and Words

 SAQ‫) ؛؛‬5‫ح‬ θ

1. What is the difference between derivational and inflectional

1001011010098‫؟‬

2. ٧٧1‫ اه‬allomorphems are used 10 make ‫ ه‬noun plural?

4. Are 211 derivational morphemes suffixes?

5. 1100 Concept of ٤0 ٧٧0‫ل‬

110 the previous sections ٢5٧0 have seen how sounds (001191005) are
joined together ٤0 make syllables, and 61120198 ٤0 make morphemes
(whether free or bound) and morphemes to make longer units 01
language called “words". 111 this way, (‘words" are not the smallest units
0 language: the smallest unit 01 language is the sound (01 morpheme),
and the smallest unit 01 meaning 110 language is 110 morpheme (whether
free or bound). Therefore the "word" 15 4 unit 0٤ language larger than
1100 morpheme. ٧0105 are organized in such a way 60 as to form phrases
and phrases into sentences.
Words are also called parts 0٤50991.٨5 parts of speech, words are
divided into ٤٧0 types 0 categories. The first is the set of grammatical
or closed-system categories such as articles, prepositions, pronouns,
conjunctions, etc. They are called grammatical because they have
grammatical functions rather 0310 lexical meanings. Indeed they are also
called function words because their function 15 often more important
than their meaning. They are called closed-system words because 500
cannot add 109٢5٧ ones to them. For example, there are only three articles
110 English (a, 20٤0 (‫ و‬110‫ ج‬which we cannot add any other items.
The second 15 the set of lexical or 00000 1255‫ ن‬categories which
includes nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. These categories have
100 determinate number of members and are constantly added ٤0. That 13
hy they are called open-class items. For example, internet, television,
Toyota are 211 109٢٢٧ nouns added ٤0 the language.

Unit Four Syllables and Words

Exercise (17)
ً‫ال‬591109101105 1101 100010119101251010021566601051101010 1.
٧ ‫ع‬ ‫ح‬
0
1. dom 6. —fol
2. -hood 7. dis—
3. ness 8. —ly
4. —ship 9. 11
5. en— 10. im

SAQs (6)
1.001012 15110031119 900009 650901001010109100199,111010091019521145004057
٤ ٣ ٤

2. What does the category 01 lexical open-system words consist 017

3. What does the category 0٤grammatical closed system words consist
07
٤

6. Word" Coinage
There are several ways of coining 0‫ م‬forming words 110 English.
These include making compounds (e.g. rainbow), blends (e.g. brunch,
from breakfast 2100 lunch), abbreviated words (e.g. prof, 10 professor),
and acronyms (e.g. QOU for al Quds open University). However, the
most common way 0٤٢5٧014- coinage, in addition to derivation and
inflection, is compounding.
Compounding utilises 500145 (free morphemes) as a 14٢5٧ material
٤01 forming other words, e.g. motorcar, brother-in-law.

Some compounds are differentiated from grammatical structures

‫ آل‬stress (see Section 6.1 above). 10* example, compare the compound
word 0 lackb ird(in which thefirstword is stressed) and the grammatical
structure ‫؛‬black ‫؛‬bird (an adjective and a noun both of which are
stressed).
There 210 various ways 110 which compound words may 00 formed:
(a) two elements, 1000 01 which are simple words, e.g.
blackboard.

Unit Four Syllables and Words

 (1) Three elements, all 0٤ which are simple words, e.g. son-in-
law.
(c) two elements, one complex, e.g. adhesive tape.
(d) ٤٧0 elements, both complex, eg cigarette lighter
(e) two elements, one or both compound, e.g. look-out tower,
tightrope- walker.

Exercise (18)
Add another word or words ٤0 the following so 101100 ٤0 ‫ىه‬
compounds:
!.head' ‫سسسسسس‬ 6. — sevant ‫سسسسسسس‬ .

2. gold— ‫سسسسس‬ 7. —law ‫سسسسس‬

3. passer- ‫سسسسسس‬ 8. News- ‫سسس‬-

4. "board ‫سسس‬ ---------------- 9. Secretary- ------

5. —down— ------- lOi■—post -------

SAQs (7)
1. What are the various ways 01 word coinage?
2. How does stress affect the pronunciation 0٤ 00112110 compound
words?
3. What is the difference between compounds and grammatical
structures?

'?.'Overview..', . ..‫ر‬ ٦
This unit 125 dealt with the basic concepts 01 phoneme,
syllable, morpheme 20‫ ل‬word. These concepts were dealt with
particularly from ‫ ه‬phonetic/ phonemic point 01 view. For this
reason, syllables, clusters and word-stress were discussed. 10‫ل‬
addition, word-formation particularly derivational and inflectional
morphemes and compounding were given in some detail.

Unit Four Syllables and Words

 8٠ Preview of Unit Five
The 1 unit of the course will deal with connected speech.
In this respect, aspects of connected speech, namely assimilation,
rhythm, elision and the linking /r/ will 009 discussed. Intonation
patterns which are essential for meaningful speech are examined.
Discourse functions 01 intonation related ٤0 intonation patterns will
6150 00 examined. Changing word-shape ٢5٧111 be shown. Finally,
the unit will 0921 with British and American English.

9. Answer Key
230*97159 (1)

l,/me'ʒə/ 2. /٤110/ 3. /٧:‫وك‬10/ 4. /və,:jn/

5. /ʃeə/ 6. /meidʒə/ 1.‫نلم‬٦‫ل‬ 8. /beiʒ/

9. /mæθs/ ' 10. /tʃeə/

Exercise (2) ‫ و‬share

1. cheap 3. vision 4. cheap
5. marsh [Link] 7. 0٤0118. ledger

٩
Exercise (3)
l./mks 2. /bæŋks/ 3./1/ 4. /ka:nt/
5. /kinz/ 6. /kʌmiŋ/ 1.‫ذي‬ 8.‫ا‬٣0
9.155٦‫لم‬

Exercise (4)
!.patched 2. advanced 3. wrecked , hissed
5. lumped 6. approached 7. flashed 8. clashed
9. laughed 10. sticked
------------------ 219‫—سس‬
Unit Four Syllables and Words
 Exercise (5)
1.21118 /gə:ls/
2. judge /ʤʌʤiz/
3. cats /kæts/
4. clans /elænz/
5. parts /pa:ts/
6. cars /ka:z/
7. phases /freiziz/
8. runs /rʌnz/
9. stakes /steiks/
10. shots /ʃots/

1 1. clauses /klouziz/

Exercise (6)
Listen ٤0 the tape 4000 ‫ ل‬as instructed.

Exercise (7)
Listen ٤0 the 1200 and do as instructed.

Exercise (8)
Tick 1110 nbike becheack jpum

Exercise (9)
100 (‫ ول ول‬du:)
٨101 (100‫ و‬100‫ و‬am)
Is (2‫ و‬8‫ و‬iz)
‫( حلمهم‬r, 6:)
Was (w, z, w 50202 ‫)و‬
Have (V, V, hav)
1145 (10 z, s, haz)

220
Unit Four Syllables and Words
 Will (1‫ و‬1‫ و‬will)
some(sm,sm,snɪ)
‫ل‬0٤)11‫ وا‬It, nt)
٨04 (10‫ و‬10, 210‫)ل‬
But (b t, b t, b t)
For(1r,1 ,10:)
01 (٧ V, ov)
10 (t, tu, tu:)

10*2189 (10)
forgive fol
Jordan /ə/
city ‫اإ‬٠1
examine ‫اا‬
driver ‫اا‬
entrance ‫اجا‬
country ٢‫إا‬
American ‫احا‬
similarly /i/zi//ə//i/

Exercise (11)
'English teacher
‘English 'teacher
'White house
‘White 'house
'black‘bird
‘black'bird
'shortstop
short'stop

Unit Four 901129198 21٢٧٧008

 Exercise (12)
Compound noun
‫؛‬tiresome tiresome ‘job,
re’markable re< markable success
‘praiseworthy praise worthy ‘achievement
‘blooming hlooming ‘plant
‘contact ،contact ‘bridge

Exercise (13)
contract (٢٧) ‘contract (11)
permit (٧) ‘permit (10)
‘bluebird (n) ‘blue’bird (modifier + noun)
‘lookout (10) ‘look ‘out

Exercise (14)
l٠a٠ (100011191) 0. (compound noun)
2. a. (modifier) 0. compound 1001110)
3. a. (modifier) 0. (compound 1101111)
4.2.. (modifier) 0. compound 1001010)

Exercise (15)
1 .retro‫ ؛‬act+ ive 6. real ‫ ساس‬ism
2. be ‫؛‬friend ted 7. ٢٢00011+ 10‫ح‬
3. nn‫ ؛‬palat + able 8. old + est
4. im + possible 9. eager ‫؛‬ness
5. agree + ment 10. dis ‫؛‬order

Exercise (16)
1. Inflectional 6. Inflectional
2. Derivational 7. Derivational

Unit Four 9001140195 and Words

 3. Inflectional 8. Inflectional
4 Derivational ‫و‬. Inflectional
5. Derivational 10. Inflectional'

100*91159 (17)
!.kingdom 6. careful
2. childhood 7. discontent
3. happiness 8. likely
4. scholarship 9. 1110921
5. enlarge 10 impossible

Exercise (18)
!.headmaster 6. maid-servant
2. goldsmith 7. outlaw
3. passer-by 8. Newspaper
4. blackboard 9. Secretary-General
5. upsidedown 10. outpost

10. References ‫ا‬

1. Abjian ٨012110 et 21 (1992) Linguistics: An Introduction to
Communication, 313. ed. Cambridge, Mass.: The 1 411 Press.٧
2. Formkin, Victoria 20‫ل‬ Rodman (1993)An Introduction
to Language. 5th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
3. Gimson, A.c. (1970) An Introduction to the pronunciation of
English. 1010000: Edward Arnold.
4. Jones, Daniel (1956) An English Pronouncing Dictionary, new
edition,, London: Dent.

223
Unit Four Syllables and Words
 5■ (1969) An θutlme^)f :::;‫ع‬: Phonetics. 9'h ed. ‫ا‬

I
6. Ledefoged;1993) .‫ )؛‬A Course m Phonetics. 3rd ed. New York:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers. ‫ا‬

Unit Four Syllables and Words

 226
Unit Five Connected Speech
 Contents
Subject Page
1. Introduction 229
1.1 Preview 229
1.2 objectives 229
1.3 Contents 229
1.4 Methodology 230
1.5 Audio - Visual Aids 21
1.6 Evaluation 21
1.7 Supplementary Reading 23)

2. Aspects 01 Connected speech 232

2.1 Assimilation 232
2.2 Elision 235
2.3 10010100 237
2.4 Linking/r/ 239

3. Intonation Patterns 241

3.1 Definition of Intonation 241
3.2 Tonic Syllables 242
3.3 Intonation Patterns 243
3.3.1 Falling Intonation 244
3.3.2 115 110‫ ع‬Intonation 244
3.3.3 Falling - Rising Intonation 245
3.3.4 Rising ‫ س‬Falling Intonation 245

4. Discourse Function 0 Intonation 246

5. Changing Word - Shape 250

5.1 ٨٤ the Word Level 250
5.2 ‫ اهم‬the Word-Group Level 251

6. British and American English 253

7. Arabic - English Contrast 255

Unit Five Connected 5022٤11

8. Overview 259
9. Preview 0٤ 101‫م‬1٤ 91‫ي‬ 269
10. Answer Key 259
11٠ References 264

228
Unit Five Connected 50٥‫ه‬
 1. Introduction
1.1 Preview
111110 ‫ ى‬unit 01 1100 course deals with connected speech. 110 this
respect aspect ‫ مم‬connected speech, namely assimilation, rhythm,
elision and linking M will he discussed. Intonation patterns, which are
essential 101 meaningful speech, are examined. Discourse functions
‫ مم‬intonation related to intonation patterns 7٧111 also he examined.
Changing word - shape will be shown. Finally the unit ٢5٧111 deal with
111150 ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬American English.

1.2 Objectives____________________________
Upon completing this unit, students are expected ٤0:
1. 4000100 fluency 110 producing English utterances,
2. recognize the 102110 aspects 01 connected speech, namely
assimilation, rhythm, 91181010 and linking,
3. pronounce correctly connected sentences with weak and strong
101105
4. pronounce connected speech with correct intonation,
5. use the functions 0٤ various intonational patterns of utterances,
e.g. politeness, surprise, sympathy, emphasis, etc,
6. use the pronunciation 01 English (American and British),
7. be aware 01 different accents in English, and
8. 100 aware 0٤ English "Arabic pronunciation contrasts.

1.3 Contents
1. Aspects 01 Connected speech
1.1 Assimilation
1.2 1111 ‫زى‬010
1.3 Rhythm
1.4 Linking /r/

229
Unit Five Connected Speech
 2. Intonation Patterns
2.1 Definition of Intonation
2.2 Tonic Syllables
2.3 Intonation Patterns
2.3.1 Falling Intonation
2.3.2 Rising Intonation
2.3.3 Falling-Rising Intonation
2.3.4 115 110‫ ع‬- Falling Intonation
3. Discourse Function of Intonation
4. Changing word - Shape
5. British and American English
6. Arabic - English Contrasts

1.4 Methodology____________________________
10 addition to the general procedures and techniques described
above, the following are recommended for this unit.
1. Present briefly, with exercises, some features 0٤ connected
speech, such as assimilation, rhythm, elision and linking. 1100
presentation must be accompanied by demonstration of the
tape.
2. Recycle weak and strong forms accompanied by demonstrative
recordings.
3. Emphasize the need for fluency and speech 110 speaking, and that
this depends on understanding the aspects of connected speech,
e.g. the weak forms, etc.
4. Outline briefly that intonation is meaningful, that the change 0٤
tune may lead to change 110 ‫ ها‬intention of the speaker.
5. Explain the concept of ‫؛؛‬accent", 20‫ ل‬that it relates 10 the
individual’s pronunciation, etc.
6. Explain with examples 100٢٢٧ 760148 change their forms in
connected speech under the influence of neighbouring words.

Unit Five Connected Speech

............... .‫ي‬.‫ب‬ ٠٠Lr :. ‫ذ‬٠ . .... ........... .‫يي‬...^.‫ يسيسيي‬.

 1.5 Audio - Visual Aids
The following audio - ٧1511‫ هل‬aids will 00 used throughout
this course.
A. Software
1. ٨11410 211٧1400 ‫ ل‬taped materials recorded by native speakers
of English.
2. Phonetic alphabets (e.g. 11٨ symbols) 101 broad and narrow
transcription.
3. Photograph 0٤ tongue 0005110105 01 the cardinal vowels.
4. Illustrations 0٤ the points and manner 01 articulation.
5. Charts ofEnglish and Arabic sounds.
6. Pronouncing dictionaries, e.g. 10. Jones, An English
Pronouncing Dictionary (latest edition).
7. Phonetic readers. J.D. O’Connor, New Phonetic Readings
)12٤05٤ 00111010(.
8. Tables, diagrams, charts, pictures that help illustrate the
material discussed in the course.
9. Native speakers 01 English as informants.
10 Other similar materials.
E. Hardware
1. Tape recorders.
2. TV sets.
3. Chalk and Talk.
4. Realia and similar materials collected 0‫ ل‬the teacher and the
students.
5. Language 120 (11 available).
6. Computer (1‫ لم‬available).

‫يسيسيبيتيثتيتتييتيتشيتيتب‬
1.6 Evaluation

1.
tape. ٦

Ask students to identify certain aspects of a spoken text on

I

231----------------------------------------------
Unit Fie Connected 500223
 2. ‫ ىه‬students to identify the accent 0٤ 8 number of speakers 010
tape.
3. Expose students ٤0 8 number 0٤ recorded exchanges (mini
dialogues), depending 010 the change of the intonation
function.
4. Ask students ٤0 identify ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬evaluate Arabic - English contrasts
(in stress, rhythm and intonation)

1.7 Supplementary Reading ‫ق‬0

Ref. No. Page
1 .0( 000100(197 6) ‫م‬
0 .1 14:12-13 :138 ٦51 ‫س‬
2. Roach (1985) 00.102-150

2٠ Aspects of Connected Speech

50 far, 0‫ ال‬have leamt how ٤0 recognize and produce single
phonemes, syllables and words. But as you know, spoken (2104 written)
communication does 0020‫ ا ا‬place with single sounds, syllables or
even single words. 101‫ ؟‬meaningful communication (that 15‫ و‬speaking
and listening, reading and writing ) 0‫ ا‬take place, words usually occur
110 groups spoken (or written) continuously.

2.1 Assimilation
In connected speech, modifications takeplace atword boundaries.
One 0[ these modifications 1‫ ى‬assimilation. Assimilation means that one
sound replaces another under 00‫ ا‬influence 0[ the second sound. For
example 110 the phrase horse-shoe, the 7٧014 horse spoken 10 isolation
is pronounced /10:5/. However 110 the phrase horse shoe it is pronounced
/ho:ʃ/ under the influence of /Ju:/ shoe. 110 this way the sound /s/ :‫ي‬
replaced 0‫ ل‬the 5011100 /ʃ/ under the influence 0‫ م‬/ʃ/ in u:/
Therearetwotypesofassimilatiomhistoricalassimilationand
contextual assimilation.

Unit Five Connected Speech

 111 the course of the historical development 01 English, many
changes have taken place. Among these changes is the 1088 01 the /3
/ at the end 0601000 ‫ م‬plural forms. The plural 101100 01 words such 25
dog, thing, bone was dogges. thines. 210‫ ل‬bones pronounced /dogə,s/,
/0110295/ ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬/bo:nəs/ respectively. In time, the /9/ sound ‫ اه‬the end 01
these and similar words was dropped and consequently the /5/ sound
was changed into /2/. 1100 above mentioned words are 100٢5٧ pronounced
/4022/, /91000:132/ ‫ة‬/ 210‫ل‬/ because 01 the preceding voiced sound.
Other 0*210000195 01 historical assimilation are the following (the old
10110015 given 115٤).

/neisjən/-> / neiʃn / nation

/netj٨r/ ‫عب‬ / neitʃə / nature
/feimitʃə/ ‫ح‬ / fb:rnitʃə/ furniture
/həndkə:tʃif/ ‫حؤ‬ /hæŋkətʃif / handkerchief
/ ‫الز‬:‫اى‬/‫ج‬ / juzd / used

Contextual assimilation 15 the process 01 replacing 0100 sound by

another one, which 105‫ ه‬more resemblance ٤0 1‫ ح‬following adjoining
sound.
The following are examples:
/ho:sʃu:/ > /ho:-ff ‫ال‬: /horse-shoe : replacing/5/0‫ل‬/ʃ/under
the influence of 1100 following /ʃ/ in shoe.
/dʌzʃi:/ -‫ لج‬/ dʌ'sʃi:/ does she : replacing 1/ by /3/ under
the influence 0٤// in she.
/'ðisjə/ > / i-fiə/ this year:
/i oboksredi/ 3/ ‫ح‬,................./ syuboxdy? : the
replacement 0٤ /s/ and /2/ 07‫ ل‬/ʃ/ and /5/ under (10٥ influence 0 /j/.
/aidountkeo/ ....... ■■■■‫ بر‬/aidouŋkkeə/ I don’t care : replacing /
nt/ by /ŋk/ under the influence 01 the following /‫كا‬/.
/ai dount bili:v it/ /ai də m(p) bil:vit/ldont believe
t: replacing /nt/ by /m(p)/ under the influence of the following /b/.
/faiv 0906/ ‫ 'ه‬/ faif pens / fiepn: replacing /v/ by
/1/ under the influence of the following /p/.

233
Unit Five Connected speech ‫؛‬
 /00:1 010/ ‫ الم‬00:1/ ‫ح‬/ footbal
under ٤10‫ ه‬influence 01 the following /0/.

100*21150 (1)
Read the following groups 0٤ words. then transcribe them first
0
with out assimilation and then with assimilation:
a. Good morning.
‫إ‬ ‫أ وأ‬ ‫ا‬
0. On my own.
/ // (
c. Just shut the door.
‫ا‬ IJ I
‫ل‬. Dust sheet.
‫إ‬ j, ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬
. Butcher’s shop.
j ‫اا‬ ‫أ‬
f. I don’t buy it.
/ / / ‫أ‬
‫ع‬. Please shut the 0001.
/ /‫ و‬/
h. I can’t go.
‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫أ‬
1. I can’t get it.
‫أ‬ ‫أ‬ /
j. In bed.
j ‫أا‬ I

Exercise (2) ‫يه‬

Read thefollowinggroupsofwords written inphonetictranscription
1000 rewrite 00100 110 ordinary English:
a٠ /ʃiiəz gʌm bæk/
0. /101:2 got a bg kould/
c. /ðiʃji:zgud/
d. /weəʒjjo:buk/
‫ه‬. /1٤ 603210001001:/

Unit Five Connected Speech

SAQs (1) (20
1. ٧14٤ 15 ٤‫ ه‬meaning 01 assimilation?
2. What 1‫ و‬the difference between historical assimilation 2104 contextual
assimilation?
3. Does assimilation occur 110 isolated words or 110 connected speech?
4. Does assimilation oeeuɪ' in ordinary writing?

2.2 Elision
Elision is the dropping 01 2 sound 110 connected speech under the
influence 0٤‫ ه‬following sound. The following are examples:
/mouʃən/ > /mouʃn / motion : the loss of /ə/ sound under the
influence 01 ‫ا‬1‫ ح‬following /10/.
/weitəndsi:/ ‫ ح‬/weit (ə)n si:/ wait and see : the loss of /d/.
/poustɪnən/ ■'■■■■—> /pousmən/ponthelossof/t/.

Weak 1011005 (see Section 7.2 below) are 2150 1011005 01 0118101.
Why 00 speakers of English use assimilation 2110 911510107 The reason is
that speakers 1110 ٤0 spend less effort in their use of language. If a word
or expression remains clearly understood without a certain sound, then
people tend to change or omit that sound, 01 use a different sound as 11٦

Exercises (3)
assimilation.
(71
Read the following groups 01 words then transcribe 10910 nr
without elision then with elision.
a. I don’t know.

b. Fish and chips.

c. Next week.

d. Breakfast time.

e. The postman came here.

Unit Five Connected Speech

Exercise (4) (20
Read the following groups of words 0010 transcribe 100400 first
without assimilation or elision and then with assimilation or elision as
the case maybe:
2. My grandfather.

٦. 110 ten minutes.

c. Bread and butter.

‫ل‬. Last night.

e. Bag 2104 baggage.

‫ م‬I ve almost finished.

‫ع‬. 1 40102‫ ا‬believe you.

h, 1 must 0.

: The football match.

j. Next Monday.

SAQs (2)
1. What is elision?
2. What is the difference between assimilation and elision?
0
3. Why do speakers of English use assimilation 0[ elision?

236
Unit Five Connected 50022
 2.3 Rhythm
110 Unit 1500 20‫ ل‬Four, you have studied stress and rhythm. These
two aspects 0٤spoken English are related 10 each other. 110 English words,
phrases, and sentences, 1005 words, which are most important 10 1109
meaning at the moment of speaking, always contain ‫ ه‬stressed syllable.
Stressed syllables ٤01105٧ each other at regular intervals of time. 110 other
words, there is the same amount 0 time between each pair 0٤ stressed
syllables 10 ‫ ه‬given sentence 0* utterance. That is why English 15 said ٤0
be "stress timed". Consider the following ٤٧٧0 examples:
1. the number 1‫ *ى‬consists of one stressed syllable / (siks / (stress is
marked by ، ): ‫ ولم‬number seven consists 01 5٧0 syllables, the first
unstressed and 1‫ و‬second stressed /592٢٧‫و‬10/‫ و‬and the number eleven
consists of three syllables, the second of which is stressed /ilevən/.
However, 100 time spent by the speaker 10 pronouncing these 110100
words is the same.

2. Similarly, in the following three utterances the time employed by a

speaker between the ٧0 stresses 110 each utterance 15 the 821009.

237
Unit Five Connected Speech
 Arabic, by comparison, might be said 10 00 ‫" ه‬syllable - timed”
language where every syllable in ‫ ه‬sentence is equally stressed. ٨‫ ى‬a
result, Arab learners tend ٤0 give equal time 211 0‫ ا‬syllables, stressed
or unstressed, 5011010 uttering an English sentence. For example, their
pronunciation 0٤ the utterances 110 example 2 above would look 110
this:

45 ٨‫ ى‬1‫ مة‬English 15 concerned, this 18 wrong and violates the

rhythmic nature of connected speech. 1‫ ا‬should, therefore, 100 avoided.

Exercise (5)
Read the following 2101005 0٤ words then transcribe each 0٤
them putting (،) before the stressed syllables:
٥ He was ٧٧ amusing.

b. She plays very well.

. You did 1‫ ا‬rather cleverly.

d. She was lighting the fire.

e. He was older than me.

Unit Five Connected Speech

 ٤ How did you manage to be there " time?

g. It was a really good meal

h. " was 8 really pleasant evening.

i. He was just ten.

‫ ل‬Take ‫ اا‬to Johnson.

SAQs (3) (20

1. What is the difference between stress - timed and syllable -
timed language?
2. ٨10 all syllables 110 210 English utterance spoken with equal
stress?

2.4 Linking /1/

110 Received Pronunciation (110) (990 Unit Six), the sound /1/
only occurs before vowel, never before consonants. Therefore, the
following words are 0100010‫ن‬3‫ ل‬without /٣/ sound, although appears
110 100 orthography:
Learn /lein/
Sort /so:t/
F2rm/fa:m/

٨٤ the 0100 ‫ ل‬words, however, 1.1 has // sound only 11 1‫ ا‬is

immediately followed by ‫ ه‬word beginning ٧10‫ ا‬a vowel sound. 50 09
word never, for example, 1‫ م‬1‫ ا‬is pronounced in isolation 01 at the 900 01
an utterance, is /09٧9/. Hut 1٤1٤ is followed by another word beginning
with a vowel such ‫ ىه‬again, it becomes /nevər əgen/. This /1/ 15 called
the linking //‫ و‬the following are some more examples:

/betərof/ better off

239
Unit 1٦٤٢٧‫ح‬ Connected Speech
 /1011‫ممح‬1٤17/10‫وم]ح‬٤ is
/fo:ro:faiv/ four or five

Furthermore, 115 ‫ ا‬quite usual 0‫ ا‬hear this linking /1/ after /2/
٥٧911 6500 there is 100 letter [ 110 the orthography. The following are
examples:

/ɪindər ən ‫ماحح‬/ Linda and Ann

/æfrikər ən eiʃiə/ Africa and Asia
/aiso:rə mæn/ 1 saw ‫ و‬man

However the linking /1/ is 110‫ ا‬common ٤0 11‫ ه‬speakers of

English.
Exercise (6) 0

Read the following groups 0٤ 500105 with a linking /r/ then

transcribe them phonetically:
2 Shah of Persia

b. Writer and poet

c. My mother understands this

٥ My father is very angry

e. Here and there

f. Westminster Abbey

‫ ع‬My teacher and father

1. Poor old Tom

Unit Five Connected Speech

I j. Give me some more of it I

1. Is there usually 210 // sound before consonants in English?

2. 110 what positions is a linking /r/ used 110 R.p?

3,10100230 Patterns
3.1 Definition ‫م‬٤ Intonation
As we have seen in Unit 1, intonation is the distinctive use
0٤ pitch 0‫ ا‬melody. 1110 ‫ ا‬:‫ا ى‬159‫ ل‬English 10 three main purposes.‫ال‬
can be used as a signal of grammatical structure, where ‫ اذ‬has a 1019
similar to punctuation in writing; 1‫ ا‬can be used to show grammatical
contrasts, e٠g٠ the difference between statements and questions; and
11 can be used ٤0 convey the attitude of the speaker.
Intonation 15 very closely related ٤0 stress. ٢٧111 ٢٧‫ ح‬give some
examples here ٤0 try to show 100٧ the ٤5٧0 differ. Let’s 100 at the
following sentence:

John came here

In ٤1015 sentence each 0٤ its three words can receive the main
sentence stress, thus the sentence could be said in any 01 these ways:
John came here. (9100002815 010 John)
John ‫؛‬came here, (emphasis on came)
001010 came ‫؛‬here, (emphasis 011 here)

Intonation 15 different. The rise and fall of the voice during

60090 convey a different type of meaning from stress. In the example
above, the 601101000 said with a rising pitch is ‫ ه‬question:

Unit Fie Connected Speech

 ،John came here. f

Whereas if it ‫ لنهة هذ‬with a falling pitch, it is 2 statement

‘John came here. ‫ل‬

Exercise (7) [70

Listen to the following utterances 20‫ ل‬indicate whether the
last stressed syllable falls 0 rises.
1. The prisoner has escaped.
2. The book 5725 stolen.
3. Have all the students passed?
4. 11‫ل ه‬0‫ ي‬was barking.
5. 15 it 100 expensive?

SAQ٠(S) (20
1. How does intonation differ from stress?
2. What are the main purposes of intonation?

3.2 Tonic Syllables

We have 59910 1002 110 connected speech, we 00 00٤ maintain the
same voice quality throughout the entire utterance. Within long words,
some syllables are louder and longer than others. In connected speech,
some words are stressed 0111 others ‫ همه‬unstressed.‫هر‬٤ the same time,
when we speak, we 00 00‫ ا‬say 211 the words 110 the same 10119. Some
words are uttered at a higher or lower tone than others. The tone 011
which a sound is said is the pitch 01 that sound. Pitch refers 0 the rate
of vibration 0٤ the vocal cords. The 112001 the vibration, the higher 1100
pitch. Thus sounds are either 51‫ ل‬with 8 high pitch 01 a low pitch. Two
patterns 0٤pitch are normally recognized: rising and falling. Arising
pitch refers to the rising of one’s voice from ‫ ه‬falling note. In contrast, a
falling pitch refers to the falling 0٤one’s voice from a rising note. ٢٧1910

Unit Five Connected Speech

we 842 ‫ ل‬long 50014 such 48 "examination", our voice goes up (rises
10100 105‫ ه‬٧ note) 00 the fourth syllable /nei/. 110 fact, this 15 the syllable
that receives the primary stress in this word. Thus, pitch 15 associated
with stress. We can distinguish between the noun and ٧910 1011005 01
"insult, permit, suspect, etc.” by pitch patterns. The 001110 101100 15 said
with a falling pitch, the verb with 8 rising pitch.
110 speaker’s pitch (voice quality) 0210 provide information
about his sex, 1015 20‫ ع‬and 1015 mental state. A listener easily distinguishes
whether 19 speaker 15 a boy, a woman 01 a man from 100 pitch of voice.
110 addition, 0100 0211 recognize the speaker’s mental state, whether 100 15
happy, angry, depressed, etc. Suppose that someone shouts ‫ اه‬another
00018010 asking 101100 10 ،،get out”. The extraordinary high pitch 0٤ that
person implies that he is displeased and that 100 is kicking the other
person out 0٤ 1015 place.

Exercise (8) 20
Underline the syllable which is uttered with ‫ ه‬rising pitch in the
following words:
Phonology electrical photography evaluation
Feature geographic insult(v.) permit (n.)
Syllabic

SAQs (6)
1. 1105٧ can pitch 11010 US 110 connected discourse?
θ
2. 110٧ can 01108 pitch help 8‫ ال‬knew about his feeling?

3.3 Intonation Patterns

We 1‫ لذه‬mention here the most common English intonation
patterns. These are: (115 110‫ ي‬intonation” when 100 pitch 01 ‫ا‬0‫ ه‬voice rises,
and “falling intonation” when the 010 falls. There are 4180 variations
0٤ 11089 ٤500. However, we limit ourselves here to the most important
part 0٤ 1٤0110 ‫ ه‬group; that 100 ‫ ى‬syllable or syllables that undergo
significant changes of pitch.

243
Unit Five Connected speech
 Accordingly, four 1008110 intonational patterns can 000 recognized.
These are termed falling, 115 110‫ وع‬falling - rising ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬rising - falling.
Each 15 2‫ ى‬associated with a particular type of utterance 28 elaborated
below.

3.3.1 Falling Intonational Pattern

This pattern is marked with a 1211 of the voice from a high pitch 0‫ا‬
a relatively very 10٧ pitch 011 the 128‫ ا‬stressed word. 1‫ ا‬is typical 0٤ the
following:
1. Short sentences intended ٤0 convey information
Example: 1 like coffee. John 18 a journalist.
2. Wh questions
Example: What 15 your name?
3. Imperatives
Example: Sit!
4 Exclamations
Example: What a nice dress!
5. Question tags
Example: You like coffee, don’t you?

3.3.2 Rising Intonational Pattern

1115 pattern 18 indicated by a rise in the voice 110100 a very 105٧
note ٤0 2 relatively very high note 010 the last stressed syllable or the
syllable following it. 11015 pattern is typical 0٤ the following:
1. Statements intended ٤0 encourage the listener
Example: come 010‫ و‬you can make it.
2. Yes - no question
Example: 100 you like coffee?
3. Questions showing sympathy
Example: What ‫ حمه‬you going 007 0‫ا‬
4. Question tags (When the speaker expects 2 negative reply.)
Example: You liked that movie, didn’t you?
5. Incomplete sentence (٧10910 the speaker intends 0 continue.)
Example: When 1 went out...

Unit Five Connected Speech

 15٧0 types of rising intonation can be recognized: 105٧ - rise and
high - 115٥. 1100 105٧ - rise pattern is typical 0٤ yes - 100 questions,
especially 01011 one expects confirmation 0 denial 01 1015 information,
as 110 the following example:
Will you graduate 109* year?
The high - rise pattern is typical of elliptical questions (questions
110 5011010 901009 elements are deleted)، Here 15 an example:
Coming? (Are you coming?)
Taxi? (100 you want ‫ ه‬taxi?)

3.3.3 Falling - Rising Intonational Pattern

Here, there 15 01 1211 ‫ ه‬the voice 110110 a high 00110 ‫ ح‬a very 10٢5٧
one, and then ‫ ه‬rise from the low note to ‫ ه‬very high 0100 again. 111‫ى‬
pattern can fall 010 one word or several words, with 1100 fall of the
voice 011 one word and the rise on 100 following word. 1100 syllables
110 between these 100 words must 06 010 ‫ ه‬621‫ ل‬very 105٧ pitch.
11015 pattern is used 101 the following:
1. Correcting other people
Example: You surely want the briefcase 101 you.
00 00. It’s for my son.
2. Showing differences of opinion
Example: 1115 15 ‫ ه‬cheap watch.
Oh 100. 1‫ ى‬very expensive.
3. Implying something else
Example: The worker 1٥1٤ angrily. (The speaker implies
that the worker may not 10110 up the next day).

3.3.4 Rising - Falling Intonational Pattern

According to this pattern, which is 1998 00100100010 than 00 previous
ones, the voice first rises 10100 ‫ ه‬low note and then falls 110100 2 very
high note. We use this pattern to 9*101955 certainty as opposed to doubt,
as 110 saying:
1115 name 18٨11.
(11 1 am certain about the person’s name.)

Unit Five Connected Speech

 As mentioned above, these basic intonational patterns
perform important grammatical and attitudinal functions.

Exercise(,)
Identify the kind 01 intonational pattern appropriate 10 the
0
following sentences.
She works 1 ‫ ه‬bank
What was that noise?
You play golf, don’t 1100) 017‫ ل‬speaker expects the listener to
disagree with 103100).
190 you play golf?
Stand up! (meant 48 4 threat)
Follow me! (meant 48 80 order)
I heard him say...
٨: 1115 ‫ اه‬a lovely place.
13:1 don’t think so.
How beautiful the picture 15!
Coming?‫س‬

20) ‫ل س‬ >7
1. What are the 100210 intonational patterns?
2. 110 what communicative context 1010‫ هح و‬used?

4. Discourse Function of Intonation

110 connected discourse, intonation can perform two major
functions: grammatical and attitudinal. These are explained below,
albeit briefly.

Grammatical function
Some utterances can have 15٧0 possible meanings. Intonation can
help resolve 10 potential ambiguity of such utterances. Look at the
following 00 statements. Brackets are 900010090 to enclose the words
which belong ٤0 the same tone group.

Unit Five Connected Speech

 2. [Cheating students] 2110 teachers were punished.
b. [Cheating students and teachers] were punished.

According ٤0 sentence "a", only "students” were "cheating"; 110 “b”

both ،،students 211‫ ل‬teachers" were ((cheating". Here, the ambiguity 0٤
the‫ ؛‬statement 15 resolved by lumping together the words, which belong
to the same tone group. Similarly, intonation 810‫ ن‬demarcate the subject
and predicate boundaries, as 110 the following example:
[Fred and Mary] [went to the party].

11‫ ه‬subject which consists 01 1100 noun phrase "Fred and May'
constitutes a single ٤00‫ ه‬group; the predicate which is made up 01 the
verb phrase (‘went 0‫ ا‬the party” constitutes another tone group. By
0‫ ج‬same token, intonation can demarcate clause boundary. This 15 an
example:
[When he approached] [the ‫ل‬0‫ ع‬started barking]. When these two
clauses are uttered 25 two separate tone groups the listener/reader 810‫ن‬
easily determine the clause boundary which separates the dependent
100110 the independent clause. 110 addition, using the proper intonation,
the hearer can know whether the adjective 'old” 110 the phrase “old cars
and houses” 000011195 “cars” only or both “cars” and “houses”.

Attitudinal unction
٨5 pointed out 110 3.3 above the basic intonational patterns reflect
the speaker’s mental and emotional state. Therefore, the speaker varies
his intonation according to 115 intended meaning, attitude and feeling.
٨8 pointed out, one can say the imperative “sit down” 110 different
intonational patterns to mean a command, a polite invitation 01 threat.
Normally, when people are excited they use rising intonation; when
they are 5201 ‫ ل‬depressed, they use falling intonation. However, these
two intonational patterns besides the other 01198 can be employed 10
5e0ve other functions. For example, we 1050 ‫ ه‬falling intonation with the
words, which we think express given (014) information whereas we use
a rising information with the portion of the utterance 50101010 we believe
conveys new information. Given information refers to 103‫ ا‬information
already mentioned 110 the previous discourse; 109٢5٧ information, 011 1100

Unit Five
٦٩٩
Connected Speech
other 12018 ,‫ ل‬the information we mention 101 the first 111000. Supposing
that one 5٧48 talking about gases, 50 when 1 says:
Oxygen 15 ‫ ه‬gas
he should 64‫‘؛ ل‬oxygen" 010 ‫ ه‬rising pitch and “gas" 010 a falling one.
110 015 29‫" وه‬oxygen" 1‫ ى‬the new information while “gas” is the given
information (the topic). But, 11 he 5٧48 discussing the properties of
oxygen, he should say the same utterance as:
Oxygen is a gas
110 this case, “oxygen" 15 the topic (given information) ‫ه‬11‫“ ل‬gas" 15 the
comment 01٦ that topic (i.e. new information).
Thus, a speaker can emphasize the part 01 the utterance which 110
believes ٤0 be more important 01 conveys new information.
In addition, 0‫ ل‬saying the same utterance with two different
intonational patterns, the speaker expresses two different meanings 01
attitudes. 11101 ‫ و‬example, he says the utterance
John is a teacher, isn’t he?
with a falling intonation 010 “teacher” and the question tag “isn’t he”,
the speaker demands information. But if he says the same utterance
with ‫ ه‬rising intonation 010 the question tag, then the speaker wants 1015
uncertainty cleared.
‫ ه‬falling intonation 110 certain communicative settings may express
an impolite attitude. If, for instance, 010‫ ه‬met 20 010 1110104 after a long
time by saying
Nice to see you
his falling intonation 15 4 sign of a very ‫ن‬01‫ ل‬welcome. 00 the other
hand, using ‫ ه‬rising intonation displays the speaker’s warm welcome
‫ه‬0‫ ل‬eagerness. Similarly, 11 someone says
Bellow
٤0 someone else, his falling intonation again represents ‫ن ه‬45‫ ه‬of mistaken
identity. 110 contrast, the same utterance said with a rising intonation
expresses the ordinary greeting.
When calling 115 student’s names, a teacher normally uses a falling
intonation 10 attract their attention. But 11 100 gets mad at someone called
Smith, he would most probably say the name as follows:
Smith!
111‫ ى‬rising intonation reflects his indignation and 1٤ sounds more 11‫حا‬
‫ ه‬threat.
Unit Five 248 Connected Speech
Exercise (10) 2
Explain the two possible meanings of each of the following
utterances 25 implied 00‫ ل‬the 0‫ال‬5‫ ح‬٤brackets.
1.2. They [are cooking] apples.
0. They are [cooking apples].
2.2. [Rebellious men and women] were arrested.
0. [Rebellious men] and women were arrested.
3.2. [Flying planes] can be dangerous.
0. [Flying] planes 109 210‫ ن‬dangerous.
4,2 [What did you eat, John?]
b. [What did you eat], John?
Exercise (11) 0

Read the following utterances, indicating the speaker’s attitude

as shown by the given intonational pattern
1.. Good morning. 0. Good morning.
2.2. (Someone wants to know whether 219 ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬going to the party,
and you reply): Perhaps.
0. (If, while someone is speaking, you say): Perhaps.
3. What is the difference between the following two intonational
patterns, and which one 1‫ ى‬more polite 10 use.
‫ه‬. Your name 1‫ و‬Sami?
b. Your name is Sami?

Exercise (12)
Identify the meaning of the word “yes” as indicated 0٧ 1110 given
intonation:
2. ٧‫ىح‬
b. Yes
c. Yes
‫ل‬. Yes
‫و‬. Yes

249
Unit Five Connected Speech
SAQs (8) 20
1. What 15 intonation?
2. What fimctions 0005 10‫ه‬ intonation perform 110 connected
discourse?

^‫'مهأع'خأجاأأ'اا!ااااااو;ا؛؛‬
Changing word - 610200 refers to the fact that the pronunciation
‫ه‬
of word may 100 altered not only under the influence 0 stress, 5 0 ٤ ‫ال ل ه‬
have seen 110 the weak forms above, but 2150 under the influence of
٤
nearby sounds. This feature which 15 characteristic 0 quick speech has
already been discussed under assimilation and elision (see Section 2
above). However, in this section, you ٧111 be given more examples and
more exercises. These include changes in word - shape at the word
level and the word group level.

5.1 At the Word level

‫ل‬
1. Replacing voiced sounds 0 voiceless sound, e.g.
/nju:z 00102/ 090010005 /nju:s peipə/ newspaper
/widθ/ becomes /7110/ width
/ra:zbəri/ becomes /ra:sbəri/ raspberry
2. Nasal consonants influencing plosives, e.g.
٤
/kainness / instead 0 kaindnes / kindness
/grænmʌðə/ instead of /grændmʌðə/ grandmother.
3. Changing tongue - position 110 the production 01 a consonant, e.g.
/broukŋ/ instead of /broukən/ broken
/110/ instead 0 /tʃikin/ chicken
4. Replacing the alveolar consonant /10/ by 00 labial
consonant/m/e.g.
/0100100/ instead of /oupən/ open
/tempens / instead of / tenpens / tenpence.
5. Dropping ‫ ه‬consonant (45 2 simplification of consonant
clusters, .‫ع‬.
/ka:sl / for / ka:stel / castle
/sofn/ for /softən/ soften.
Unit Five 50 Connected Speech
 5.2 ٨٤ the Word - Group Level
1. Before /10, 0100 ‫و‬/, the following changes take place:
/10/ replaces /t/, e.g. right place /ra:ppleis/
/0/ replaces /0/, 100‫ ل^طلووو‬/‫ ع‬hoi/
/m/ replaces /n/. ten men / tern 100910/
2. Before /k, ‫ع‬/‫ و‬the following changes take 01209:
/k/ replaces /‫أ‬/, e.g٠ that girl /ðæk g :1/
/g/ replaces /4/, e.g. bad cold /bæg could/
3. Before /1109 /‫ وم‬00‫ و‬1‫ ع وك‬following changes take place: /
nt/ and /100/ are pronounced /11010, mb, ŋk, 10‫ع‬/ as the
case may be, e.g.
Plant pot /pla:mppot/
Stand back /stæmbæk/
Plant carrots /pla:ŋk karəts/
Stand guard /stag ga:d/
4. Before /‫زا‬/ the following changes take place:
/f/ replaces /5/ e.g. nice shoes /naij ju:z/
/5/ replaces /29/, e.g. where’s vours /weə^ jo:z/
5. Final /t/ after /s/ or /f/ (25 in last or eft) is omitted before:
2. stop consonants, e.g. atn /la:s 14:100/
liftboy /lifboi/
b. nasal consonants, e.g. ^9911000/0095 1002010/
softmatress /sof mates/
c. fiction consonants, e.g. west side /wes said/
left shoe /lefu:/

6. final /d/ in /nd/ or /md/ is often omitted before:

‫ه‬. nasal consonants, e.g. blind man /blain 1002010/
b. voiced stop consonants, e.g. stand guard /stæn
gad he climbed back /hi: klaim bask/.

Other changes (replacements or omissions) also take place but

these are less common than those mentioned above. It 15 100‫ ا‬necessary
101 you to 1‫ل‬60 20‫ ل‬of the other changed forms. As 10 those mentioned

251
Unit Five Connected speech
200٧‫ و‬you should listen very carefully whenever they are used and you
should 4180 practice using them.

Exercise (13)
Read the following words and groups 0٤ words then transcribe
them phonetically first ٢5٧10 suitable changes in word --shape and then
without these changes:
2. breath

b. in ten minutes

c. used to

‫ ه‬I can go

e. gooseberry

‫م‬ I should think so

g. grandmother

‫ ر‬I ve almost finished

: bacon

: I must go

k. during

l. breakfast time

٣ ribbon

Unit Five Connected Speech

 1٦. next Monday

0 open

pf bread and butter

q. convenience

٣ I don’t believe it

s. empty

1. thanked

SAQs (9)
1. When 00 changes 110 word - 5112100 usually take place?
2. Does changing word - shape mean changing 0100 sound into another
‫ل‬
or dropping one sound or both?

6. British and American English

Accent refers 10 the way of pronouncing 110 600105 210‫ ل‬utterances
of a language. We can tell where ‫ ه‬person comes from, 110 other words,
accent indicates the country or probably the region a speaker 010095
from. One’s accent may even 0‫ ه‬different from that 0٤ another person
speaking the same accent.
Generallyspeaking, twomajoraccentsofEnglishcanberecognized:
the British and the American, though there 0٤ 10‫ ه‬course various accents
110 Britain and America as 50011 as 110 other English speaking countries.
However, 119 differences between these two accents are 001020‫ ا‬٧ and
can 0‫ ه‬easily recognized 10‫ ل‬foreign learners of English.
The differences between the two accents take place 110 the
production 0 certain consonant and vowel sounds. 110 addition, a few

Unit Five Connected speech

words may have different pronunciation 0‫ ل‬speakers 0٤ those accents.
All the consonants ofEnglish are pronounced the same in isolation.
But 110 connected speech, some sounds may be pronounced differently
0‫ آل‬speakers of those accents. Such differences are summed up 010٧
Ixl
111‫ ى‬1‫ لى‬an alveolar sound 110 British, and a retroflex 110 American
English. ٨0 alveolar 18 made by the tongue ‫ س‬tip and the alveolar ridge,
01‫ أل‬a retroflex is made by curling the tongue - tip ٤0 the back 0٤ the
alveolar ridge.
110 13111511 English, 018 sound 15 dropped from the middle and end
0٤ words unless followed by a vowel, but it is retained 110 all positions 110
American English. 1115 applies 10 single words and connected speech
as 61005٧10 in the following examples:
British English American English
/ka:/ (car) /ka:r/
/4:100/(21100) /4:1100/

/pa:kðə ka:r 111 /6200:/ /pə:kə ea:r 1063 810:1/

(Park the car 110 the store.)

The /r/ is uttered 25 a (11111 110 some varieties 0٤ Scottish English.

A rill sound is made with the tongue-tip - tip against the back of the
upper front teeth 45 the final sound in the Arabic 001‫ ل‬/hur/ (free)
The /٤/ 15 uttered as an alveolar sound 110 211 contexts by speakers
of British English. 110 American English, 010 the other hand, this sound
is uttered as a ‘tap, 110 certain contexts. A tap, which is made 5٧1090 the
tongue tip makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge, takes place 110
the middle 0٤words. For example, when the /t/ occurs between 6 stressed
vowel and an unstressed syllable, it is pronounced 45 4 /d/ as 110 Tetter’.
110 addition, 1٤the /t/ is preceded by an /1/ as 110 ‘dirty’, Americans would
utter 1٤ 2‫ ى‬a ‘flap’ which is ‫ ه‬sound made by curling the tongue 000‫ ا‬for
the /r/ 000 flapping against the back of the alveolar ridge as 1‫ ا‬returns
٤0 its position.
110 the pronunciation 01 vowels, however both varieties
demonstrate some differences. 11‫ ح‬/a:/ sound 110 ٤ word “half’ as said

254
Unit Five Connected Speech
by a British 151091151 speaker is pronounced as /110 8 .1.9) / ‫" هه‬cat,,) by an
American. 1115 does not necessarily mean 1‫ أه‬this vowel 15 pronounced
this way by Americans wherever 1٤ occurs. 10 example, both 1311151
and American speakers pronounce this vowel /a:/ 111 words such ‫" ى‬car,
far, tar, etc.”. 1٤ seems that the /2:/ sound tends 10 be pronounced 25 /20
/ 110 American English 5011010 ‫م‬٤ occurs before a fricative 25 110 "graph",
‫ م‬class”, ‫؛؛‬bath”, etc. This may not necessarily apply 10 211 such contexts.
You can consult ‫ ه‬standard dictionary to know the difference between
1811٤1510 and American English 110 this respect.
Another difference between these two varieties of English lies
110 1100 sound /o/ 28 in ‫؛؛‬hot”. ٢٧10110 British speakers pronounce 125 ‫ أ‬/o/,
Americans tend 10 pronounce it more like /2:/ 45 110 ‫؛؛‬far”.
Finally, the /j/ 210‫ ل‬the long vowel /u:/ as 10 ‫؛؛‬new” 15 01000101004
by Americans as ‫د‬:/, thus deleting the /j/ sound.
There are variations in the stress location between the two accents.
As pointed out above, the word ‫؛؛‬laboratory” has two pronunciations.
British speakers pronounce it as /læbo,rətri/ and American speakers 52‫آل‬
it ‫ ىه‬/læborə to:ri/. Thus, Americans tend ٤0 lay the stress 110 such words
on the last syllable while British speakers put 1010 ‫ ا‬the second syllable.
Therefore, you should be able ٤0 distinguish one’s accent 25
being British or American 110 the light of these differences. Accent, 25
mentioned above, tells what 102100 ‫ ه‬speaker belongs ٤0.

Exercise (14) (71

Indicate how each word would be pronounced 110 British 211‫ل‬
American English.
1. later
2. laugh
3. glass
4. 00٤
5. where
6. knew
7. mandatory

2‫ة‬5
٢‫ن!ل‬٤ Five Connected speech
SAQs (10) (20

Find ٢001‫ ىلم‬which demonstrate the main differences between British

-andAmerican accents...____________________ -___________________________

7. Arabic English Contrast

110 Unit 3 ,we discussed some contrasts between English and Arabic
consonants 010 the 0100 hand, 20‫ ل‬some contrasts between English ‫ه‬11‫ل‬
Arabic vowels 010 the other. 110 101‫ ى‬section, we will discuss Arabic -
English contrasts in the supra - segmental features, particularly stress,
rhythm and intonation. We will 0‫ ي‬through this 111 some 110010 detail 110
Unit 7‫ و‬among problematic areas.
Like English, Arabic has three levels of stress: primaiy, secondary
and weak stress, but since the primary stress 18 the 0100 that affects
pronunciation and communication, 10 this section, we ٢٧111 deal with
it only. 110 Arabic, like English, word stress varies a great deal. ٨ word
0٤ one syllable receives ‫ ه‬primary stress, e.g. /0214/ (cold), ‫؛‬Ta:r/ (he
flew), /2 0:/ (10). Words 01 two 0[ three 51101٤ syllables ‫ هيها‬a primary
stress on 100 first syllable, eg. /kataba/ (1‫ ه‬wrote). ٨ multi - syllable
word takes ‫ ه‬primary stress 011 00‫ ل‬last syllable 11 this last syllable 15
long e.g. /yaktu’bun/ (they write), but 11 ‫ الم‬15 100‫ ا‬long, the stress 14115
010 1‫ اىه‬long syllable 110 the word, e.g. /'ka:tib/ (writer).
Sentence stress 110 Arabic, generally speaking, is the cumulative
result ‫ مم‬the stresses 010 the various words 111 the sentence. However,
as with English, 501010 special emphasis is ‫ا‬0 0‫ ه‬indicated, the sentence
stress becomes movable, e.g.
/,sa:mi: wajada muna/ ( Sami found Muna) (Stress 011 Sami).
/sa:mi: wajada muna/ ( Sami found Muna) (Stress on wajada).
/ sa:mi: wajada ‫؛‬muna/ ( Sami found Muna) (Stress 011 Muna).
٨5 far 25 rhythm is concerned, Arabic has a syllable - timed rhythm
unlike English which has a stress timed rhythm (500 Section 1.3 above).
This situation of course causes difficulty to Arab learners. For example,
/’hi: ‫؛‬went ٤0 ‫؛‬ski/ (100 went ٤0 school) became /2101: ‫؛‬went ‫؛‬tu: ‫؛‬ski/.
1115 especially 15 what makes Arab students pronounce English with an
Arabic accent.

Unit Eve Connected Speech

 Another problem is failure to adopt weak vowels 11٦ connected
speech. 101‫ ؟‬example, 10 sentence "Today 1 want to 8005٧ you the
anatomy of ‫ ه‬horse" 15 pronounced: / tu:dei ai ‘want ٤ً‫ال‬: ......../
instead of/tə ,deiə wnttə ‫ ال‬oujə.٠٠٠/٠
Finally, the main intonation patterns 11٦ English, namely the rise
and fall seem 10 coincide with those 0٤ Arabic. However, this 18 only
8 generalization and one can End some differences between the main
intonation patterns 110 English 211‫ ل‬Arabic. Tag questions 10 Arabic
have always a rising intonation whereas 110 English they may be rising
when the speaker 15 expecting agreement 10100 the listener and a falling
intonation when the speaker demands (rather than expects) agreement.
Another difference 15 111 the call pattern of intonation; 111 English this
pattern 15 2 high rise 11 the name is stressed 010 the last syllable, e.g.
Marie, Monroe. Eugene. Bernice, whereas other names like Haw
Jane, etc. 10‫ له‬take 1110 same 0[ ‫ حال‬high 1211 (the latter 011011 used 101 ‫ه‬
threatening attitude). 110 Arabic, the most commonly - used pattern 15
the 1٦191 211. For more problems 110 this area see Unit 7.

Exercise (15)
Rewrite the following words indicating the stress, first as nouns
and adjectives and then 45 verbs
Word Noun/Adjective Verb
!.Abstract -------------------------- ------------------------
Accent -------------------------- ------------------------
3. Digest -------------------------- ------------------------
Transfer -------------------------- ------------------------
5. Absent -------------------------- ------------------------
6. Present -------------------------- ------------------------
7. Subject -------------------------- ------------------------
8. Con nt -------------------------- ------------------------
9. Import -------------------------- ------------------------
10٠ Export -------------------------- ------------------------

257
Unit Five Connected Speech
Exercise (16) 20
Rewrite the following sentences indicating the stress 010 000
underlined words.
1. The transport 0 102‫ ل‬goods 15 expensive.

2. We can’t transport the whole of the furniture.

3. 1119 article is 10 export only.

4 We try to xprt as much as possible.

5. Language is an interesting subject.

Exercise(!,) ‫لكا‬

Listen ٤0 the tape and identify the intonation pattern (falling,

rising, falling, rising 01 rising- falling):
1. That 15 the dining room.
2. What did you see?
3. That is right.
4. It was lovely.
5. She is flying to Greece.
6. Do you live near here?
7. Watch the traffic lights.
I\ 8li). ɪ
You cant really mean it, can you?
9. You know hmɪ^tɔ you?

SAQs (11) (20

1. What is the main differences between English ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬Arabic word

stress?
2. 1105٧ 0005 sentence rhythm differs in Arabic and English?
3. ٧1‫ اه‬are two main intonation patterns that are similar 10 English
and Arabic?

Unit Five Connected speech

 ».Overview
This unit has 0021٤ with aspects 01 connected speech namely,
assimilation, rhythm, elision, linking /r/, intonation 211‫ ل‬changing
word shape. 110 addition, 50110 differences between British and
American Englishes were discussed, Arabic - English contrasts were
exemplified.

9. Preview of Unit Six

The following unit. Unit 6‫ و‬deals ٢٧1100 varieties of English.
The main varieties, namely regional, dialects, social dialects, standard
English, national varieties and foreign accents, will 00 discussed. 110
addition, pidgin 104‫ ه‬creole 010 the 0100 102110 and styles and registers 00
the other will be examined.

10. Answer-key
Exercise (1)
(Without assimilation) (with assimilation)
2. /gudmo:niŋ/ , /21001000:10110/
b. Zonmaioun/, /010010021 01110/
c. zʤʌstʃʌtðə do: z, zʤʃʃʌtðədo:z
0. zdʌstʃi:t/ , /dʌʃʃi:t/
e. /butʃəzʃop/ , / butʃə opz
f. Zai dount baiit/, Zaidoumbaiit/
g. zpli:zʃʌtðədo:z, /pli:ʒʃʌtðədo:/
1. Zaika : nt gou/, Zaika : ŋ gouZ
i. Zai ka:nt get ətz, / 2114: 01‫ ك‬get ətz
j. inbedZ , ZimbedZ

Exercise (2)
a. She’s gone back.
0. He’s got a bad cold.
c. This year is good.

259
Unit Five Connected speech
 ‫ل‬. Where’s your book?
1 .‫ ه‬was not me.

Exercise (3)
(without elision) (5٧1 101151010)
a. /ai 104 ‫ل‬0‫ ر‬nou/ ‫و‬ /ai doun nou/
b. /fi‫ ؛‬ənd t]ips/ ‫و‬ /fiʃ əntʃips/
c. /nekst wi:k/ ‫و‬ /neks wi:k/
d. /brek fest taim/ ‫و‬ /brekfestaim/
e. ðəpoustmən keim 1011/ ‫و‬ /ðəpous mən keim hiə/

Exercise (4)
(without assimilation elision) (with assimilation 01 elision)
2. /mai grad a: ə/ , /mai gr ænfa: ə/
b.
Zintenminits/ , /intemminits/
. /bredænd bʌtə/ ‫و‬ /brednbʌtə/
1. /la:st nait/ ‫و‬ θa:snait/
e. /bægænd bægiʤ/ ‫و‬ /bægənb gʤ/
f. /aiv olmou st fimʃt/ , /aiv o: lmous hniʃt/
g. /ai dountbili:vj u:/ , /ai doump bili:vju: /
h. /ai mʌst gou/ ‫و‬ /ai mʌs gou/
i. /ðəfotbo: lɪnætʃ/ , /ðəfob 0:1 mastʃ/
j٠/nekst mʌndi/ ‫و‬ /neks mdi/

Exercis (5)
a, /hi: 5002 ‘vertem 10:2110 ٤‫ز‬/
b. /ʃi: ‘pleiz ‘veri ،wel/
. /haudidju : 'mnidʒtə 0165/
11311) 5022 ‫ل‬. /1‫‘ أ‬gud (1111:1/
٥. /it wOz ə,riəli ‘pleznt d:vniŋ/
f. /hi: wəz (ʤʌst ،ten/
‫ي‬. /teikittə'ʤonsən/

Unit five
260
Connected 8109021
 Exercise (6)
‫ه‬. /ʃa:r ofpeiʃə/
b. /raitərand pouit/
c. /mai mʌðər əndəst a:ndzðis/
d. /mai fa:ðəriz veri æŋgri/
e. /hiərənd ðeə/
f. /westminəstər abi/
‫ع‬. /mai ti:tʃər ənd fa:ðə/
hl /puər ould tom/
u/maibrʌðər i:ts 10‫ و‬٤/
/gimmi:
j. sʌm mɑ:rovit/

Exercise (7)
1. The last syllable falls.
2. 110 last syllable falls.
3. The last syllable rises.
4. The last syllable falls.
5. The last syllable rises

Exercise (8)
phonology feature
electrical geogaphic
photography insult
evaluation permit
sylabic

Exercise (9)
She works ‫ ه اه‬bank. (Falling)
What was that noise? (Rising)
You play golf, don’t you? (Falling)
100 0‫ ال‬play golf? (Rising)
Standup! (Falling)
Follow me! (Falling)
I heard him say... (Rising)

------------------- ----- 961 ‫سسسسسسسسسسس‬

Unit Five Connected Speech
 ‫هم‬: That’s ‫ ه‬lovely place.
13: 1 40111٤ think 80. (Falling- Rising)
How beautiful the picture 15! (Falling)
Coming? (Rising)

Exercise (10)
1. a٠ Some people are cooking apples.
0. 1109 apples are good for cooking.
2. a. Both men 210‫ ل‬Women are described as rebellious.
. Only 00010 are described as rebellious.
3. 2. Planes ٧1010 fly can ‫ هط‬dangerous.
0. 10 11‫ ل‬planes can 0‫ ه‬dangerous.
4. a. I want to know if you ate John.
٦. 1 want to know what John ate.

Exercise (11)
1. a. Rather uninterested.
0. very interested.
2. 2. It’s possible that 1 may 10 0‫ ي‬the party.
0. Did 0‫ ال‬say perhaps?
3. a. I don’t believe you.
b. A polite question.

Exercise (12)
2. The answer is yes.
0. Did you say yes?
‫ن‬. Please go on I am listening to you.
d. Imdoubtful.
e. I’m certain.

Exercise (13)
(with changes 110 word-shape) (without changes 111 word- shape)
a. /bretθ/ /bredθ/
b. /interm minits/ /intenminits/

Unit Five Connected speech

 c. /ju:sttə/ /01:2 ٤‫ا‬9/

c. /aikəŋgou/ /aikəngɑu/
d. /gu:sben/ /gu:z beri/
e. /aiʃud 0110 sou/ /aiʃud θiŋk sou/
£ /grænmʌðə/
/:٧01‫ر‬0‫م‬0‫وس‬/‫زمر‬٤/ /a:olmoust fɪniʃt/
g.
h٠ /beikəm/ /beikən/
i. /ain)ʌsgou/ /aimAst gou/
‫ل‬. /ʤuəriŋ/ /‫ زل‬uəriŋ/
k٠ /brekfa:staim/ /brekfalsttaim/
101 /ribəm/ /ribən/

Exercise (14)
British American
l,leitə leidə
2. la:f lsef
3. gla.'s giass
4. kot kot
weər
6. nju: nu:
7. ɪnændətri mændəo:ri

Exercise (15)
N/A V

1 (abstract abstract
2 (accent accent
3 ‫؛‬digest digest
4 ‫؛‬transfer transfer
5. absent absent
6. (present present
7 ‫؛‬subject subect
8 ‫؛‬content content
9 ‫؛‬import im’port

263
Unit Five Connected Speech
 10. ٤90011 ex’port

Exercise ،16)
1. ------------—- ،transport
2. ------------------ transport
3. --------------٧٥*1001‫ا‬---
4. ------------------ ex’port —■
5. —-———-‘subject —

Exercise ،17١
1. falling
2. rising
3. rising-falling
4. falling-rising
5. falling
6. rising
7. falling
8. falling
9. rising
10. falling ____
‫؟‬.References ®
1. O’Conner, J٠D٠ (1978) New Phonetic Readings, Rem:
Francke.
2( O’Conner 1980) 10.‫)ل‬ Better English Pronunciation,
Cambridge University Press.
3. Roach, 10 (1985) English Phonetics and Phonology: A
Practical Course^ 3٢d ed.,London: Oxford University Press.

264
Unit Five Connected 5022٤

::::‫ت‬٦‫ي‬٦٦.‫ل‬٦.‫سم‬٠-‫تي‬-:٣٦^‫“'ئ;ت‬٦٦:‫ت‬:‫ب‬:^:;:‫;؛آل‬٦٦٠-‫'ى‬:-‫تتكتي؛؛‬:ً‫;ًاا‬:٦
 Unit Six
HSBSag
Unit Six Varieties 0٤ English
 Contents
Subject Page
1. Introduction 26‫و‬
1.1 Proview 269
1.2 Objectives 269
1.3 Contents 269
1.4 Methodology 270
15Audio-Visual Aids 21)
16 Evaluation 271
1.7 Supplementary heading 271

2. 1105٧ Many "Englishes"? 271

3. Varieties of English 274

3.1 Regional Dialects 274
3.2 Social Dialects (215
3.3 Standard English )1]
3.4 National Varieties )18
3.5 Foreign Accents 21‫و‬

4. Special Types of English 283

4.1 Pidgin and Creole 283
4.2 Styles and Registers 284

5 Overview 286
6. Proview of Unit Seven 286
7. Answer-Key 287
8. References 291

Unit 51*
26] Varieties 0٤ English
Unit 5:* Varieties of English
 1. production
1.1 Preview
Unit 6 09215 with varieties 0٤ English. The 1002110 varieties, namely
regional dialects, social dialects, standard English, national varieties
and foreign accents will be discussed. 110 addition, pidgin and creole 010
the one hand and styles and registers on the other will be examined.

1.2 Objectives___________________________
Upon completing this unit, students are expected ٤0:
1. 1000010120 different varieties 01 English,
2. identify the differences between various regional, social and other
dialects,
3. understand the specific nature and importance 01 standard
English,
4. be aware 0٤the existence 0٤national varieties (Eritish, American,
etc.) of English,
5. recognize foreign accents 10 English and understand the reason
behind them,
6. be specially aware 01 10‫ ه‬phonological differences 110 the various
dialects above, and
7. 1000910120 styles, registers and "special” kinds 0‫ ا‬English (e.g.,
pidgin and creole).

1.3 Contents
1. 110٧ many (Englishes”?
2. Varieties of English.
2.1 Regional Dialects.
2.2 Social Dialects.
2.3 Standard English
2.4 National Varieties
2.5 Foreign Accents.
3. Special Types of English
3.1 Pidgin and Creole
3.2 Styles and Registers

269
Unit Six Varieties of English
 1.4 Methodology
110 addition 10 10‫ ه‬general procedures 211‫ ل‬techniques described
above, the following are recommended 10‫ م‬this unit.
1. Present 011 tape (or read aloud) excerpts from various dialects 01
English and ask the students 10 identify the differences between
them.
2. Present 010 tape (or read aloud) excerpts in different accents 2104
ask the students 10 identify the differences between them.
3. Recycle excerpts 01 the pronunciation practice in the previous
units and introduce them in different accents.
4. Encourage students to bring 110 recorded (01 written) 1011008 01
types 0٤ spoken English not mentioned 110 ٤1015 or the previous
units (e.g. babies’, children’s, women’s English) 4104 discuss them
110 class.

1.5 Audio - Visual Aids

The following audio - visual aids will be used throughout 1015
course.
A. Software
1. Audio and video taped materials recorded 0‫ آل‬native speakers of
English.
2. Phonetic alphabets (e.g. IPA symbols) 10 broad and narrow
transcription.
3. Photographs 01 tongue positions 0٤ the cardinal vowels.
4. Illustrations of the organs of speech.
5. Illustrations of the points and manner 01 articulation.
6. Charts 01 English and Arabic sound‫؛؛‬.
7. Pronouncing dictionaries, e.g. 19. Jones, An English Pronouncing
Dictionary (latest edition.
8. Phonetic readers, e.g. J.D. O’Connor, hew Phonetic Readings
(latest edition).
9. Tables, diagrams, charts, pictures that 10010 illustrate 1‫ ه‬material
discussed 110 11‫ ح‬course.
10. Native speakers 01 English as informants.
11. Other similar materials.

Unft Six Varieties of English

 B. Hardware
1. Tape recorders.
2. TV sets.
3 Chalk and Talk.
4. Realia ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬similar materials collected 10‫ ل‬the teacher 211‫ا ل‬0‫ح‬
students.
5. Language 120 (11 available).
6. Computer (if available).
7. Internet.

1.6 Evaluation
110 addition to 10 general evaluation techniques described above,
the following are recommended for this unit.
1. ٨5 students to identify the various varieties of English.
2. Ask students to compare the pronunciation of American and
British English.
3. Ask students ٤0 compare standard English and colloquial
English.
4. Ask students 10 demonstrate 110011 knowledge of how foreign
accents differ from the accent of native speakers 0٤ English.

1.7 Supplementary Reading ‫لفًا‬

Ref. No. Page

1. Akmajian, ٨: et 1992) 1‫)ه‬ 010. 229-265
2. Formkin, ٧. and Rodman, 1. (1993) 00. 275--322
3. Gimson, ٨. (. (1970) 000. 302-304
4, Jones, 10.(1969) ‫ب‬ pp. 356-366

2. How Many “Englishes”

English 15 the predominant language 110 Great Britain (England,
Scotland, Wales) and Ireland (110 Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland).
٨‫ ى‬11‫ م‬other countries, numerous other languages are 2150 spoken 110
1095 countries. The variety of English spoken 111 these countries, British
English (BrE), 15 often regarded 0‫ ل‬English - learners 111 many parts

Unit Six Varieties of English

of the world (for example 110 0‫ ه‬Arab World) 28 somehow the (09522
English.
131 ‫ وثا‬like other varieties 10 other English - speaking countries,
comprises numerous, often greatly differing regional and social variants
called dialects. These dialects exhibit certain lexical, morphological,
syntactic and phonological differences from 020 other and from
standard English (5‫ ا‬E) (see Section 2 below). There is, however, one
particular type 0٤ pronunciation called Received Pronunciation (110)
which enjoys special prestige as we will discuss below (Section 2.3).
English 15 4150 spoken as anative language in 01‫ ح‬countries mainly
110 ٨0001108 (the United States and Canada), Australia, New Zealand and
South Africa. Naturally, there are varieties in these (Englishes" as 110
the case with British English with differences in lexicon, morphology,
syntax 210‫ ل‬0000010‫( آلي‬pronunciation) especially 10 terms 01 regional
and social dialects 010 the one hand, and the standard varieties on the
other. There are also differences between British English and these
(Englishes’, as well. What 15 0٤immediate concern to US 10 015 course is
‫ا‬10‫ ه‬examination 01 Standard American English (SAE) 110 the examination
ofSTE below.
English 15 2150 spoken 45 ‫ ه‬second language 110 600‫ ح‬parts 0٤ the
world, mainly 110 (West 211‫ ل‬East) African countries and 111 India. This
situation is different from that 0٤ so many other countries the world
over where English is a foreign language. A foreign languages 18 ‫ى‬
language leant 110 school and employed for communicating with people
from another country (as 1‫ ى‬the situation in Palestine and other ٨120
and many 11010 - ٨120 countries). ‫ ه‬second language 110 contrast, may
well be one learned 110 school, too, but one used within the learner’s
country 10 official purposes, ٤01 example in official (governmental)
communication. 111 this unit, we will discuss the differences between
0959 varieties of English, specially from pronunciation point 01 view.
Furthermore, there are the (Englishes” called mixed languages,
which resulted 110100 the contact between English 10‫ ل‬other languages
through conquest and / 0‫ م‬trade among other means. Of 211 the types
0٤ such Englishes, 1٧0, namely pidgins 214 creoles will be discussed
(see 591011 3 below). Finally, whatever the variety of English used,
especially standard English, a speaker may use different styles, or what
may be called situation dialects, e.g. formal ٢٧5 casual speech according
٤0 the type 01 situation, the person 01 persons addressed, 11‫ ه‬location
and 100 topic discussed. Related 0‫ ا‬this is the concept of register which
------------------------------------------------- 272 --------------------------------------------------
Unit Six Varieties 0٤ English
refers 10 210‫ آل‬speech variety used 0‫ ل‬a particular group 01 people, usually
sharing the same occupation (e.g. doctors, lawyers) 01 the same interest
(e.g. stamp collectors, football 12105). The main varieties of the 2100٧0
- mentioned English 5٧111 00 discussed 110 the following ٤٢٧0 sections of
this unit.
Exercise (1) 20

Read this section again 01 use a monolingual dictionary to write

definitions 01 the following concepts:
!.Language............................................................................................................

2. Dialect..................................................................................................................

3. Standard Language .......................................................................................

4. Received Pronunciation (100)....................................................................

5. American Standard English (ASE)........................................................

6. Foreign Language ..........................................................................................

7. Second Language...........................................................................................

8. Pidgin ‫ ممه‬Creole...........................................................................................

‫ و‬Style ...........................................................................

10. Register............................................................................................................

SAQs (1) (20

1. Why are there ٤00 many Englishes?

2. What 1‫ ى‬the difference between style 211‫ ل‬register?
3. What is the difference between ‫ ه‬second language 8 ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬foreign
language?

Unit Six
213 Varieties 0٤ English
 3.1 Regional Dialects
٨11 speakers 0[ English can 121 to 1‫ه‬2‫ ن‬other and it 15 most likely
that they 020 understand 920 other. Yet there are individual differences
‫ هالل‬٤0 299‫ و‬sex, state of health, emotional state, etc. 110 other words,
each individual speaker 1045 his 0 her own ideolect. However, beyond
these individual differences, 1100 language 0 one group 0٤ people may
show regular variations 110100 that used by other groups of speakers of
04‫ ا‬language. Each group is said to speak 2 different dialect 01 the same
language. For example, the variety of language spoken 10 0100 region
is said ٤0 be a regional dialect, and that spoken by 011‫ ه‬social group
is said 10 be ‫ ه‬social dialect. This means that there are phonological,
grammatical and lexical differences between these dialects although
these differences 21‫ ه‬usually limited and ‫ل‬0 100‫ ا‬prevent communication
between speakers of different dialects. 10 this section, we ٧111 deal with
regional dialects and in the following section ٧10‫ ا‬social dialects. 110
both cases, we will limit ourselves mainly to phonological differences
rather than lexical 01 grammatical differences.
Regional dialects develop when people are separated from 940‫ن‬
other by some communication barrier such as 1‫ه‬٦ ocean or ‫ ه‬mountain
range. Dialect differences tend ٤0 increase 111 the case of communication
isolation, as was the case among America, Australia and England 110
the past. There 5٧45 0٤ course some contact through commerce and
emigration, but communication between people of the same country
was more likely than between people 0100 different count ies. Today
there 1‫ ى‬less isolation because ‫ مم‬the mass media and dialects travel.
However, regional continue 0‫ ا‬exist.
Regional phonological 0 phonetic distinctions are often called
accents.‫ ه‬person 15 said 0‫ ا‬have ‫ ه‬Scottish accent, ‫ ه‬New York accent,
‫ ه‬Sidney accent, and 50 on. The accent refers 10 the characteristics of
speech that convey information about the speaker’s dialect, which may
show 110 what country 01 what part of the country the speaker grew up
or to which social group he 00101095. People often refer 0‫ ا‬the Irtish
accent 01 the American accent, among other accents. ٨‫ ى‬we will see 110
section 2.5 below, the term accent is also used 10 refer 10 the speech of
a non native speaker. 10 example; 210 Arab student speaking English

Unit Six Varieties of English

18 described as having an Arabic accent. For more details see Unit 7,
Section 3.5.
Exercise (2) 0‫ه‬

Below are given some words used in British English for which different
words are usually used in American English. See 1٤ you 20‫ ن‬match the
British and American equnivatents.
British American

. clothes bag ‫يا‬. biscuits ٨.candy K. baby buggy

b٠braces 1. queue B. truck L. elevator
c. lift m. ٤01010 c. line M. can
‫ل‬. pram 1٦. underground 10. main street ‫ل‬.‫ن‬010
e. waistcoat 0. high street 15. crackers o. wakeup
f. shop assistant 0. 11505 F. suspenders R trunk
‫ي‬. sweets q. lorry G. wrench 0. vest
h. boot (of car) r. holiday 11. flashlight 1. subway
1. bobby s. ٤110 1. potato chips 9. clothes 00110
j. spanner t. knock up j. vacation 1٦ clerk
-‫ر‬

SAQs (2)
1. ٢٧1018 ‫ اه‬meant 019101081 ‫ ل‬dialects?
2. What are the main regional dialects?
3. 111 what ways 40 regional dialects differ 1٤0100 each other?

3.2 Social Dialects

٨ social dialect is a variety 01 2 language used by people belonging
to a particular 500141 class. The speakers 01 a social dialect usually share
‫ ه‬similar social, economic and/or economic background. The barriers
between two social classes is 100٤ 11‫ و‬existence 01 oceans, rivers or
mountains isolating one group of speakers from 00001 groups 28 15 the
0259 01 regional dialects. Rather, two social groups may be living 110
the same area but what separates them linguistically 5‫ ذ‬that each group
speaksadifferent variety ofthe same language for the reasons mentioned
above. 110 this respect, social dialects may be classed as high in status 01
105٧ 110 status. 101 example:

Unit Six Varieties of English

 He 2101 ‫ ل‬were going there, (higher social dialect)
‘ im’n me was goin’ there, (lower social dialect)

As this example illustrates, like other dialects, there are

phonological and grammatical differences between such social dialects.
There are also lexical differences ‫ ى‬well.
The social dialect 5٧110 the highest status 110 a country is 00010 the
standard variety (see the following 69011010). The difference between
0100 social dialect and another dialect can be investigated by analysing
the recorded speech 01 large samples of speakers from various social
backgrounds.
One common example of social dialect variation is the presence
0 absence of the pronunciation of the post vocalic /1/, e.g. writer/raitə/
or raitər/. 11115 is very interesting since its pronunciation differs a great
deal. Varieties of English can 0‫ ه‬divided into two groups with respect 0‫ا‬
their treatment of this variable: those that are r-pronouncing 2114 those
that are 00‫ ا‬r-pronouncing. Today 110 Britain accents that have lost the
00‫ اى‬-vocalic /r/ generally have more prestige 0210 those, like Scottish
English, that preserve it. 110 many parts 01 the United States the reverse
is 01190 true. For example, studies mention that 110 New York City the
lower one’s social status, the fewer 00‫ ~~ اى‬vocalic /r/s one uses. 110 110‫ه‬
1‫ ال‬of Rending, England, the reverse 110 true.
However, a so-called ،linking /r/ (01 intrusive /r/), appears 110 0010
1/ ‫م س‬0‫ اى‬- ٧0‫ن‬211‫ن‬/ accents before words beginning with a vowel. 1118
pattern 6991005 10 be generalized 50 that /1/ 1‫ ى‬inserted 110 many contexts
before 2 ٧0٧01 where 1‫ ا‬was not present. For example the idea of it
becomes the idearofit and Shah of Iran becomes Shar of Iran, (see also
linking // 110 Unit 5).
Exercise (3) 17|

Read and transcribe the following:

1. car engine.............................. 4.101‫ ؟‬the visitor............................
2. car key ................................... 5. the speaker outside...........
3. China and Japan............. 6. Lena and Sue................

Unit Six Varieties 0٤ English

SAOs 3 ‫لحح‬

1. ٢5٧102٤
is the difference between a social dialect and 2 regional
dialect?
2. What 18 the difference between 13111510 and American English 110 the
pronunciation of the post ~~ vocalic /17
3. How 0‫ ل‬social dialects arise?

3.3 Standard English

Standard English 15 the variety which has the highest status 110
the community and 15 based 010 the 5009011 and writing 0٤ 100 educated
native speakers 0٤English, Standard English 18 generally (2) used 110 the
news media and 110 literature, (0) described 110 dictionaries and grammar
books, and (c) taught 110 schools and taught ٤0 non - native speakers when
they leam English as ‫ ه‬foreign language. Thus the English you read 110
newspapers and magazines, you find 110 a 01 ‫ل‬1‫ان‬100‫ه‬1‫ ل‬a grammar book
01 001‫ ل‬have learnt 110 school and university 18 standard English. It 15 2150
103 educated variety spoken in the political and cultural communication
in 101091200 20‫ ل‬other English “ speaking countries. For example, the
standard variety of American English 15 known as Standard American
English (SAE) and the standard variety 0٤ British English is Standard
British English (SBrE).
There are 0٤ course phonological and phonetic, lexical ‫ه‬11‫ل‬
grammatical differences between the standard varieties 01 English 20‫ل‬
other varieties (dialects) 010 1110 010‫ ه‬hand, and within these standards
themselves 010 the other. 111 this section, we 5٧111 limit ourselves to the
spoken varieties 01 standard English.
The type 01 British Standard English pronunciation which has
been regarded 85 the prestige variety and which shows 100 regional
variation is known as Received Pronunciation or 010
0P has often been popularly referred ٤0 as "BBC English”
because it was until recently the standard pronunciation used by most
BBC newsreaders.
0P differs 110100 5٨‫ ش‬pronunciation 110 various ways. 1001 example,
it 15 characterized with the absence of the past - vocalic /1/ at the end 0٤
words but with 15 presence as 2 linking /r/ before words beginning with

Unit Six Varieties 0، English

‫ ه‬vowel (see the above section). ٨150 speakers 0٤RP 00 not have 20 /1/
sound before ‫ ه‬consonant, 110010210 most Americans 00, 45 111 farm / 14:100
‫ و‬/farm /. 10 uses 00 phoneme /0/ as 10 hot /hot/ where most Americans
would use phoneme /20/ 25 111 /hæt/.
The consonants of RP and Standard American English (SAE),
which is also called General American (Gen Am) English, are identical
Both varieties contain 10 same twenty - four phonemes. The only
possible difference lies in /hw/ - /50/ distinction as 10 /hwai/ instead 01/
wai/ 110 some regions where Gen Am 15 600010. With the vowels, there
15 ‫ ه‬clear difference 110 phonemes as we have seen above, and 45 we
have seen in Unit 5 Section 5.

Exercise (4) 0
11210501100 the following words first 45 British English 20‫ ل‬then
25 American English:
British English American English
1. Where
2. were
3. Lear
4. lair
5. lure

SAQs (4)
1. Are there any consonantal differences between American
θ
English and British English?
2. What are some 0٤ the vowel differences between them?
3. How do you define "standard English"?

3.4 National Varieties

As we have seen 110 Section 1 of this unit, there are several national
varieties of English spread 11‫ ه‬over the world: British, Irish, Scottish,
American, Canadian, South African, Australian, and so on. There are
also many countries where English is 2 second language used 45 an
official 0[ semi - official language, such as India 110 Asia 11‫ ل‬Ghana
110 Africa. 111 all cases, there are phonological and phonetic as well 2‫ى‬
Unit Six Varieties of English
lexical 210‫ ل‬grammatical varieties between these national varieties 010
the one hand ‫و‬10‫ ل‬between the various dialects 110 the same national
variety 010 the other,
English is taught 25 8 foreign language almost everywhere. But the
English language taught 2‫ ى‬a foreign language is the standard language,
mainly British or American standard English. 110 the Arab world, British
English 15 normally the type 01 English ‫ واللعالها‬sometimes with French
as a second foreign language.
SAQs (5) (20

1. What :‫ ى‬the difference between national varieties ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬dialects?

2. What 15 1100 difference between ‫ ه‬second language and a foreign
language?

3.5 Foreign Accents

٨10 accent 15 a particular way of speaking which ٤0118 the listener
something about the speaker’s background. 110 this way a person’s
pronunciation may show: (a) the region or country they come from,
e٠g. a northern accent or an American accent, (0) what social class they
belong 10. e.g. a lower middle class accent, or (‫ )ن‬whether the speaker 18
‫ ه‬native speaker of 100 language 0 whether this speaker uses language
(101 example 121011510) as a foreign language, e.g. She speaks English
٢01410 an accent / with ‫ ه‬German accent.
‫ ه‬foreign accent 110 English arises when the speaker’s English
18 influenced 0٧ his/her native language and/or when 109/5110 lacks
sufficient knowledge 0٤ the nature 01 English pronunciation. 111 this
sense, accent refers to phonological differences or "interference” from
a different language spoken 0189 where. Unlike the regional accents,
such foreign accents ‫ل‬0 100‫ ا‬reflect differences 110 100 language 0٤ the
community where the language was acquired.
110 this section, we will deal with foreign accents 110 as far as
Arab learners 0٤ English are concerned with English pronunciation.
Since there are considerable differences between standard British and
standard American pronunciation, ‫ه‬10‫ ىه ل‬we 10٤ 210‫ ن‬adequately deal
with both varieties ‫ اه‬the same time, we will confine ourselves here to
1311510 English, since it 15 the variety most commonly used 110 the Arab
279
Unit Six Varieties of English
world. ٨8 we have already dealt with, Arabic English Contrasts (110 Unit
5) and will deal with Problematic Areas 110 Unit 7‫ و‬here we 5٧111 only
give examples ‫ اه‬the sound, stress, rhythm and intonation levels 01 what
makes Arab students’ pronunciation 01 English, under the influence 01
Arabic, sound foreign. 11 addition the influence 01 English spelling 010
pronunciation 50111 be mentioned.

1. ٨٤ the vowel sound level:

Arabic speakers, under the influence ofArabic, confuse sounds such
as /1/ and /e/ 11 sit and set; find difficulty 110 recognizing and producing
some ٧0٧015 such as /eə/ 110 there (often pronounced // 25 110 they); add
an intrusive vowel 48 110 the word spring which 18 pronounced /8110110/
instead of /spriŋ/ and the use of the schwa /ə/ which 15 the commonest
of all English vowel sounds and which replaces any 0٤ several vowel
sounds when they are unstressed, such as ‫ ها‬unstressed am, does, ‫عق‬
the, for, 210‫ ل‬٤‫ و‬when they are pronounced 110 connected speech.

2. ٨٤ the consonant vowel sound level:

Arab speakers confirse 801100 pairs 0٤ consonant 60101108 such as /٤/
and/v//p/^d/b//tʃ/and/ʃ//ʤ/and/sʌ/ŋ/and/n/,/s/and/z/and/θ/
and /5/: leak a consonant cluster, for example /wiʃt/ wished and /a:skt/
ad 0000009 /wiʃid/ and /a:skid/ respectively; double consonants in
imitation 0٤ Arabic, 50 /əlau/ allow becomes/alaU; and they fail to
make use 01 syllabic consonants, /1/, /100/ 211‫ ل‬/n/ and use an intrusive
vowel instead, e.g. /'botil/ bottle instead 0٤/000٤!/.

3. Word stress
Arab speakers misplace stress 111 words which have more than 000
syllable, e.g. /’satisfaid/satisfied becomes / saetis’faid/; confuse some
pairs 0٤ words, e.g. ‘import and im’port 21010 111 ‫ آلها ل‬follow patterns
0٤ stress shift, e.g. ،sardine but sardine ‘sandwich, and black ،board
and ‫؛‬black ‫؛‬board.

4. Sentence stress and Rhythm

Arabic speakers 111 0‫ ا‬adopt the stress - timed rhythm 01 English,
which means stressing 211 words 11٦ ‫ ه‬sentence instead 01 stressing
the lexical (important) words, thus / ‫؛‬hi: ‘wen ‫؛ ا‬sku:! / He went to
school becomes ( ،h: ‫؛‬went ‫؛‬tu: ‫؛‬ski /: 1211 ٤0 adopt the weak vowels
Unit Six 280 Varieties of English
:10 connected speech, (‫ وال‬/‫ ذهل(ما‬ə,wontə ،09‫نا‬3531‫اله‬/ becomes /’tn:
،de: ‫؛ ذه؛‬want ‫؛‬tn: ‫؛‬0‫ ال‬ju:ða hans/ To day ɪ want to show you the house,
become and adding ‫ ه‬glottal stop /2/ ‫ اه‬word boundaries; for example
/131:2 ‫؛‬olw:2 ٤216110...../ He is always asking...٠٠.٠٠٠٠٠٠ 0000010005 / 11: ٤12
olwiʒ, ‫؛‬a:5k .

5. Intonation
Arabic speakers, 010001 the influence of stress - timed Arabic, tend
to be abrupt 210‫ ل‬commanding when speaking English 210‫ ل‬unaware of
the intention of the speaker whether he / she 18 asking 10 repeat, detached
and reserved or reassuring, etc٠٠٠

Finally 110 this section, it should 00 mentioned that the spelling of

Arabic :5 over-whelmingly regular. 110 contrast, 119 spelling 0٤ English
is seemingly vei-y irregular. 1110191019, to the learners, written English 18
100٤ always a reliable guide ٤0 pronunciation, 20‫ ل‬they are 011010 misled
0‫ آل‬the graphic representation 0٤ sounds. Here we ٢٧111 give 0111٧0٧ ‫ا‬
examples:

/1/ deaf, suffer, rough, phase.

/1:/ lead, see, people, machine, me deceive, believe, quay,
key, amoeba.

Exercise (5)
Pronounce and transcribe the following words, phrases and
sentences adding stress marks where necessary:
1. deceive, wear, paper, lock, caught, 100٤

2. grandfather, chair, jar, sing, they, allow

3. written, spin, four eggs, loved, worked

4. subject (٧(‫ و‬subject (10)18 ‫ و‬1‫ ا‬always there

5. weekend, weekend cottage, 1 never gave it away.

281
Unit 517* Varieties 0٤ English
 (20
Exercise (6)

Read the following verses aloud then read them again adding
stress where necessary:
1 like 10 go out in the garden
1 like to get up 010 the wall
1 like ٤0 do anything really
But I hate to do nothing at all.
Exercise (7) 0

Read the following aloud then add stress ٢6010910 necessary:

1 went for ‫ ه‬walk 110 the country
When 1 started early 110 the morning ..
The weather was beautiful, the sun was shining, the sky was
٦1
But when I arrived, I was shivering and sueeziugt H H H " " H ‫ ح‬N............ . . . . .
Exercise (8) (70

Read the following then add stress 25 required,

1. Stress shift in words:

N/A V N/A V
Abstract abstract absent absent
Accent accent present present
Digest digest subject subject
Transfer transfer import import
2. Stress shift 0٤ words of the same root.
politics 000111021 politician
democrat democracy democratic
personal personify personality
photograph photographer photographic
telegraph telegraphy telegraphic

3. Contextual stress 110 the underlined words:

The transport 0٤ heavy goods is 9*091091٧9.
٢٧0 0210٤ transport the whole 01 the furniture.

Unit Six Varieties 0٤ English

 1100 article 15 101 export only.
We try 10 export as much 28 possible.
4. Add 1009 intonation mark ( / )010 0210 0٤ 10‫ ه‬following
sentences ٤0 show the type of its intonation pattern (falling,
rising, falling - rising 0 rising - falling):
1. You know him, 00 you? (1‫ عه‬- question expecting
agreement).
2. That 15 right, (serious, affirmative structure).
3. That 15 13‫ ه‬dining room, (polite, affirmative structure).
4. What did you see? (asking to repeat).
5. Watch 109 traffic light, (warning, imperative structure).
6. 1‫ ا‬was lovely! (impressed, affirmative structure).
SAQs(،) 0

1.01000010٣91211206511٤5211567
2. Why do Arab students make mistakes 110 stress?
3. 110 what way 00 Arabic 210‫ ل‬English sentence rhythm 0111217
4. 1‫ ى‬intonation in English and Arabic 0‫ ح‬same or different?

4. Special Types of English

4.1 ‫؟‬id in and 1٥01٥
Apidginisavariety ofalanguage such 28 English which developed
for some practical purposes, such as trading among groups of people
who had 10‫ ه‬٤ of contact, but ٧00 01‫ ل‬not know 04010 other’s languages.
٨‫ و‬such, 1٤ would have 100 native speakers. 110 other words, 2 pidgin 15 a
language which develops 48 4 contact language when groups of people
who speak different languages 0100 111٤0 contact with each 0109 and
communicate ٧110 0100 another, 01 when foreign traders communicate
with 100 local population, 0 when workers 110 plantations 0 10 factories
communicate with one another or 5010 their 0005595. ٨ pidgin usually
has ‫ ه‬limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure
which may expand when 2 pidgin is used over ‫ ه‬long period 01 time or
for many purposes. 110 following is an example of pidgin English

283
Unit Six ٢٧412٤125 0٤ English
 Baimbai hed bilong I-arrait gain
(0‫ آل‬and by) (head) (belong you) (he - alright) (again)
01‫ ال‬head will soon get well again.

When 6 pidgin develops beyond its ole as a trade language ‫ه‬10‫ل‬

becomes 100 first (11‫ أه‬18‫ و‬native) language 01 a social community 0 ‫ه‬
group of speakers, used 10 211 01 many of their daily communicative
needs, it 18 described as a Creole. Usually, the sentence structures and
vocabulary range 0٤ a Creole are far more complex than those 0٤ ‫ه‬
pidgin language.

Exercise (9) f 71
Here are some examples 0٤ ‫ ه‬Creole English and their standard
English 1141051210105. What are some of the linguistic and
phonological differences between these two varieties?.
1. 110 lazy, ٤2 6 why 10 00 like play ‘*He doesn’t want to play
00021150 he 15 lazy",
2. 18110 get one wahine she get three daughter "There 5٧45 a
woman 5٧100 had three daughters.
3. She 100 can go, 6100 110 more money, ٤27 s why “she cant 20
because 5100 hasn’t any money”
4. More better 1 0110 go Honolulu for buy 0100 (1٤ would have been
better 11 1‫ ل‬gone to Honoloulu 10 buy it.
SAQs (7) (20

1. What 15 00 major difference between 6 Pidgin 20‫ لم‬a Creole?

2. 100 Pidgin and Creole varieties 0٤ English use any phonemes
other than those used 110 standard English?

4.2 Styles and Registers

٨ style 15 2 variation 110 a person’s speech 0 witting. Style usually
varies 10110 casual to formal according 10 the type 0٤ situation, the
person or persons addressed, 100 location 203 the topic discussed:
Nearly every body has at least 10‫ ه‬informal 8 ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬formal style. 110
the former, contracted 1011005 are used 10000 often, the 11105 0٤ negation
and agreement may be altered and many words are used that 00 100‫ا‬

Unit Six Varieties of English

01‫ الن‬in the 10110021 51019. Stylistic variations can be observed 110 the use
of different speech sounds, different words 01 expressions, or different
sentence structures. In English, 101 example, people are more likely 10
say /510/ sittn /wə:kn/ work instead 01 /sitiŋ/ sitting / wə:kiŋ /
working 1٤ the style 15 more informal
Register, 010 the other hand, refers ٤0 a speech variety used by a
particular group 0٤ people, usually sharing the same occupation (e.g٠
doctors, lawyers 0 the same interest (.‫ع‬. stamp collectors, 10010211
fans). ٨ particular register 010010 distinguishes itself 110111 other registers
by having a number 01 distinctive words, 0‫ ل‬using words or phrases 110
a particular way and sometimes by special grammatical constructions.
There is, 10 example, 8 religious register 110 which we find expression
as ye shall be blessed by Him. 110 another register, 100 legal register, you
10‫ ل‬sentences ‫ى‬10 ‫ ىه‬The plaintiff is ready to take the witness stand.
The scientific register 15 often characterized 0110 ‫ ل‬use 01 the passive
construction.
Furthermore, one can use a formal 01 an informal 8٧10 ٤0 express
01005011 110 any particular register. 10‫ ؟‬example, you can use ‫ ه‬formal
style to give ‫ ه‬lecture 010 sports, and you can speak informally on 5100115
٤0 friends while taking ‫ ه‬walk. Indeed, many linguists use the term
٠ register" 101 ‫ ه‬stylistic variety whilest others differentiate 00٢٧991٦
style 210‫ ل‬register 25 mentioned above. ____
Exercise (10) 20

Below are some sentences as mightbe spokenbetween two friends

chatting informally. For each, state what the non-abbreviated 111‫ل‬
sentence 10 standard English would be.
1. Where’ve ya 009910 today?

2. Watch gonna 00 for fun?

3.111100 10 0‫ ع‬church.

4. There’s four books there.

5. ٢٢٧110 ya wanna go with

Unit Six
285
Varieties 0٤ English
 5 (8) (20
1. ٢٧1‫ه‬٤ is meant 0‫" آل‬style"?
2. What is meant by ‫‘؛‬register"?
,. ,. .,. . , . ,., . .,. . ,. ,. .,. . ,. 1 3.,. Wbhat is the relation,,,,,.between,the,two?

fllliirlwllilfsisilllllllililæliiliii.
This unit has dealt with varieties 10 English. It 009220 with a
discussion of the various “Englishes” available today. Following that,
regional and social dialects, standard English, national varieties 11‫ل‬
foreign accents were examined. The unit concluded ‫ آل‬examining
special types of English, namely pidgin and creole, and styles and
-registers,----------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------

llllsilliiiilieiiillillilllllilill
The following unit will deal with the problematic areas facing
Arab learners 01 English 25 a 10191210 language. ٨5 far as pronunciation
1‫ ى‬concerned, these areas are: consonants ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬consonant clusters,
vowels ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬diphthongs, stress and rhythm, and intonation. Other
problems such 48 orthographic influences, gemination, morphological
endings and dialectal pronunciation wiU-alsahe-diacnssLed.........................................

286
Unit Six Varieties of English
 7. Answer Key
Exercise (1)
!.Language: ‫ ه‬body 0٤ words and the systems 101 their use
90100101010 10 a people 0٤ the same community
0 nation, the 521000 geographical area, 01 the
same cultural tradition.
2. Dialect: 2 variety 0 a language distinguished from
other varieties 00٧ features 0٤ phonology,
grammar, and vocabulary and by its use
0‫ ل‬a group of speakers set off from others
geographically 01 socially.
3. Standard 1119 language in its most ٢٧1491٧ accepted
language: 101100 as written 2114 spoken 0‫ ل‬educated
people 110 10111041 (and informal) contexts,
having universal currency while
incorporating regional differences.

Areceived ٨ pronunciation 0٤ British English derived

pronunciation from the educated 50990 01 south England,
(10): traditionally used 110 the public schools 2100
at Oxford and Cambridge Universities and
widely used 110 broadcasting.
5.51‫؟‬٠ ٨ variety 01 standard English spoken 110 the
United States 01 America.

[Link]٤gn Alanguage (such as Englishtaught in schools

language: and widely used 10 non-official contexts 110
a country where the official language 15 the
mother language.
[Link] ٨ language (such 48 English ) taught 10
Language: non-native speakers to use 1٤ 25 the official
tongue.

287
Unit Six Varieties 0٤ Eng sb
 [Link] and Pidgin is an auxiliary language that has
Creole: developed 0110 the need of speakers 0٤ two
different languages 10 communicate 2‫ لم‬:‫ى‬
primarily a simplified form of 0100‫ ه‬٤ the
languages, with ‫ ه‬reduced vocabulary and
grammatical structure. Creole 15 a pidgin
language adopted by a community 25 its
native tongue and learned 0‫ ل‬children as their
first language.
9. Style: 2 situation dialect (e.g. formal speech, casual
speech).
10. Register: 15 a variety 01 language typically used 111 ‫ه‬
specific type 0٤ communicative settings.

‫)مهنحث‬2(
‫ه‬ 5 k ‫ه‬
0 1٦ 1 cH
c 1 m
1 K 11 R
‫ه‬ 2 o D
٤ 1٦ p I
‫ع‬ ‫ه‬ q B
h p ٤ ‫ل‬
[ ‫ل‬ s 1
j G t o

Exercise (3)
l٠/ka:r 111110/ 4٠ /fəðivizitə
2 /ka: 11٠/ 5. /55 6001: kər autsa:d/
3. /tʃainə ənd ʤ ‫ه‬: pa:r/ 6. /li: nəmd su:/

-
Unit Six Varieties of EngJish
 Exercise (4)
British American
‫إ‬5‫إحل‬ /٦‫م‬55[‫حح‬
!™‫!د‬
/liə/ /liər/
/lu:/ /lu:r/

Exercise (5)
li/disi:v/, /weə/, /209103/, /210/, /ko:t/, /fut/
2. /gra:ndfa:ðə/, /tʃeir/, /ʤa:r/, /35110/, / ðei/, /31‫اله‬/
3. /11110/, /2510110/, /’fo:rigz/, (lAvd/, /weəkt/
4. /sAb’ject/, /SAbject//1012 ٧0:1٢5٧91259^/
5. /wi:kənd/, /wik’end ،kAtic/, /ai,nevə (geiv 91/

Exercise (6)
1 ‫؛‬like to ‫؛‬go ‫ نالمام‬110 1100 ‫؛‬garden,
1 (1110 10 (get up 110 the ‫؛‬wall,
1 ‫؛‬like ٤0 ‫؛‬do anything ‫؛‬really
131‫ل‬٤ 1 ‫؛‬hate 10 ‫؛‬do ‫؛‬nothing at all

Exercise (7)
1 ‫؛‬went for a ‫؛‬walk 110 11٥ (country.
(whenl (started (early in the (morning ....
11‫( وم‬weather was (beautiful, the (sun was (shining, the (sky
was ‫؛‬blue.
But ٤01910 1 (arrived, 1 was (shivering and ‫؛‬sneezing.

Exercise (8)
1. (abstract abstract (absent ab’sent
(accent 00010 ٤ ‫؛‬present pr’sent
(digest digest (subject sub’ject
(transfer trans’fer (import 1100001٤

289
Unit Six Varieties 0٤ Engiish
 2. ‘politics political politician
‘democrat de’mocracy democratic
‘personal personily personality
‘photograph phtographer photographic
3. ،transport
‘trans'port
‘export
ex’port

1. — do yoq?
2. That’s right.
3. That’s the diningroom.
4. What did you se‫?؟‬
5. --——light.
6. It was lovely!

Exercise (9)
1. Word order, omission of ‫ه ئ‬1‫ لم‬does, omission 01
sounds,
2. Omission of who, replacing /100/ with /1/.
3. Word order, omission of functional words, a_ for
because.
4. Omission of auxiliary verbs, use 01 additional more,
bin for would have been.
5
Exercise (10)
1. Where have you been today?
2. What are you going to do for fun?
3. He has gone (went) to the Church.
4. There are four books there.
5. Who do you want to go with?

290
Unit Six ٢7220٤ ٤2٤395‫ م‬English
 8. References (D
1. ٨151001992)21 0٨0121100‫نه‬1‫ه‬٤) Linguistics: An Introduction to
Communication. 3‫ل‬. ٥‫ل‬. Cambridge, Mass.: Tbe 1٧411 Press.
2. Formkin, Victoria ‫لمه‬ Rodman (i993)An Introduction
to Language. 5th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
3. Gimson, A٠c٠ (19701 An Introduction to the pronunciation of
English. London: Edward Arnold.
4. Jones, Daniel (1956) An English Pronouncing Dictionary.
new edition,, London: Dent.
5. Jones, Daniel (1969) An Outline of English Phonetics. 9) ed.
Cambridge. ___________ —

291
Unit Six Varieties of English
 ‫‪292‬‬
‫‪Unit Six‬‬ ‫‪Varieties 0٤ E g ish‬‬

‫‪*.‬‬ ‫«*‬ ‫**‬

‫^‪٠‬ت‪٦٣٦4٥٣٦٦٦,٦٠٦٠٨٦٦٦‬ش‪٥٣٥٨2٠٨٣٨٥٥٦٦٨٢٦٦٦‬اسسةمنتر‪4‬ت"‪:٥٥٦٠٤7‬ترتدتشتةنتستء‪""،٠٠‬نن‪*٥٤‬نت‪٣‬تتسابييمشتبيتلتي‪:‬ذنحتب‪ ٣٣٤--٣:٢٤٤٨‬يبينيتيببميذيتيسببسبب؟‪:‬ث‪-:‬بتبي‪5‬تسند*تمشجييببت؟‪٤٣‬ببمم‪::‬نتهنن‪٠‬سنستشتتبست‪.‬ي‪، ٠:.::‬بسب‪:::‬ممبجبيتيبييمبينيهتشببجبةبجبياليابيتييببسرببربربيجب‪:‬ببييةياتيرربيبسينببعبم‪٧‬بيهبيمميسيية‬
 294
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Contents
Page Subject
Introduction 29]
1,1 Preview 291
1.2 Objectives 297
1.3 Contents 291
1.4 Methodology 298
1.5 Audio ‫ سس‬Visual ٨11‫ى‬ 299
16 Evaluation 300
1.7 Supplementary Reading 300

2. English and Arabic Sound Contrasts 300

3. Problematic Areas 304

3.1 Consonants and Consonant Clusters 304
3.2 Vowels and Diphthongs 309
3.3 Stress and Rhythm 314
3.4 Intonation 317

4. Other Problems 320

4.1 Orthographic Influences 320
4.2 Gemination 32]
4.3 Morphological Endings 329
4.4 11‫ و‬Pronunciation of the and aZan 333
4.5 Dialectal Pronunciation 334

5. Overview 339
6. Answer Key 339
7. References 351

295
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 296
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 1. Introduction
1.1 Preview
111‫ ى‬final unit deals 5٧110 problematic areas facing students
in learning English. These areas include consonant and consonants
clusters, vowels and diphthongs, stress and intonation. 110 addition,
orthographic influences, gemination, dialectal pronunciation and
10101910 pronunciation will be discussed.

1.2 Objectives - .11.11 —

Upon completing this unit, students are expected ٤0:

1. recognize the similarities and differences 110 the
phonological systems 0٤ English and Arabic,
2. accurately pronounce English consonants, vowels,
diphthongs and consonant clusters that are
problematic to Arab learners,
3. recognize pronunciation errors resulting from the
orthographic system,
4. Be aquatint d with dialectal differences 110 the
pronunciation 0٤ certain words (eg. Issue, scedule,
associate),
5. realize the problems arising 110100 incorrect stress,
intonation and rhythm,

‫بييي‬
6. realize that doubling a letter 111 a word does 00٤
necessarily produce 4 gemination effect, and
7. correctlypronouncethederivationalandinflectional

‫سي‬
affixes.

1.3 Contents

Unit Seven Problematic Aroas

 2.4 Intonation
3. Other Problems
3.1 Orthographic Influences
3.2 Gemination
3.3 Dialectal Pronunciation
3.4 Foreign Pronunciation

1,4 Methodology
110 addition tothe general procedures and techniques described
above, the following are recommended for this unit.

1. Recycle and reinforce contrastively the English sounds

which confose Arab speakers.
2. Give examples 0٤ words with different diphthongal sounds
‫ه‬10‫ ل‬their pronunciation using phonetic transcription and
model pronunciation on the tape.

3. Recycle the consonantal cluster patterns, initially, medially

and finally, in the words with several examples of each
pattern.
4. Draw the students, attention ٤0 the influence 0‫ م‬Arabic on
speakers’ pronunciation of English clusters.
5. Draw the students’ attention ٤0 3‫ ل‬fact that English (unlike
Arabic) 15 100٤ completely phonic, through giving examples
and practice.

6. 31٧0 some representations 01 dialectal realization (mainly

British and American).
7. Draw the stidents’ attention to the effect 0[ Arabic
gemination of double letters on the students’ production 01
certain words.

8. Provide the relevant morphological rules 01 pronouncing

plural and verb endings.

298
Unit Seven Problematic Areas

;'‫آلءدلدة‬-,.٠.٢٠'‫ة‬٠‫آ‬٠‫؛آ‬,‫د‬::‫'أ؛ًاد؟؛‬٠-,٠‫'؛ذ؛آ^دأ‬,,'-'٠٦'',;‫م‬-‫=د'يد‬٦,^,‫؟‬٠‫آ‬٠‫؛؛آتتةد=آ‬٣
 1.5 Audio - Visual Aids
11‫ ه‬following 211010 - visual aids will be used throughout
this course.
٨. Software
1. Audio and video 18001 materials recorded 00٧ native speakers
of English

2. Phonetic alphabets (eg. IPA symbols) for broad and narrow

transcription.

3. Photographs of tongue positions 0٤ the cardinal vowels.

4. Illustrations 0٤ 110 organs of speech.

5. Illustrations 0٤ the points and manner of articulation.

6. Charts of English 211‫ ل‬Arabic sounds.

7. Pronouncing dictionaris, e.g. 10. Jones. An English Pronouncing
Dictionary (latest edition).

8. Phonetic readers, e.g. 1.10. O’Connor, hew Phonetic Readings

(Latest edition)
9. Tables, diagrams, charts, pictures thathelp illustrate the material
discussed in the course.

10. Native speakers 0‫ لم‬English as informants.

11. Other similar materials.

B. Hardware
1. Tape recorders.
2. TVsets
3. Chalk and Talk
4. Realia and similar materials collected 0‫ آل‬the teacher and the
students.
5. Language 120 (if available).
6. Computer (if available).
7. Internet.

299
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 1.6 Evaluation
110 addition to the 90102121 evaluation techniques described
above, the following are recommended for this unit.
1. Ask students 0‫ ا‬transcribe certain problematic words featuring
problematic vowels, diphthongs, consonant clusters, double
letters, silent letters, etc., 2010010 ‫ ل‬check their production against
a recorded model.

2. Ask students 10 record certain words ending 110 s ore ord 0‫م‬
4 0114 tape recorder and then compare their pronunciation with
a recorded model 00‫ ل‬native speakers.

1.7 Supplementary Reading

‫ه‬
Ref. No. Rage
1. Gimson, A.c. (1970) 00. 230:243,319,359
2. Jones, 10.( 1969) 00. 167- 177
3. O’Connor, 0.10 (1976) pp. 8-22
14. Roach, p. (1985) pp. 301________________

2. English and Arabic Sound Contrasts

The following two lists show the English and the Arabic
sounds. As far as ‫ هلما‬115 0‫ م‬consonants is concerned, there are ٤00
parts: English consonants and Arabic consonants. 141‫ ث‬part shows
the alphabet (written) forms 0٤ letters for each sound together with
its phonetic symbol and the allophonic variations, 11 any, in each
of the 1500 languages. The second list 15 concerned 5٧1110 vowel
sounds. 110 its 18‫ ا‬part, the list gives English short and long vowels
and diphthongs‫ ؛‬in 15‫ ا‬second part, 1‫ ا‬gives Arabic short and long
vowels.

List !:Consonants

The following is ‫ ه‬list of phonetic syihbols 0 ‫ اىم‬English

Consonants then of Arabic consonants matched against 111911
respective orthographic alphabetical letters.

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

 11) ‫ه‬٤) English Consonants
Alphabet Phonetic 411000111
(Written)
Letters Symbol Variations

1. 1,1 ‫أ‬ ‫اآلل‬ /10/

2 B,b /٥/ 1١‫ل‬ ‫أا‬/
3 T,t 1١‫ل‬
4 10, ‫ل‬ ‫اال‬
5 ‫ي‬, /k/ /‫ا‬/ /kh/
6 ,‫ي‬ ‫لح‬
F, f ‫ا؟‬
8. ٢٧,٢ !‫اال‬
9. 114,11 /0/
10 TH, th }’٠ ‫ا‬
11. 5,5 1‫ك‬
12 ‫ وة‬z 7
13 511‫ و‬sh /ʃ/

14 JJ 3
15 H,j /11/

16 CH, ch /tʃ/
17 G, g /15/
18. M, m /1‫مم‬/
19. N, 10 !٦‫ك‬
20 NG, ng ‫اوا‬
21. Y, y /‫ل‬/
22. w, ٢5٧ /w/
23 1[ !٢!
24. 1,1 /1/ /1/ !٩!

301
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 ‫‪Part (2) Arabic Consonants‬‬
‫‪Alphabet‬‬ ‫‪Phonetic‬‬ ‫‪11000101‬‬
‫)‪(Written‬‬
‫‪Letters‬‬ ‫‪Symbol‬‬ ‫‪Variations‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫ب‬ ‫أم‬ ‫اآل‪ 1‬أ‪0‬‬

‫‪2‬‬ ‫د‬ ‫‪/‬ل‪/‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫ض‬ ‫‪٦‬‬ ‫ا‪2‬ا ادأ!‬ ‫ضرب ظرب‬
‫ق‬ ‫جا‬
‫‪5.‬‬ ‫ي‬ ‫‪/t/‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫ط‬ ‫‪1‬آ‪٢‬‬
‫‪1.‬‬ ‫ك‬ ‫‪/‬ا‪/‬‬ ‫‪/k//tf/‬‬ ‫كلب تشلب‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫ه‬ ‫‪٩1‬ا‬
‫‪9.‬‬ ‫ن‬ ‫‪ W6I‬اما‬ ‫ذاب داب‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ا‪7‬‬
‫‪11.‬‬ ‫ظ‬ ‫ا‪7‬‬
‫‪12‬‬ ‫غ‬ ‫‪j‬‬
‫‪13‬‬ ‫ع‬
‫‪14‬‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ا‬ ‫اال‪ 1‬آل‪1‬‬
‫‪15‬‬ ‫ث‬ ‫إ‬ ‫ل‪١‬ا ‪kl 1‬ها‬ ‫نثنثة ثئدئع طسن‬
‫‪16‬‬ ‫لس‬
‫‪17‬‬ ‫ش‬ ‫‪//‬‬

‫‪18‬‬ ‫ل‬ ‫‪ISI‬‬

‫‪19.‬‬ ‫خ‬ ‫اال‬
‫‪20‬‬ ‫ح‬ ‫ل‪٣‬‬
‫‪21.‬‬ ‫هس‬
‫‪22‬‬ ‫ج‬ ‫ا‪5‬‬ ‫أ‪5‬ا جل أ‪5‬ال‬
‫‪23‬‬ ‫م‬ ‫‪I‬‬
‫‪24.‬‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ملإ‬
‫‪25‬‬ ‫ل‬ ‫‪/1/‬‬ ‫ا ل‬
‫‪26‬‬ ‫ي‬ ‫إذإ‬
‫‪21.‬‬ ‫و‬ ‫ال‪5‬‬
‫‪28‬‬ ‫ر‬

‫‪ 302‬سسيي‬
‫‪Problematic Areas‬‬
 List 11: Vowels

1 English Vowels and Diphthongs

101‫ ؟‬the sake of reinforcement 00 following 15 2 list of English
simple short vowels, long vowels and diphthongs, together with
examples:

!.Short vowels
/i/as in / fil/ fin.
‫ه‬
/e/ 8 in/fel/fell.
/u/as in/ful/ il
/æ/as in/k /cat.
/o/as in /kot/cot
/٨/ as 111/‫كا‬٨‫ا‬/‫الكي‬
/3/25 ‫ذ‬0‫ ل‬bəɪia:nə/banana

2. Long Vowels
/i:/as in/fi:l/ fee‫!؛‬
/o:/as in /10:1/11 ‫قا‬
/u: /as in/0:1/ 0‫؛‬
/ə:/as in/kə:t/eurt
/a:/asin/ka:t/eart

3. Diphthongs
/ei/as in/feil/fail
/ou/as in / foul /fool
/ai/as in/fail/file
/an/ as 110 / fa 1/ 011
/oi/as in/foil/o
/iə/as in/tiə/ tier
/‫وح‬/ as 110 /feə/ ‫ئ‬
/uə/as 110 /tuə/ tour

2. Arabic Short and Long Vowels

1. Short Vowels
/: / as in zʃiddah / (crisis)

303
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 /2 / 45 110 kasiba / (earned)
/‫ال‬/‫للذ وه‬/aibtu/(1 drank

2. Long Vowels
/i: / as in/tin (figs)
/a: /as in/la: 100/(blamed)
/u: /as in/‫الما‬: r /(light)

Exercise (1) 13
The following text 15 written 110 phonetic transcription. Read it and
then rewrite 1110 ‫ ا‬ordinary English alphabet writing:“
a:ndrə ən‘don
a:ndrə 45010/900 ‘gad ju:v ‘kAmət 135/59 ،ka:z gon/
‘d on ،nonssns/ it ‘kant 9٧ gon/ ju: ‘mAst əv fb’gotn weər 1٤ woz/
sa:ndrə ،non/ ،onistli/ a:fter ai ‘dropt ju: /ai pa:kt it 0‫وم‬2116‫ ح‬0٨‫و‬
stop/ ən ‫م‬00‫‘ ا‬intdi: optiʃnz/ ən ‘got mai ‘gla:siz/ ‫‘ ذه‬woznt 100/ ‫ان‬
wəz ٤‫ اهمدةل‬٤٧٨11‫ ح‬klok/ənðə ‘ops wə d5Ast ‫ل‬٨٤2 110/٥10 ‫‘ ذه‬wontid ə
,ka:d/ 3 ‘ma: θə/
(from QCnnor, 1973)

3. Problematic Areas
3.1 Consonants and Consonant Clusters
3.1.1 Consonants
As ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬have seen 110 Section 1 above, there are twenty - eight
consonantal phonemes 111 Arabic ‫ الماط‬twenty - four 10 English. This
means that consonantal phonemes 110 the two languages are not the
same 01 always similarly articulated or similarly distributed. This 5‫ن‬
the primary area which causes difficulty to Arab learners of English
especially beginners. The following is 8 discussion of some of the
common problems Arab learners face 110 the production of English
consonants, (For a comparison between English and Arabic consonants
see Unit 3 and Unit 5).

Stops
/10/ does not occur 110 Arabic 48 2 phoneme except 10 some 100‫ه‬

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

‫ببسيجليبسسنبنيييس‬:‫سربزز‬،..‫ن‬.‫بر‬:.‫نننتنبينهيتببن‬.:‫مبيبببببيسبيببيديمييسييرييبيييييهتتنس‬:‫ ؟‬٣‫جهبعيبجنييبييينشتمنتتي‬:‫ييببييتببتةببمشش‬.‫جبتنةشببهندسيتشبييبسة‬٠٣‫يم‬.٠!‫يبنننشسنشنشيهيةهمت‬٢٦+٣٦‫يسر‬٣٣+‫س‬٣٣‫ا‬٦*٠:-:٠٠.‫تدت‬٣-٠٣‫تت‬٠٠٨٤٣٦٥‫ت‬-2٣‫*ت‬٣٤٣٣:‫سمتسسس‬٣٥٣٣‫غنشت‬:٦٦٠٨٣»٠٠‫ت‬٠‫ننبنتشنتخةتةشت‬٠
 (01 foreign) words. Arab learners usually have difficulty with English
contrasts such 45 /^02010/0211 and/ bæn/ ɪan/kæb/eap and /kæp/eab.
/٤/ and /d/ are dental 110 Arabic but alveolar in English. 11019
difference 15 usually unnoticed 00٨120 learners 01 English, but it does
not interfere with intelligibility.
The 01‫ ح‬stop consonants /k,g/ cause 100 problem, although the
latter sound ‫ذ‬8 100‫ ا‬found in classical or modem standard Arabic.

Fricatives
/v/ does not occur in Arabic except 110 some 10210 (01 101919101)
500108. Arab learners may have difficulty with English contrasts
such as / ٢٧2210/ 0810 and /fæn/ fan. /6/ and /0/ do 100‫ ا‬usually occur 110
dialectal (everyday) Arabic but they occur in standard and classical
Arabic. Instead, /2/ 2105/ ‫ل‬/ are used respectively.‫ هلم‬common error 18
that some ٨120 learners (and users) 01 English use /2/ and /5/ 101 100
English /5/ and /0/. Therefore, English contrasts such as / 002:0/ path
2100 /002:8/ pass; 1011:6/ breathe and /1011:2/ breeze are troublesome. Very
often Arab learners make 00 same mistake when they learn standard
Arabic. Therefore, the occurrence 0٤ /6/ and /0/ in standard Arabic
110 ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬English but 00110 ‫ ا‬dialectal Arabic causes a problem when
pronouncing words with 10059 two sounds. /5/ occurs 110 some (e.g.
Lebanese) but not all Arabic dialects. Standard Arabic and some 01191
dialects 159‫ ل‬/ʤ/ instead, and some other dialects (e.g. Egyptian) use
/g/. The choice 010100 0100 ‫ ا‬or another depends 010 the kind 0٤ dialect
used. This causes 501000 difficulty 110 the production of the English /5/
which 15 often replaced by /05/ (See 10 following section.

Affricates
Because the contrast between /ʤ/ and /5/ in Arabic does 100٤
affect meaning (i.e. 100٤ phonemic), either one or the other is used 0‫ل‬
٨120 learners 110 pronouncing English words having these two 5010108.
Usually /ʤ/ 15 wrongly used for /5/. For example, 5٧0105 such 25
occasion, measure and explosion are prononced vəkeiʤən/, */meefea/
and */iksplousin/ instead 0[ /əkeiʒn/, meʒə/ and /iksplouʒən/. /ʃ/ and /
‫ال‬/ however cause more problems 35 they are often confused especially
in initial position, /ʃ/ is wrongly used for /‫أل‬/. For example cheap and /
hep/ are pronounced 2/1:10‫ا‬/ instead of /tʃ:p/ for the first and /ʃi:p/ for

305
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 the second.
Remember that /5/ ‫ لمه‬/t / sounds ‫ل‬0 ‫ امم‬occur in standard Arabic,
hence their replacement by /ʤ/ and /ʃ/ which 0‫ ل‬occur.

Nasals
/10/ 0098 100‫ ا‬occur in Arabic but 120 25 001015 ‫ ا‬allophone of /10/
before stop consonants such 25 0/. Therefore 110 such English words 25
/5110/ sink, / 52010/ sank, 01 /fig / finger, there 15 00 problem 101 Arab
192110018. 11٥ 0100010100 arises in contrasts such 28 /5110/ 5110 205110 / ‫ ل‬/
sing; / sinə/ sinner 210‫ ل‬/siŋə/ singer; / rasn/ran and /1200/ rang.

Approximants
The clear and dark realizations of the sound /1/ occur 110 ٦0٤10
English 2104 Arabic ‫ الما‬the dark /15 /‫ ا‬restricted 10 Arabic to such words 28
/əfia:h/ (Allah or Godk Therefore, a common mistake by Arab learners
110 pronouncing the lateral approximant /1/ is 1110 excessive use 0٤ the
clear /1/ at 100 expense of the dark 0100. 11015 is because the clear /1/
110 Arabic is used 110 211 positions: initial, medial and final, whereas in
English the clear /1/ is used 10 initial and medial positions 210‫ ل‬the dark
/1/ is used 111 final positions.
010 the other hand, the sound /1/ 1‫ ى‬entirely different 110 the two
[Link] you have seen above,Arabic/r/isatongue tip trill, whereas
English/r/ is aback alveolar, frictionless continuant. The initial problem
is that Arab learners replace the Arabic /r/ 0‫ م‬the English 010٥.
Secondly English/r/is replaced byaschwa// in final positions,
e.g٠ /ri:də/ ae but Arab learners tend to use (their variety of the)
/1/ in 411 cases, .‫ع‬. /ri:dər/ reader. (See the infuence 0٤orthography
below).
20
Exercises (2)
1. Listen ٤0 the following pairs of words, and repeat them after the tape.
111010 listen 10 them again and write 110 broad phonetic transcription the
first consonantal sound 0‫ ذ‬each of the 600 words in each pair:
a. 1 1,1 .1 1 1,1 1 .‫؟‬
1 ٠ 1 ‫ن‬ 1 1’١1 1 ‫اأ‬

Unit Seven
306
Problematic Areas
 d.
e.

Exercises (3)
115010 to the following 002115 of words, 2nd repeat them after the tape.
0
Then listen to them again and write 11 broad phonetic transcription the
final consonantal sound 110 each 0 the 15 0 words 110 each pair:٤ ٧
١ ‫إ‬ I1 ‫ر‬ ‫إ‬ %٠ 1 ‫يف ا‬
c. ‫أ‬ ‫ل؛‬ ‫ا‬ ٦‫م‬. ‫ا‬ 11 ‫ا‬
‫ه‬ 1 ‫ل‬ ‫أل‬ ١٠ 1 ‫أل رين ا‬

Exercises
٤
(‫)في‬
Listen 0 the following pairs 01 words, and repeat them after the tape.
0
Then listen 10 1109100 again and write 111 broad phonetic transcription the
medial consonantal sound 110 each of the two words 110 each pair:
‫ه‬. ‫ا‬ ‫ارا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫؟‬. 1 11 ‫ا‬
٦0. ‫ا‬ ‫را‬ 1 ‫ح‬. ‫أ‬ ‫أ ا‬ ‫ا‬
. / ‫را‬ / 1. / /,/ /
‫ل‬ / // / ! / // /

Exercise
٤
(g)
Listen 0 the following and identify the /1/ sound as clear 0 dark. 11
(71
clear write 1] 2104 if dark write 111.

b............................................. ‫ي‬........................
0............................................. h..............................................
4................... .. 1...................................
e............................................. ‫ل‬.........................

31.2 Consonant Clusters

٨5 you have seen in Unit 3, consonant sequences (0 clusters)
110 English and Arabic differ greatly. Arabic 1185 00 sequence 0 0010 ٤
1210 two consonants, which occur 10 medial 210 final positions 01110 ‫ل‬ ‫ ال‬٤
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 110 11‫ ه‬initial position. English, 010 the other hand, has sequences of two
01 even more consonant clusters 10 all three positions. Furthermore, 110
connected speech the sequence may be 9٧910 longer where one word
may end with a consonant sequence and ‫ل‬00 100*‫ ا‬word with another. As
a result, we 410‫ ن‬have sequences like /bæŋks kloud/banks closed.
This causes problems to ٨180 learners 56100 often 101105٧ Arabic
patterns of speech and 2‫ لل‬a vowel, which 15 called 20 intrusive vowel,
to break the consonant cluster. 101 example:
/krisməs/ Christmas becomes */kirns/
/grændfa: ðə /grandfather becomes grændifa:ðr/
/bə:nt/ burnt becomes */bo:mit/ or */berint/.
The first example shows an intrusive vowel 210 ‫ اه‬initial position,
the second example at amedial position, and the third example at ‫ ه‬final
position..
٨ similar breaking of 0‫ ه‬consonant cluster is found 5٧110 the
simple past tense 0‫ م‬verbs ending in ‫ ه‬voiceless consonant such ‫ وه‬/wiʃt/
wished, /dropt/ dropped and /pa:st/ passed. These and similar verbs are
often pronounced by Arab learners ‫* وه‬/wifed/, */d oped/ and */pa:sed/
respectively.

Exercises (6) 0

52‫ آل‬the foliowing words after the tape 201000 ‫ ل‬write them 10 0100-
netic transcription.
a. spread f. good luck
0. screw g. short 1116
‫ع‬. heartless 10. 5٦‫ح‬٤ man
‫ل‬. next Sunday i. splendid
. long street j. twelfth Street
20
Exercises (7)
As in exercise 6 above
[Link] / / [ laughed / /
[Link] / / ‫ع‬. watched I
c. slipped / / h. breathed I ‫ا‬
d. collected / / 1. lapsed ! ‫ل‬
[Link] / / j. rested I I

308
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Exercises (8)
٨5 110 exercise 6 above

. watched cricket j ‫ا‬

b. thanked them ( ‫ا‬
. next spring j ‫ا‬
‫ل‬. she tempts strangers I j
e. mixed sweets j ‫ا‬
(20
540‫) لى‬14(
Does Arabic have sequences 0٤ two, three, four, or more consonants?
W hat 4005 ٤1015 cause Arab learners of English 40 when they pronounce
English consonant clusters?
How is the past tense ending ed pronounced 0‫ ل‬Arabs? (Three 0008-
sibilities).

3.2 ٧07٧915 410‫ ل‬Diphthongs

3.2.1 Vowels
٨5 you have seen 111 Unit Three above, English has ‫ ه‬greater
number of vowels than Arabic. Consequently, Arab learners 01 English
10103 difficulty recognizing certain vowels, .‫ع‬. /e/ as 11٦ /set/ set which
15 wrongly pronounced /1/ as 110 /sit/ sit. They also find problems 110
producing these vowels. Another problem 211898 from confining such
sound, as /u: / and /110 5‫ال‬/ ‫ ه‬/fill/ fool 20‫ ل‬/fit /foot. Furthermore, because
of the relatively small number of vowels 110 Arabic, learners tend to use
just 000 (Arabic 0٣ English) vowel instead of 100010 than one English
vowels. 110 following are some of the main areas 0٤ difficulty:

1. Recognizing and producing some vowels

‫ال‬ and Id as m /bit/ bit and /bet/ bet
/20/ and /٥٠/ as in /fast/ ‫ؤا‬ and /fa:ðə/father
lei and ‫احا‬ as 11 /bet/ bet and /bæt/ ‫ئ‬
‫اىا‬ and ‫ا‬0‫ا‬ as 11 /kæt/ cat and /kot/ cot
‫ا‬0‫ا‬ and ‫ا‬٢‫لد‬٠ 15 in /kot/ cot and /ko:t/eought

309
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 /٨/ and /0/ as in /٨٤/ cut and /10٤/ cot

/ə:/ as 110 /kə:t/ curt 15 replaced 0‫ آل‬/٨/ or /e/ followed by Arabic /1/ eg
‫؟‬/knrt/or */kerti/

(See more 110 the section 010 diphthongs 09105٧).

2. Using long vowels insteK diphthongs

/ou/ 45 111 Zhoum/home 15 replaced 0‫ ل‬the long ٢00٢7٧91 /0:/ e.g.
‫؟‬/ho:m/.
/iə/, /eə/ and /uə/ are respectively replaced by the nearest long
vowel sounds /1:/, /e:/ 0 /1‫ل‬:/ e.g. ٠/di:r/ 1105٥24 0٤/die/ deer; 'zpe:r/
instead of /peə/ 011:1/‫ه مهووم‬10‫؟ ل‬/ instead of/pou/ poor.

3. Initial vowels
110 Arabic 00 vowel 0210 be found 110 word 11011121 position,
though vowels may occur in a final position. 110 Arabic, an initial
position 110 words 15 filled either with 2 consonant or with a gio tai
stop /7/. As 2 result, Arab learners of English tend ٤0 insert a glottal
stop before English words beginning with vowels. 101‫ ؟‬example /9
æk/ ‫ كانهالج‬is pronounced 720/‫ ؟‬ttaæk/.

4٠ Vowel length
110 English, 0100 0٤ the phonological facts is that many pairs
0 consonants such as /f/-/v/; /0-5/: // - /5/; /5/ - /z/; /p/-/b/; /٤/- /1/:
/k//g/ and /0/-‫ال‬/ exert ‫ ه‬certain effect 00 the length of the vowel
preceding them when they occur ‫ اه‬the 9100 01words in isolation. 110
first phoneme 110 0200 0٤ the above pairs 15 voiceless and "strong"
and makes 11‫ ه‬vowel shorter, while the second in the pair 15 voiced
and "weak" and 100٥*95 the vowel 101029*. 10‫ ؟‬example, the /1:/ sound
110 /bi:d/ bed is longer that what 1‫ ا‬is 110 /bi:t/ ba. Arab learners
of English tend to pronounce English vowels with equal length.
Although this problem rarely leads ٤0 misunderstanding, it 18 worth
mentioning 110 115 context.
5٠ Intrusive vowel
Arab learners often add an extra vowel (called intrusive vowel)
110 consonant clusters, e.g.

310
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 2/8101110 /٤102٤920‫ ل‬٤/ spriŋ/ spring
*/w9٠:kid/ instead of/wθ:kt/ worked.

(See more in the section 00 consonant clusters below).

‫رسئ ة‬
110 phoneme /3/, called the schwa, 18 the commonest 0٤ all
English vowel sounds. It replaces any 0٤several vowel sounds when
they are unstressed. 11015 problem becomes 11000 difficult ٤0 Arab
learners because 01 the absence of any similar vowel 110 Arabic. For
example, Arab learners tend to pronounce a word such as /sætədi/
Saturday 25 ‫ ؟‬/sætʌrdei/.
In connected speech, 500115 like 200‫ و‬does, a, the, for and ‫وا‬
have a weak [01100. ٢٧10910 they are pronounced 110 connected speech,
they are unstressed 211‫ ل‬the vowel becomes 2 schwa. For example, /
0٨2/ does becomes /03^/: /٨/ becomes /3/. This 0100019100 takes place
because in Arabic every sound usually 1025 a distinct articulation
(that 15‫ و‬stressed and therefore pronounced without any reduction).

Exercise (9)
Say the following words and 1011 write them 110 phonetic transcrip"
tion.
[Link] / / [Link] / /
[Link] / / g. happy / /
[Link] / / Alix ‫ا‬ I
‫له‬٠ ‫ا‬ ‫أ‬ kbuteher / /
[Link] / / ١،٠٦
■ ‫إ‬ ‫ا‬

Exercise (110)
As in Exercise 9 above
/ / [Link] fpepper / /
/ / [Link] g. phoned / /
[Link] ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ h. close / /
‫ه‬.‫ذ‬٢‫ألة‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ riprle I ‫إ‬
.٩‫مم‬٦5 ‫ا‬ I j. understand ‫ا‬ /

311
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Exercise (11)
110 ٨‫ ى‬exercise 10 above
(20
‫ه‬. dinners // ‫ ع‬glamorous /
b. amount / / g. agree /
c. sooner / / h. Canada /
‫ل‬. courageous/ / :. (0101108 /
. murderer // j. attend /

‫د‬.,
As in exercise 11 above
0
a. should / / f spring /
b. shot / / g٠ exercise /
clock / / hexplain /
dot / / i. against /
eled / / j. extend /

SAQs (2)
1. What English vowels cause 0*0010005 to Arab learners?
(20
2. What 00 ٨120 learners use instead 01 diphthongs?
3. What do Arab learners 204 before 6 vowel sound at the beginning
of words?
4. Which 15 longer, ‫ ه‬vowel sound before a voiceless consonant 01 a
voiced consonant?
5. What is an intrusive vowel?
6. Why is the /3/ 0100110010 111 English?

3.2.2 Diphthongs
Arab learners find difficult 110 producing diphthongs. The
commonest problems 110 this area are the following:

1. Recognizingind producing diphthongs

/eə/ 10‫ ن يه‬/ðeə/ there, /‫جل‬/ ‫ وه‬in /ʃuə/ sure, and /:/ ‫ يه‬in
/iə,z/ ears are 01100 respectively replaced 0‫ ل‬the nearest vowel
sound followed by a clear Arabic /r/.

312
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 For example.

/eə/ becomes /9:/ 6.2. /ðeə/ becomes * /6911/ their / there,

/0/ becomes /‫ال‬:/ e.g, /3‫ال‬/ becomes */1:‫الا‬/ sure.
/132/ 000010005 /lərz/ e.g. /132 becomes * /ears.
Similarly /011/ 28 110 /kout/ ‫ اون‬becomes /10:٤ / 0 American
‫ا‬٠‫ا‬,‫ه‬٠‫إ‬
*/ko: ‫ا‬/, and /ei/ 25 110 / peipə/ paper becomes /e:*/ /009:1021 /

2. Using long vowels instead of diphthongs

(See 2.2.2. above)

Exercise (13)
‫أل‬ ‫ل‬
(70
٦٢5٧11191319100100100103110112105‫ن‬1100‫ًا‬1010:
52 11191011050110965001 9,11191

a, tour
. cure
c. real
I
‫ا‬
I
I
‫ا‬
‫إ‬
.‫ز‬ 011
‫ع‬. wait
10. 11‫لح‬
‫إ‬
‫ا‬ I
(
‫ا‬
‫ل‬. pierce ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ i. doubt / ‫ا‬
e. hoist ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬ [Link] ! ‫إ‬

Exercise (14)
Say the following pairs of words then write them in phonetic
0
transcription:
a. close/claws/ /,/ /
b. boat/bought/ /, / /
c. pass/pace/ /,/ /
d. cow/core/ /,/ /
‫ح‬.‫ليل^م امني ا‬ ‫اا‬ ‫ا‬

SAQs (3)
1, What is the difference between a diphthong and a long vowel?
θ
2. Why do Arab learners use long vowels instead of diphthongs?

313
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 3.3 Stress 210‫ ل‬Rhythm
‫م‬٨5 ‫ ه‬result of the difference between the stress and rhythm
systems 111 English 204 Arabic, Arabic learners of English often have
0‫ ه‬following problems, among others.
1. Misplacement 0٤ word stress which often happens 10 words with
more than 0100 syllable, e.g. /’satis ،faid/ satisfied instead 01
/’saetisfaid, and/salentli:/ instead of /’sailentli/ silently.
2. Confusion 01 some pairs 0٤500145 such as ‘export and ‘import (as a
noun and a verb).
3. Failure ٤0 follow patterns of stress shift such as sardine ‘sandwich
instead of‘sardine ‘sandwich.
4. Failure to follow 1000 stress - timed rhythm 0٤ English rather than the
syllable - timed rhythm of Arabic, 5010110 means that 11‫ ه‬words 110
a sentence are stressed regardless 01 the fact that not all words are
stressed 110 1110 sentence. For example, an Arab student would say
/211: ‘went ‘tu: ،sku:l/ (he went 10 school) instead 0٤ /111: ‘went
‘tu: ،sku:!/. 11015 19 one 0٤ the reasons that makes an Arab student
pronounce English ٧10‫ ا‬an Arabic accent.
5. Failure ٤0 adopt the weak vowels 110 connected speech. 101‫ ؟‬example,
/tə'dei ə won 5 3‫ها‬0‫ نال‬ka:/ (today 1 want to show you the car)
becomes/’tudei ٤7‫‘ ذه‬wont ‘tu: ‘ OU ju:əi: k:r/.
6. Adding 2 glottal 600 /7/ ‫ اه‬word boundaries 10 imitation 01 the
Arabic language when ٤700 words the second 0٤ which begins ٧110
‫ ه‬vowel are separated by an intrusive glottal stop. For example, 2
sentence like /12:‫ ذم‬oilwia:skiŋ ‘difiklt ‘kwestənz/ (he is always
asking difficult questions) becomes /’hi: ٤212 ٤720: lweiz’?a:5k
،difikAlt kwestʃə,n/.

Exercise (15) 2
‫إ‬ ‫ل‬
Listen 10 ٤00 following words 00 the tape, then place the main / 011-
mary stress 010 the right syllable:
!.dictionary 6. engineering
[Link] 7. object (noun)
3. happiness 8. object (verb)
4. engineer 9. project (n)
5. dictionaries 10. project (v)

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

 Exercise (116)
Read the following sentences, then rewrite 1009110 and mark the primary
stress where necessary:
1٠ That’s an insult.....................................................................
2. You mustn’t insult 0901019........................................................
3. These are ‫ع‬00‫ ل‬results...................................................................
4 Chaos results ifthere is no order ......................................................
5. They sent two delegates there..............................................................

.Exercise )1‫ل‬7(
1٤0 1151910 05‫ل‬٧ the following disyllabic words and place the primary
stress accent (٤) above the appropriate vowel. Refer ٤0 your dictionary
10 checking your answers.
Content (1‫)ل‬
1. Correct
2. Ensue
3. Result
4. ٨1 ٤
5. Report
6. increase (N)
:7. 10091 )٢٧(

Exercise (18)
Listen again to the above words 110 longer utterances:
1. What are the contents 011015 ‫ م‬course?
2. The answer is correct.
3. Ill pay you back 110 the ensuing year.
4. 11 the police are disbanded, chaos will result.
5. 30008 an adult elephant weigh about a ton?
6. He wrote a detailed 1900011 about the accident.
7. Workers 210 expecting 210 110019280 110 their wages.
8. Some people rebel against authority.

Exercise (19)
Here 15 ‫ ه‬list of disyllabic words. Listen 10 119100 and place them in 1500
groups according 10 their stress patterns. Check your answer 0‫ آل‬refer-
ring to your dictionary.
Peru, ago, believe, pencil, German, again, motel, below, bottom, cor-
rect, above, devil, reveal, arrow.

Unit Seven
315
Problematic Areas
 Exercise (20) ٢7٦

Now listen ٤0 the following disyllabic words and identify the 011‫ه‬
which has 4 stress pattern different 10110 that 0٤the others:
comer, breakfast, happy, perhaps, elbow.

Exercise (21) (220

Now derive verbs 110100 the following 0011105 and mark the primary
stress 010 the derived verbs, e٠g٠
Television (10)
Domestic (adj)
Popular (‫)زله‬
Stimulus (n)
Cultivation (11)
Immune (adj)
Hospital (n)

Exercise (22) (20

Now divide 11 following utterances into rhythmic units and mark the
stressed syllables 5010 810 accent (٧):
1. The 0008 laughed.
2. The boys laughed at him.
3. The boys are laughing ‫ اه‬him.
4. The boys’ll laugh 2‫ ا‬him.
5. The boys are laughing at John.

SAQs (4) (20

1. What 15 meant by stress - timed languages ‫ه‬11‫ ل‬syllable timed lan-
guges?
2. Can words be nouns and verbs or nouns and adjectives at the same
time?
3. What are the main problems Arab students have 110 stress 210‫ل‬
..........................rhythm?...................... ..

316
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 3.4 Intonation
1٤ is often noticeable that ٨1200 students 1000‫ ا ل‬adopt Arabic
intonation patterns when they speak English. 11118 affects what they say.
Therefore, instead 0٤ picking out individual problems, students should
02‫ آل‬attention ٤0 (and constantly revise) the intonation patterns discussed
110 Unit 5 above. However, 110‫ ح‬following points should 10 emphasized.
1. The main intonation patterns in English, namely the rise 211‫ ل‬1211‫و‬
seem ٤0 coincide ٢٧111 those of Arabic. 1311٤ this does not mean that
Arab students 10 100٤ make mistakes in intonation. ٨5 mentioned
10 Unit 5‫ و‬intonation 1100101198 grammatical structures which are 110‫ا‬
the same 25 in Arabic. For example, word order and question words
are the main signals 10 questions 110 English, whereas 110 everyday
Arabic it 15 intonation that mainly signals questions.
2. Arab students are often unaware 01 ٤1‫ ح‬attitudinal role of intonation.
Various intonation patterns 610٢5٧ various meanings depending on
the intention of the speaker (polite and friendly, asking 10 repeat,
detached and reserved, reassuring, etc). This 15 why an Arab speaker
0٤ English may sound abrupt and commanding.
3. The intonation pattern of the question tag in Arabic is always rising,
the same as that of any other question without a question word. 110
English, 1٤ the speaker expects agreement from the listener, 109 (the
50002121) user 2 rising intonation. 1 11 (the listener) is demanding
agreement he uses a falling intonation.
4. 110 calls ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬threatens, Arabic uses ‫ ه‬high 1211 intonation pattern,
whereas in English, this varies between 4 high 115 intonation in
names stressed on the last syllable, e.g. Marie, 1٧4010100 and a high
fall intonation, as in Arabic in other names, e.g. Harry, Jane, etc.
(70

Exercise (23)
1151910 10 the following 510011 passage which 15 pronounced 010 a
monotone, i.e. without pitch variation.
٨٤ three o’clock 010 Friday the 1401 (‫ ا‬April, an elderly woman
was knocked down by 8 vehicle 11021 the University of Manchester.
11‫ و‬woman was taken 10 the hospital, but 61‫ ح‬died 011 the way. The
police are keen to question ‫ ه‬taxi driver believed to have witnessed
the accident.

Unit Seven
3٦1
Problematic Areas
 The above passage was said 010 2 mono one; 1‫ ا‬sounded 1400*
odd or unnatural

Exercise (2844)
05‫ل‬٧ listen to the 881000 passage uttered with normal intonation,
‫ اه‬three o’clock 010 Friday the 14th of April an elderly woman
was knocked down by a vehicle near the University of Manchester,
The woman was taken 10 the hospital but she died 010 the way. The
001100 are keen ٤0 41951010 a taxi driver believed 0‫ ا‬have witnessed
the accident.

Exercise (25) ‫لفليسكسل‬

Indicate whether the intonation 110 the following pairs 0٤ utterances 15

the same or different.
(a) ‫؛‬John has gone.
(0) ‫؛‬John has gone.
2. (a) The ‫؛‬boy is stupid.
(b) The boy is stupid,
3. (a) He told her.
(10) He told her.
4. (a) she’s happy!?
(b) she’s happy!?
Exercise (26) 0

Now listen 10 the following utterances and write down the meanings /
attitudes they convey. Note that they are said on a rising tune..
1. You can open the safe!
2. You can open the safe!
3. You can open the safe.
4. You can open the safe.

Exercise )27( ‫ارا‬

‫ د‬٦Open the safe.

‫د‬0 ‫ح;ج‬ I‘.!
:٦٢‫ جللالع‬-and attitude conveyed by the follow

Unit Se en Problematic Areas

 2. ،Don’t be 1٥٤.
3. ‫؛‬Don’t worry.
4. ‫؛‬Give me the gun.
5. ‫؛‬Drop your gun.
6. You mustn’t lie.
7. ‫؛‬Shut up.
8. ‫؛‬Don’t be silly.
9. ‫؛‬Don’t forget 10 ring.
10. ‫؛‬Put it there

Exercise (28) 10
How should 1109 following utterances be said ٤0 convey the meanings/
attitudes 110 brackets?
1. Take a deep breath. (Request).
2. Stand at ease. (Command).
3. 1 shan’t be a minute. (Soothing, encouraging).
4. Aren’t they wonderful! (Exclamation).
5. Who told you that? (1 didn’t quite catch the name; seeking 6 repeti"
11010).

6. 1105٧ much are they? (Asking for a repetition of foregoing infor-

10021010).

7. Good Heavens! (Exclamation).

8. He took the money. (Not she).

Exercise (2‫لقًا‬ ‫(و‬

510٢٧ whether the following question tags 21٥ said 011 4 falling or ris-
ing intonation; listen carefully:
1. ‫؛‬Bob ‫؛‬cant paint, can he?
2. She ‫؛‬doesn’t ‫؛‬love him, does she?
3. You’ve ‫؛‬seen, Mary, haven’t you?
4. You are a teacher, aren’t you?

319
. Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Exercise (30) [70

Now represent the intonation 0٤ the sentence "He’s the cSeverest" by

adding the intonation marks:
on ‫ ه‬falling intonation,
011 ‫ ه‬rising intonation,
010 ‫ ه‬falling - rising intonation, and write down the meaning / attitude
‫______________________________________________________عىهعطععطن‬

SAQs (5) (20

1. What are the similarities between English ‫ له‬Arabic intonation

patterns?
2. How 0005 the Arabic intonation system differ from that of Eng-
lish?
3. 110 what way do question forms 10 Arabic and English differ?
4- What is meant by attitudinal intonation?

lllllliiifiliiillllllllillililli
4.1 Orthographic Influences
Orthographic representation 01 consonants 200 vowels, and
subsequently of word forms, differs between English and Arabic.
Arabic representation 0‫ ا‬sounds in writing is far 1000٤8 regular than 15 ‫الم‬
110 English. 101‫ ؟‬example, the sound [k] in Arabic is always represented
by [‫ ]ى‬such as [kataba] ‫( كتب‬wrote) : [kala:m] ‫( كالم‬speech), [kari:m]
‫( كريم‬generous) and 50 00. 10 English the sound [k] is represented in
different ways such as kind, back, can, tobacco, school. Unique, khaki
and 9149910. The vowel sound (‫ال‬:) is represented in Arabic 07‫ و] آل‬such 45
(:1) ‫( فول‬beans), [wuju:h] ‫( وجوه‬faces) 50 ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬on. The same vowel in
English 15 represented orthographically 10 several ways, e.g. food, sue,
flute, to (strong form), to, shoe, ‫ والول‬through, thrw and fruit. This
causes a 100‫ ا‬٤ problems 10 ٨120 learners.
Given the above - mentioned situation, 801000 of the problems
Arab learners of English face 110 this ‫ه‬19‫ ه‬are the following:

Sounds with different letter representation

Unit Seven
320
Problematic Areas
 As mentioned above, both consonants ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬vowels 110 English are
represented 1‫ ل‬different letters 110 writing. 1100 following are examples:

1■ Consonants
/b/: back, rubber.
/d/: day, ladder, cal d, could.
/10000 ‫ل‬5/:11‫نل‬, edge, soldier, 229, sandwich
/1/: few, coffee, cough, physics, half, often.
/‫ع‬/: go, guess, phost, vogue, bigger.
/10/: hot, whom.
/j/: yet, onion, Europe, beauty, use, new.
/‫كا‬/: kind, ‫ وكنه‬can, tobacco, school, gueen.
/1/: led, bal, battle, tunnel.
/100/: sum, bomb, hammer, calm.
/10/: sun, know, gnaw, funny, pneumonia, cotton.
/10/: sung, si k, tongue, handkercheif.
/0/: pen, happen, shepherd.
//: led, mairy, wriggle, rhubarb.
/5/: soon, city, nice psychology, scene, mess, fsten, sword.
/ʃ/: short, machine, condit on, tens on, sure, pre ure,
spec al, ocean, schedule.
/tʃ/: chat, ‫ وولنماهن‬sta u e, luncheon, queso.
/t/: ten, bit er, hoped, 110010028, receipt, debt yacht, freight.
/٢٧/: yan, of, Stephen.
/w/: wet, one, chor, qu n, when.
/2/: 2910, was sissors, da^le, plays.
/5/: a ure, pleasure, vis on, genre, 101199.

n /2/: cat, draught (American English), 10211 (A.E.)

/a:/: 21100‫ و‬father, heart, ba ar, honest (A.E.)
/0/: ‫ واوم‬watc, cough, honest. (B.E.) /0:/: cue, law, or,
board, taught, though, ‫ ولموول‬talk, George.
//: met, sad, head, says, many, fr end, le sure, leopard,
buy, guest.
/3:/: her, wee, err, had, b rd, o mal.
/1:/: see, me seam ‫ لمعنن‬rece ve,, police, key, people.

111‫ل‬٤ Seven
321
Problematic Areas
 /3/: 'bid, England, c٥| 790013, busy, always, id,
symbol, 101011‫جي‬5‫ ول‬manage, bargain.
‫و‬
/u:/ food. sue, 11‫ات‬9 to (strong form), shoe, you, threw,
.11 ‫يمل‬٤
٦‫د‬//: put, wood, wo could.
٨١/: ‫ات‬, ‫ ة'ئذ‬٠‫ حتش‬dpes, (strong 101110) her.
/‫ة‬/: ‫ وتلمج‬die, dye, my, eye might, island.
/au/:now, ounce.
/oi/: boy, prison.
/1/: here, ‫و ثيلنذ وملين]قةة‬
2 theory,
/95/: there, their, hair, bare, be, scarce, eoplane,
mayor,
-/ŋə/: poor, insure, tour, cruel, amat u .
‫و‬
/ou/: gp, 199 road, go, owe, soul, oh. sew, though.
,/ei/: may basin, raise, gat, ca e
/419/: tire, buyg£, dyer higher.
/2149/: tow, our, hour, Howard.
/015/: employer, '‫؛‬,wye royal.
/eiə/: plgygr grgyr
/ouə/: lower, sewer.

‫ي‬
‫فحئ‬ Pronounced
٥ /‫ئ‬
‫ي‬/ as in ‫خج‬
go -‫ م‬as 111 ‫جي‬gentle
٧ 3‫ ؛‬/ʤ/' ٣ 4‫؛‬
hi Pronounced /0/ 49 in high; silent as in high.
‫يا‬ Pronounced ‫ تألك‬as in 5531‫■ و؟‬fo] 89 khaki: silent as 18 know, (id) as
inking.
‫إ‬ Pronounced ‫ تج رار‬in look, silent 8 in walk.
‫ج‬ Pronounced /0/ 2110 ‫ ى‬spend; [ph] 110 ‫ مه‬pen; /1/ 45 in photo.
[ Pronounced /r/ 110 ‫ قه‬render; /‫ق‬/ ‫ وه‬in reader
‫ي‬ Pronounced /5/ as 10 same; /2/ as 10 boys; /5/ as :0 shout.
b_ Pronounced /b/ as in boy; silent as in doubt.
t. Pronounced /t/ 25 110 stay; 10 as 10 ten; /6/ as in hat; /0/ as 10‫ نم‬thin,
/ʃ/ as in condition.
4 Pronounced /d/ as 110 day; /٤/ 5 110 walked.
z Pronounced III 110 ‫ ىه‬zoo; /5/ as 111 azure.
‫ن‬ Pronounced /45/ 45 in judge.

322
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 ‫ي‬ Pronounced /s/ as 111 century; /k/ ‫ وه‬in car; /tʃ/ as in church.
‫إ‬ Pronounced /k/ as 111 queen.
a. Pronounced /æ/ as 1101 11 ‫اهي‬: /2:/ ‫ وه‬calm; /0/ as 110 watch; /ə/ as 111
apple; /0:/ as in cause; /e/ as in said.
‫ي‬ Pronounced /e/ as 110 met; /a:/ as 110 heart; /1:/ as 110 me; /1/ as 110
women.
L Pronounced /ai/ as 111 high, /1/ 25 11 bid.
0„ Pronounced /0/ as in 110 25 /:0/ ‫ وأوم‬or; /3:/ as in word; /u/ 11‫ ىه‬٦
wolf; /‫داه‬/ as 113 cow; /ou/ 88 11 go; /uə/ as 110 poor.
u Pronounced /0:/ as 111 cause; /‫لما‬:/ as 10 fruit; /u/ 48 in put; /٨/ as 110
run.

n
Another 010010100 related to orthography and pronunciation is
that of silent letters. 110 writing English words, owing to historical and
other reasons, some letters are 5011٤٤00 but not pronounced. 110 most
0010100010 silent letters are the following:

(1) Final e such 2110 ‫ ى‬care, bite, live, etc.

(2) h in question words like what, why, where, etc.
(3) 20 113 various words such 2‫ ى‬night, light, taught, etc.
(4) 1 at ‫ هال‬end 01 words such as write،, reader, etc.
(5) ٤ in such words 25 listen, whistle, etc.
(6) b as in debt, doubt, bomb, etc.
(7) ‫ ع‬as 110 gnaw (bite), feign (pretend), 99.
(8) k as 110 know, knight, etc.
(9) 0 as psychology, etc.
(10) mas in mnemonic, etc.
(11) las in talk, etc.
(12) das in Wednesday, etc.
(13) easin clue, etc.

Homophones and homographs-

Homophones are words pronounced the same but spelt differently

and have different meaning. For example, piece / pi:s/ (101٤) and peace /
pi:s/ (100٤ war) are homophones as they sound the same but have different

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

 spellings and/different meanings. 010 the other hand, w/ro:/ (line) and
row /rau/ (argument) are speltthe same but have different pronunciation
and different meanings. The latter pair are called homographs. Here are
more examples 0٤ homophones 2114 homographs:

Homophones
(Same pronunciation but different 10 spelling and meaning)

their /ðeə/ ٩^‫حهما ححم‬

aloud/əlaud/ allowed/əlaud/
hole /houl/ whole /houl/
plain/pleim/ plane/plein/
see/si:/ sea /si: /

Homophones
(Same spelling but different 110 pronunciation 210‫ ل‬meaning)

lead / 11: ‫ ل‬/ (walk 0 ride 110 front) lead / led/ (metal)
lead /li:d/ (walk 0 ride 110 front) lead / 190/ (past 01 1924)
read / ri: ‫ل‬/ (present) read / red/ (past)

110 addition, there 15 also a class 01 words called polysemes: words

with the same pronunciation and the same spelling but with different
meaning:

Polvsemes
(Same 110 pronunciation and spelling but different 110 meaning)
bank /bæŋk/ (where money 15 kept; edge of ‫ ه‬river).
spring /8101110/ (8 season; where water 010095 up).
table /191031/ (a piece of furniture; facts 0[ figures arranged 110
columns 0 rows 010 a piece of paper).
head /hed/ (top or most important 00‫ ول‬most important 00015010
e.g. headmaster).

324
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 ٧‫ل‬
Exercises (31)
Attempt 10 read the following words, listen 10 them 010 the tape.
and then write them 110 English orthography.
a,/əbæk/ k. / 29011/
bf / əbæʃt/ 1. / ælaid/
c./əbri:veit/ m. / əluif/
d./əbro:d/ 1. / agri/
. / æbsəns/ 0. / opendiks/
٣ / ækədemɪk/ 0. / atribjuit/
.‫مياها‬:‫ال‬ q. / o:gziljeri/
h./əko:diŋli/ ‫ مم‬/ ٤٤5/

‫ل‬
:. / ədiʃən/ s. /bækwəd/
j,/əfekt t. / 1299145/

Exercise (32)
As 110 Exercise 31 above:
‫ه‬. /ba:bd/ k. /ilenθ/
b. /bærəl/ 1. / insaiklu:pi: 013/
c. /beisbo:l/ m. / gou st/
‫ل‬. /bei 10/ 10. / ʤaiənt/
e. / ba:θru:m/ o,/gift/
f/kru:zə/ p. /næʃənəl/
‫ع‬. /kʌltʃə/ q./headeik/
h /k٧d/ ɪ/finominə/
i. / daunwəd/ s. /saikaiətrist/
‫ل‬. / dwehŋ/ t,/kwit/

Exercise (33) 7١
21109 ‫ل‬
following 500105, listen 10 them 010 the tape 211 write ‫ل‬
them 110 phonetic transcription:
‫أ‬

/
a. mbber / / kscene /
‫إ‬
b. soldier
c. physics
/
/
/
/
1. tension
[Link]
/
/ I
d. guess / / 1.000٤ /
e. battle / / ©.question / ‫ا‬

325
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 f. tonmer / / ;|/ / ‫ئ‬

٠:;;3 ‫ج‬ / / r. / /
j' marry / / ‫خ‬٠ pressure / / I

Exercise (34) 0
As 110 Exercise 33 above
a. clam ! ‫إ‬ k. their ‫إ‬ I
b. heart I ‫أ‬ 1. soul ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
‫ن‬. 00‫ا‬ I ! m. raise j I
‫ل‬. honest I ! 0. buyer ‫ا‬ I
e, taught ! i 0. tower ‫ا‬ I
fi though I ‫ا‬ p. lawyer I I
gi head I I ٩٠ player ‫ا‬ j
0. 1 ‫ل‬ I ‫ا‬ r. seven ‫ا‬ ‫إ‬
i٠ wolf I I 5, owe I )
j. ounce j j ٤. where ‫ا‬ j

Exercise (35) 0
Give words spelled with the silent letters given 113 the positions
indicated, and then write the words you give 110 phonetic transcrip"
٤101
2.‫ ه‬in 111121 position: ............... j
0.110 0‫ م‬initial position:................... .........‫ا‬ /
‫ن‬. k 110 initial positions:..................... I
d.t after/s/:........................................................‫ا‬ ‫أ‬
9.1110 final 00511101................. ‫ا‬ I
fib before/k/.......................................... ............. I
g, I before/k/.......................................... ............ I
h. h in a question word..................... ............‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
i. gi 110 initial position:....................... .............‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
j. gh in medial position ............. ..........‫ا‬ ‫إ‬

326
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Exercise (36)
Each 0٤ 10 words phonetically transcribed below 1125 two forms 110
ordinary writing. Write the 500 orthographic forms of these words:
a. /blu:/........./........... 1/weit/.....
‫ج‬.‫اغةآلإ‬
٠ ١‫ة‬٠ ٣‫ ا هم‬.........‫ ا‬........... ...................
c. ‫ا‬hiə/h. /wud/.........../...........
0. meid/.1. /sʌm/........‫د‬..................
e. /rait/........./......... j./au/........../.٠٠.......٠
b٠m 0

1321 of the following words 15 pronounced 111 two different ways. 1010-
nounce each of them in two different ways and then write the phonetic
transcriptions 01 00٤ 01‫ه‬the two pronunciations 01 these words:
a. used/ // /
b. lead/ // /
c. read/ // /
d. learned/ /,/ /
e. use/ // /

SAQs (6) (20

1. What are the main problems 110 English orthography?
2. Why are there silent letters in English ordinary writing?
3. What 15 the difference between homophones, homographs and
polysemes?

4.2 Gemination
In Arabic, any consonant may 0‫ ه‬doubled; that 18. pronouncing 1٤
twice as long as 115 single sound. 111‫ ى‬doubling 0٤ consonantal sounds
110 Arabic 15 accompanied by greater muscular tension. For example,
the word ‫ أجل‬/? aʤal/whieh means "yes, indeed!" ‫ و‬or ‫؛؛‬certainly ٤٤ or
‫‘؛‬appointed date" :5 pronounced with one /ʤ/ sound. However the 50014
5213‫ أجل‬/22‫ل‬5‫ل‬/ which means ‫؛؛‬postponed", 5‫ ذ‬pronounced with ٤٧0 /ʤ/
sounds rather than one. 1115 process 15 called gemination or consonant
doubling. InEnglish,there is no suchdoubling or geminationofconsonant

Unit Seven
32]
Problematic Areas
 sounds but, 110 writing English, however, 100210 letters are doubled, for
example allow, attack, beginning. Although such letters are doubled 110
writing, they are not geminated or doubled 10 pronunciation.
Because 0٤ these facts, 1.٥. gemination 110 Arabic pronunciation
and doubling of letters 110 English orthography, Arab learners of English
tend 0‫ ا‬wrongly lengthen some English consonants. 101 example:
/ʤu:ləri/ jwey becomes/ʤu:llari/
/əlau/ allow becomes /allau/.
/ətæk/ attack becomes /attack/

Exercise (38)
Read the following words, then write them 111 phonetic transcription:
[Link] / / fbigger / /
[Link] / / 5.‫ه‬05‫ل‬ I 1
‫م‬.‫محأو‬ ! ‫ا‬ h. marriage / /
[Link] / / 1. opposition / /
e. tunnel / / j. immortal / /

Excise (39) (70

The following words are wrongly pronounced and consequent-
ly wrongly transcribed by some Arab learners 0٤ English. Read these
words and rewrite them 110 correct phonetic transcription. 1[2 ٤0 ‫ل‬-
count for 11‫ ح‬students’ mistakes.
‫ه‬. bomb */bomb/ [. special ‫ ؟‬/spesiəl/
b. rubber *Abbor/ g. ounce 2/ o:ns/
c. cofee */ koffi:/ 10. road */American /0/
‫ل‬. solider ^/so:lʤər/ i. judge * juʤ/
e. bigger * biggər/ 1. knight * knait/

Exercise (40) (20

٨5 110 Exercise 39
a.'feign */feign/ ‫ م‬allow */allau/
0. Wednesday */wednesdei g. exercise * /iksirsa:z/
c. aloud */ allud/ 1. problem */broblem/
3.00005‫ امت‬0.000٠2‫ا‬ 1. happy */120001/
e. employer */imploiar/ j. whistle */wistil/

328
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 ‫ه‬
5 05)7(
1. What are the two factors which make Arab learners of English
lengthen 6010• consonants in pronunciation?
2. Why does this happen?

4.3 Morphological Endings

English phonemes are combined together to 101110 syllables (see
Unit 5). 501120108110 ‫ و‬turn, are combined, to 10110 4 unit of language
called morpheme. For 9*2110019 109 word /ekstrə/ extra consists 0٤ two
syllables, /ek/ and /‫لماي‬/: the word /finij/ finish consists ‫ مم‬two syllables
/fi/ and /niʃ/. ‫ اال‬syllabes have 00 meaning ‫ مم‬their own. 1‫ا‬ is the
morphemes that are the smallest meaningfill units of language. ٨ word
may consist 0 00 morpheme such as / kæt/ cat, /1010/ ow and /‫لذل‬/
dish, 01 of 10000 0210 one 101010094005 such as /kæts/ cats, that 15 /kæt/
+/5/ /ʃouz/ shows, i.e. /ʃou/ -2/ ‫ج‬/ and /diʃiz/ di h , i.e. /diʃ/ and /ʃiz/.

Furthermore, you must have noticed 10110 the above that there are
two types ofmorphemes: content morphemes such as a , dish, and show
and grammatical (01 fictional) morphemes such as the plurals which is
pronounced /5/, III 01 /iz/ (see below). Content morphemes are words
which have a meaning 0٤ their own such as nouns (as 110 the examples
above), verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Grammatical morphemes consist
01 ‫ ه‬small number of words such 45 articles a, an, the; prepositions on,
110 ‫ واو‬die; plurals (pronounced /5/ // 0 /12/), the apostrophe’s) e.g.
boy’s, the third person present singular verb, in he runs ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬the ending
0٤ 10 past regular verb namely /1/ 10 ‫ ىه‬/stopt/ sopped, /d/ as 110 01910/
played/and /id/ 45 110 /ni:did/ needed.
Now you must 2150 have noticed that the plural ending, the
apostrophe’s 2104 the ending of the 10110 person present singular verbs,
are 211 written 5 0[ 95 but pronounced /5/ 0 /2/ or /12/. Similarly, ‫ل‬0‫ال‬
must have noticed that the ending of the past regular verb 15 written ‫ل‬
0[ ‫ لو‬but pronounced /t/, /d/, 0 /10/. 19٤3 discuss the rules for these
morphological endings.

329
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 ‫هسإصصعسئ‬
singular verb, ■endings.
50 writing, 211 these are realised 1098 0 8‫ س ل‬but pronounced /s٨ /2/
or /iz/ as follows:

a) If the final sound, before adding the 8, is 2 voiceless sound such

as /10/‫ و‬/‫ا‬/, or /‫كا‬/‫ و‬the 8 is pronounced /s/.
e.g. stop + s: stops / stops/.
hat + s: hatshts/.
work + 5: works / wə,:ks/.

10) 11 the final sound, before adding the 8 is a voiced sound such as
/b/, /‫ل‬/, or /g/ 01 /100/ the 8 is pronounced /z/
e.g. seed + ‫ى‬: seeds /31:02/.
bag + s: bags / bægz/.
boy’ + ‫ى‬: boy’s / 00012/.

‫ [م] (ن‬the 01031 sound, before adding 4109 ‫ ي‬is /ʃ/, /‫ال‬/‫ و‬/s/, /z/, /5/ or /
ʤ/ the 8 15 pronounced /12/.
e.g. dish + s: dishes /diʃiz/.
catch + ‫ي‬: catches /kætʃiz/.
10129 + 8: prizes /praiziz/.
judge + 6: judges /ʤʤiz/.
1‫ ىى‬+ s: kisses /kisiz/.
mirage + s: mirages / mira:[Link]/٠

Exercise (41) (71

Pronounce and transcribe the following words: seats, ropes,
bags, hats, hates, trips, books, seeds, robes, bats, sees, girl’s, girls',
robs, dishes, catches, kisses, edges, prizes, mixes.
a. seats k. sees
b. ropes !.girl’s
‫ن‬. bags m. 21115
d. hats n. robs
e. hates o. dishes
f. trips 0. catches

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

 %.‫ا‬٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠‫؛‬ 0
١‫ هه‬١‫كة‬ ‫ ا‬.............‫ا‬ ٩٠١‫ةىآله‬
‫ملج‬. ‫آلهسأل‬ !٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠‫؛‬ .‫هعجمل‬ ‫؛‬٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠‫؛‬
‫ا‬٠ ‫ب‬:: ‫تتتتتتتتتا‬ s٠mi/٠٠٠٠.........‫ا‬ ٦: j

Exercise (42) (3

٨0‫ ل‬the plural form, apostrophe 15 01 the present third person

singular (as the ease may be) ٤0 the following words and 111910 read
and transcribe your new words: wish, ask, match, judge, arrange,
catch, course, face, ohn, act, sniff, give, hit, visit, 40‫ ول‬boy, finish,
‫؛‬at, rrm,٠ flower.

......... / m.٠.........../ /
‫ل‬................................. 10 / /............................ / /
e..................... / ‫م‬.........................../ /
٤.................................../ / p.........../ /٠.٠٠
‫ع‬................................. / / /
1..................................... / / 1‫م‬.......................... / /
i.................... ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ٥٠‫ل‬ ‫ا‬

The ending of the nast regular verb

10 writing, the regular past ٧9100 ending 15 orthographically

realized by d or ed, 10 example smiled and ‫لمكللها‬. However, this
morphological ending is pronounced /‫ا‬/‫ و‬/d/ or /id/ as following:

1. 1[the final sound, before adding 01 ‫ ل‬ed 15 voiceless, ‫لم‬

0 18 ٥‫ ل‬pronounced /t/٠
e.g. look + ed: looked /lukt/.
smoke + 91: smoked /smoukt/.
laugh + ed: laughed /læft/.

2. 100 ‫ لم‬final sound, before adding ‫ ل‬or ed 1‫ ى‬voiced, d or

ed is pronounced /d/.

331
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 .‫ع‬. 800 + ‫ل‬: sobbed /sobd/.
fill ‫ ب‬ed: filled /fild/.

3. 11 the final sound, before adding ‫ ول‬or 18 ‫ لو‬/d/ 01 //, 0

or ‫ ل‬is pronounced /id/.
9.‫ع‬. need + ed needed /ni:did/.
wait + ed: waited / weitid/
‫ى‬:‫ حل‬+ ‫ل‬: sided/saidid/
Exercise (43)
Pronounce and transcribe 10 [Link] ‫ه‬ words:
0
a. help / / [Link] / ‫ا‬
b. ask / / !.visit / ‫ا‬
crush / / [Link] / ‫إ‬
d. box / / [Link] / /
e. pair / / o. describe / /
fenjoy / / [Link] / I
g dry ٠ / 1 .‫ل‬I 0 ‫إ‬
h. add / / r. demand / I
i. load / / [Link] / /
‫؛‬.count / / need / I

Exercise (444)
‫ه‬
Add 110 ending of the past regular verbs 10 the above exercise
0
and transcribe your new words:
a..................................... / / k.......................... / /
b..................................... / / 1........................... / /
c...................................../ / 10........................... / /
‫ل‬................................. / / 10........................... / /
‫ه‬....... / / ‫م‬................ .‫ا‬ ‫إ‬
٤......../ / .................‫ا‬ ‫أ‬
‫ع‬................................. / /
1.................................... / / r............................. / /
i...................................... / / S.............................. / /

‫ل‬...... / / t............................. / /

332
Unit Seven Problematic Areas

‫جبلج‬٦'‫ًا‬٦:٦٦‫'ري‬٢٦‫بى‬,'‫ي;'ذذئني‬:‫اا;;ا';ل‬.٠٠٠'‫رفر'ذك‬-‫ك‬٦٦‫د‬-‫;> 'ئ'ر‬٦'‫ر‬-٢;‫ي'؛‬٣‫تبئئ''البتت;ش'آلتكت‬-‫و‬٢:‫ر‬,٦‫م‬-'‫ك‬-‫ءك‬,;‫'''؛‬--,'‫رم‬.‫أ‬,.',''.'‫ب‬٠,٦‫د‬.;‫ك‬٦‫ذذتذ‬:‫ك‬
 9405 (8) (20
1. What 1119 ‫ ى‬difference 1001500010 phoneme, syllable, morpheme and
word?
2. What is the smallest unit 01 language?
3. What is the smallest meaningfol unit of language?
4. What are the three ways of pronouncing the plural and the third
00015010 simple present s?
5. What are 10 three ways of pronouncing the regular past 191089 d
07‫ م‬ed?

4.4 The pronunciation 01 "THE” and “A/AN”

1109 vowel sound, 0 phoneme, /ə/, which 15 called the schwa, is,
as you have 6900 above, the commonest vowel 110 English. 12 ‫ ا‬1‫ ى‬short
vowel which replaces many other vowels 110 words which have "strong,,
and ‘weak” forms, 110 most ‫ مم‬these forms the weak form has ‫ ه‬schwa /
9/‫ و‬210‫ ل‬the strong [01110 125 some other vowel 1100 use of 1100 /9/ or any
another vowel depends 010 th‫ ؛؛‬context. The words which have strong
‫ه‬0‫ ل‬weak forms are grammatical words such as the following.

Word Strong Form Weak Form

and ‫؟ل‬el ‫ل^الما‬
45 /‫رج‬/ /əz/
but /bʌt/ /bət/
that ‫ا‬،‫الح‬ 111
them ‫لمجلما‬ !‫!د‬
does /1٨7/ /dəz/
has /‫حم‬/ ‫جا‬7‫ا‬

There are many other similar words which also include the
indefinite article 2/20 and the definite article h :

a led ‫اوا‬
an ‫لهجا‬ 1A1
the /ði:/ /ðə/ or/ði/

Unit Seven
333
Problematic Areas
 As ‫ل‬0‫ ال‬see 10100 the above, the 15 pronounced in three different
ways:
1. he is pronounced in 15‫ ا‬strong 101100 /61:/ 5010010 115 ‫ ا‬stressed and
used by itself for reasons 0 meaning, .‫ع‬.
/ai sed ei sʌn, not:ð:sʌn/
(1 said ‫ ه‬son not the 5100)
2. h is pronounced in its weak form., /61/when it occurs unstressed
0091019 a vowel sound, e.g. /ðiæpəl/ the apple.
3. the 15 pronounced 110 1٤5 weak 101100 /61/ when 1‫ ا‬occurs 001010 a
consonant, 9.9.
/ðətalm/ the time: /ðəbuk/ the book.
It should be mentioned, however, that 110 ‫ وا‬its strong ٤01100
is rarely used but 15 occasionally stressed for reasons of meaning. In
most cases it 1‫ ى‬used in its two weak forms: /61/ before vowels and /
69/ before consonants.

Exercise (445)
Read the following sentences then transcribe he 25 /60/, /61/ 01
/ i:/ aas/ei/or/ə/and nas/æn/or/ən/asthe case may be:
a. The apples were put on the table / /,/ /
b. The oranges were in the kitchen / /,//
c. I have a brother and a sister / /,//
d. I have an uncle and an aunt / ///
e. She wanted the book not 2 book / /,//
0
20
‫ لم‬I ٢
SAQs (

here
‫(و ا‬
‫عًا زن‬ i‫؛‬abic? ٦
45 Dialectal Pronunciation
Most linguistic 1011008 111 the English language are common 10
both British English and American English, 2‫ ى‬indeed ٤0 other varieties
01 English, for example, Canadian English, Australian English, etc.
However, there are considerable differences between these varieties (01

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

 dialects) 110 phonetic, lexical orthographic and syntactic forms 48 well
25 110 the use of the language, 110 this section, you will be presented with
10 example of these differences, namely the pronunciation 01 certain
common words 110 British and American English. British English here
refers ٤0 the so called Received pronunciation (181) and American
English refers 10 the General American accent (GenAm).

Phoneme Inventory
10 begin with, the consonants of RP and GenAm are the same
(but see 0001066). 110 these tw o dialects there are twenty four consonantal
sounds 01 0010010010095. 11‫ ح‬only difference lies 110 the maintenance of
the /hw/ 110 GenAm as opposed to /w/ 110 10 110 words such as ha,
when, where. 1501 example, where 15 pronounced /hweə/ 1٦ GenAm
(see below) and /weə/in Rp'.
With the vowels, there is ‫ ه‬clear difference 110 the number 01
phonemes 110 the two dialectal varieties. RP, 8 you know, has twenty;
GenAm has sixteen only. The three diphthongs /iə,, eə, uə/ available 110
RP are 100٤ found in GenAm; instead 1100 combinations / ir, 1 ur/ are
found, e.g.

Word RP GenAm
dear /diə/ /dir/
fair /feə/ /fer/
lure /luə/ /lur/

Notice that the // sound is pronounced 110 GenAm but not in 1 in

which 1٤ is replaced 03/ ‫ل‬/.
110 addition, (390٨100 does not have the 10 vowel phoneme /0/ as 110
/dog/ ‫ل‬9‫ ع‬Instead, ‫ أ‬has either /a:/ as in /da:g/ or /o:/ as 11 /do:g/

Phonetic Quality of Phonemes

Consonants
Consonants 110 11 ‫ه‬11‫؛ ل‬GenAm are almost the same except 10
/r/ 200 /1/. 110 GenAm /r/ tends to be retroflex made with the tip 01 the
tongue turned backwards. 110 RP /1/ is a constricted continuent made
with the tongue raised and tensed 11 the area just behind the alveolar
ridge with relatively little retroflexion. 10 11 2180, an /r/ between 1٢5٧0

335
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 vowels 25 in very is sometimes pronounced with ‫ ه‬single flap 01 the
tongue against the alveolar ridge. It 1100‫ ه ى‬sometimes coloured with ‫ه‬
٢/5٧/ - like sound. For example i sounds like wap.
The /1/ sound differs 170 that GenAm thends ٤0 use ‫ ه‬dark /1/ in most
positions, whereas Rp, 25 you know, has clear [1] before vowels, e.g.
light and dark [1] before consonants 45 in hep 01 at 50014 end as in ‫ولهو‬
or where /1/ is syllabic as in /botl/ bottle.

/0٧915
There are more differences 110 vowels than in 0010010910٤8 between
10 and GenAm. Here we will give you some examples only. Both
dialects have 100 vowel /3:/ 110 ‫ ىه‬bird, but 11٦ 110 this vowel is almost
never followed 01/ 210 ‫آل‬/ sound, e.g. /03:‫ل‬/ bird, except /fe:ri/ furry. 110
GenAm There 18 always an /r/ sound 110 this position, e.g. /bə:rd/ bird.
/18 /‫ هه‬also usually longer 110 GenAm than 10 110

phoneme use in sets of words

‫ألسئ‬
110 GenAm, 211 the following three sets 0٤ words have /ʒ/. 110 11
only those under (a) 10٥٧0 this consonant; the ones 110 (b) 112٧0 either /5/
or /ʃ/ and those in (c) 114٧9 only /ʃ/.

a. vision, confusion decision, measure, treasure, pleasure, usual.

seizure, (/ʒ/ is used 110 0010 110 and GenAm).
b. Asia, immersion. Persia, pervesion. A/ in GenAm 2105/ ‫ل‬/
or/ʃ/in RP).
c. Version, aversion (/5/ 110 GenAm and /ʃ/ in RP).

/‫ر‬/ Sound
110 the following 5٧0145 /1/ is silent 111 RP 1‫ الماط‬٤ is pronounced 110
(some, especially southern) GenAm dialects: alms, balm, calm, palm,
psalm, qualmk

1٠‫ا‬ »‫ م‬I‫اجة‬
Words like bath have 2/ 10‫ه‬:/ sound /04:0/ 110 RP ‫ه‬1‫ لم‬and /æ/ sound
/0200/ 110 GenAm: after, path, rather, example, dance, pass.
The word father is pronounced with /a:/ 110 000 varieties: 110 and

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

‫^بيجبييبه‬::^٣"‫سب‬.٠‫ي‬::![‫رنب^سنشنششتيينست‬.‫يزبييةبنتتتبسبببم^نبييستييسيسييب^ت"سيبرته‬++-‫ ^ر‬٨‫^^ب‬-‫نبب‬٣٣٣‫ببب‬٣^‫ بدتجبتتتح^ستنب^^تمسبببيبم‬٤:٠:٠:"٠٦٠,٠.٠٠ '.'‫'ح‬٦‫»ثذ'د;تص‬:‫دليذئ‬ ٧‫ك‬:‫'ب'يكًا‬:‫ألذ'ئج‬.".'""'٠‫ر‬--,'‫أالد‬-‫د;ي‬:‫ال'خ‬٧‫ د'ر;لالسك‬... ٠٠٣٧‫ شس‬...‫'ما‬.« ;‫ط‬٢;‫ ب‬٠٨٠٣٨٣-٠٠٠٠٣‫ت‬٠:‫^تتتتسششنستةه‬٦٠٣ ‫رشه س‬
 GenAm, The following words are pronounced with /æ/ a traffic,
maths, gather. Atlantic 110 both 1 and GenAm.

‫ملوسل‬
1
110 the following words 1110 /1/ sound comes after 4 central vowel.
In 11 this central vowel 15 /٨ / but 1‫ ا‬is /ə/ in GenAm:
Borough, burrow, courage, concurrent, curry, flurry, furrow,
hurricane, hurry, worry.

‫دولناليل‬
The following words, derived 110100 the Latin language 010110 ‫ل‬
1110 ‫ ول‬writing. In 10 this sound is pronounced /ail/, and in GenAm 18
pronounced /1/ or /3/.
Fragile, futile, missile, tactile, virile.
Names 04 countries
110 the following 1021003 0٤ countries, the sound represented 00‫ل‬
the underlined letter 3 is pronounced /æ/ 110 RP and /a: / 110 GenAm:
Slovakia, Nicaragua, Rwanda, Surinam, Vietnam.

Individual words
A few words have different pronunciations 110 10 ‫ه‬0‫ ل‬GenAm.
110 the following list first the RP and then, following the slanted 11109,
the GenAm is indicated for 901‫ م‬item.
Schedule (‫ل‬/51(‫ و‬lieutenant (army: left/, navy: /lu:t/lu:t), erase
(2/5)‫ و‬herb (10/00 00105010810٤), stressed been (1: /1), aesthetic ( i: /e)
squirrel (i/ə,), (n)either (a:/i), dynasty (i/ai), progress, process
(ou/a:), status (2 01 æ/æ), tomato (a:/ei), vase (va.'z / ٢٧912 or veis),
clerk. Berkeley. Derby (a:/ə:r), route (u:/u: orau).

Exercise (46) ‫لغا‬

Say and transcribe the following words 2‫ ى‬they may 06 pro-
nounced and phonetically transcribed according 10 RP 210‫ ل‬GenAm
English:
Word RP GenAm
a. when / // /
b. year / // /

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

 c٠ hair ‫ا‬ 1 ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
‫ل‬. surety ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ i
. bare ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
f. lock ‫ا‬ I I ‫ ا‬0‫ م‬1 ‫إ‬
2. cure ‫ا‬ ! ‫أ‬ ‫إ‬
1. where I I .‫إ‬ ‫ا‬
1. cod ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ إ‬or ‫ًا‬ ‫ا‬
‫ل‬. nearly I ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ I

Exercise (447)

Pronounce the following words first 10 10‫ ل‬and 10010 110 GenAm
English:
a. race i. leam
٦. belt j٠ round
. awfil k. purse
‫ل‬. marry l. 1101198
9. couple m. raw
٤ better n. firm
‫ع‬.‫ن‬01‫ل‬ 0. bat
10. like
Exercise (48) cs

Pronounce and then transcribe the following words first 110 RP

and 10010 110 GenAm English:
a. decision / ‫أ‬ j
٦[Link]| ‫ًا‬ ‫ًا‬١‫ًا‬ ‫أ‬
c. hurricane / /, / /
d. fragile / 1,1 ‫ًا‬
‫ة‬٠٦٢‫ا‬٠‫هة‬ ‫ا‬ 1 1 1
f٠ either / 1,‫ًا‬ ‫ًا‬
g٠ calm / ‫اا‬ ‫ًا‬
h٠ Derby / 1,1 ‫ًا‬
‫؛‬.dynasty / ‫اا‬ ‫ًا‬
j٠ firtile / ‫ًا إ‬ ‫ًا‬
k. Persia / 1,1 ‫ًا‬
!,path / ‫ا‬ ‫ًا‬
338
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 11. gather
10. missile
0.1041100
p. version
q. treasure
‫ م‬maths
s. neither
٤. father

1. What 1‫ ى‬RP and what is GenAm?

2. What 01001101025 are found 110 RP ‫ اال‬not in GenAm?
3. Are the phonemes // and /1/ pronounced the same 111 the two dia-
lects?
4. Which pronunciation is used 110 this course?

5. Overview
111‫ ى‬final unit has discussed the most important areas 0٤ dif"
ficulty facing Arab students in learning the pronunciation 01 English.
These areas included consonants and clusters, vowels and diphthongs,
stress and rhythm and intonation. 1100 unit has 2150 discussed other
problems, namely orthographic influences, gemination, and dialectal
pronunciation, among others.

6. Answer-Key
Exercise (1)
82104]‫يهه‬2‫لي‬.50209
Sandra: John! Thank God you’ve come at last. The car’s 20119.
John: Nonsense, it can’t have gone. You must have forgotten
where it was.

339
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Sandra: No, honestly, after 1 dropped you 1 parked 1‫ ا‬opposite
the bus stop ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬popped into the optician’s and got
my glasses. 1 wasn’t long, it was just one o’clock 21‫لم‬
the shops were just shutting, and 1 wanted ‫ ه‬card for
Martha.

Exercise (2)
‫ًاا ة‬1١1‫ًا‬1 ‫ لما ًا‬./‫لم‬
‫ع‬./‫ز‬65/

١‫اه‬1‫اًا‬١1‫ًا‬1 !.‫إإ‬

c. ‫آلل‬1.1‫ل؛‬
‫ل‬.‫أل‬1‫لت‬ i./tʃ/,/ʤ/
‫ه‬. 1‫ج‬1٠‫ا‬٦‫ج‬1 ‫ |ل‬111‫ا و‬١|

Exercise (3)
‫ه‬.‫اآلل و اآلل‬ ‫ها ر اال ًا‬
١٥ ‫المل‬ ‫ج‬.‫لال‬,‫أا‬
‫م‬.‫ا‬,1‫أه‬ h. /1/, /1/
.‫ اآلل‬1‫له‬ .1٦١1‫و‬1‫أ‬١‫ل‬
‫ واآلل ح‬111 ‫ن‬./‫ا‬

Exercise (4)
a. III. /ʤ/
‫لغ‬١‫ل‬,‫ًاا‬
٠1
‫م‬.‫ال‬,5‫ال‬
‫ن‬. )‫ ليا‬,‫لج‬ ١‫م‬٠ ‫ ا‬,‫ليا‬
٩. ‫أ‬,‫أل‬ .‫اجالل‬
‫اًاا ة‬١‫اآا‬ j./l/, /r/

Exercise (5)
‫مه ك‬

•٢

‫ة‬..‫؛؛إ‬
‫م‬
‫ د ئ ه‬٣‫ي ئ‬
٦
‫ي ح‬

‫ة‬. ‫إ؛‬
٦
.‫ ن س‬٠ ٣ ٦

jllllllllllj

. 1]

Exercise (6)
a. /50100/ f. /gud ‫كلها‬/

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

 b. /skru:/ 0:‫ع‬./٤ laif/
c. /ha:t 115/ 10. /best 10010‫حح‬/
d٠ /nekst sʌndi/ 1. /splendid/
e. /loŋstri:t/ j. /10500110 stn:t/

Exercise (7)
a. /smaild/ [ /læʃt/
. /helpt/ ‫ع‬. /wotʃt/
. /slipt/ 10. /01‫م‬16‫ل‬/
‫ل‬. /klektid/ 1. laepst/
e٠ /bæŋd/ j. /19814/

Exercise (8)
a. /wotʃt krikit/
0. /θæŋk tðəɪn
c. /nekst 5101110/
‫ل‬. /Ji: tempts stremʤəz/
e. /mikst swi:ts/

Exercise (9)
‫ه‬. /ti:tʃ/ f/flid/
b. /hedz/ ‫ع‬. /hæpi/
c٠ ٩٨1‫امم‬ 10. /fo:ɪt/
‫ل‬. /ha:t/ ii /butʃə/
٦0:‫ م‬/٤/ j-/gru:p/

Exercise (10)
2. /fjuəriəs/ f. /10303/
b. /‫ زيا‬uəriəs/ ‫ع‬. /found/
c. ‫أححذما‬ 0. /klouz/
d. /ʤon/ :. /piktʃə/
e. /00117/ ‫ل‬. /ʌndestænd/

Exercise (11)
‫ه‬. /dinəz/ f. /2120100^108/
٥. /əmaunt/ gi/əgri:/

341
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 ‫م‬. /5٦0.‫امج‬ 10, /[/‫ولحمره‬
‫ل‬. /kəreiʤəs/ ‫ذ‬. /tʃainə/
e. /mə:dərə/ ‫ذ‬. !٠‫س‬

Exercise (12)
‫ه‬. /ʃud/ f. /5101110/
b. /Jot/ ‫ع‬. /eksə,saiz/
c. /lok/ . /1165019110/
‫ل‬. /10/ 1. /ə,geinst/
e. /led/ ‫ل‬. /ikstend/

Exercise (13)
‫ة‬. Itaaxl fl /ʤoin/
0. /kjuə/ ‫ج‬. ‫ألذهل‬
c. /riə,l/ 10. /laid/
d. /0135/ ‫ز‬. /daut/
e. /hoist/ j./bout/

Exercise (14)
2. /klouz/ 10:2/ ‫و‬/
0. /bout/ ‫ و‬/ bot/
,‫اهملام‬
‫ل‬. /kau/ 10/ ‫و‬:/
e٠ /kouk/,/ko:k/

Exercise (15)
1. ‘dictionary 6. engineering
2. specific 7. ‘object
3. ‘happiness 8. ob’ject
4. ‘engineer 9. ‘project
5 dictionaries 10. pro’ject

Exercise (16)
1. ‘That’s an‘insult.
2. ‘you ،mustn’t in’suit ‘people.
3. ‘These are ‘good ‘results.

342
Unit Seven Problematic Areas

.-‫'=د^;=د‬,‫آ‬-٠‫ت‬:‫د‬٦‫؛؛‬.'٠٠٠'‫ب‬٠'‫؛=تتتاأد‬٠٠‫'د‬٠=‫ا‬,-‫د=ئ‬-‫م؛ذي‬
 there 4. ،Chaous results 1٤ 1‫؛ ى‬no ‫؛‬order
They( .5 ‫؛‬sent ‫؛‬two ‫؛‬.delegates there

Exercise )17(
content، .1 5. ‫؛‬adult
correct .2 6. re’port
ensure 3 7. ‫؛‬increase
4. ‫؛‬result 8. re’bel

Exercise )18(
.As instructed

Exercise )19(
‫؛‬Peru ago
‫؛‬pencil believe
‫؛‬German again
‫؛‬motel below
‫؛‬bottom a’bove
‫؛‬devil correct
‫؛‬elbow re’veal

Exercise )20(
perhaps

Exercise )21(
domoesti’cate
popularize
stimulate
cultivate
immunize
1050112112

Exercise )22(
The .1 10005 ‫؛‬.laughed
The .2 ‫؛‬boys ‫؛‬.laughed at him
The .3 ‫؛‬boys’ll ‫؛‬him laughed 2٤.

343
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 4. 1100 ،boys are 121491000 ‫‘ اه‬john.

Exercise (23)
As instructed.

Exercise (24)
As instructed.

Exercise (25)
1. Similar 2. Different 3. Different 4. Similar

Exercise (26)
!.Command 2. Encouraging
3. Questioning 4. Questioning

Exercise (27)
!.Command 2. Encouraging
3. Soothing 4. Command/ Request
5. Command 6. Inquring
7. Command 8. Anger
9. Request 10. Command

Exercise (28)
1. ‘Take a deep breath.
2٠‘Stand at ease.
3. 1 ‘shan’t be a minute.
4. ‘Aren’t they wonderful!
5. ٤٢٧100 told you that?
6. ٤110٢5٧ much are they?
7. ‘Good heavens!
8. ‘He 100 the money.

Exercise (29)
!.Falling
2. Falling
3. rising
4. Falling

Unit Seven Problematic Areas

 Exercise (30)
1.1115 the cleverest. Expressing a fact.
2. He 15 the cleverest. Questioning,
3. He 18 the cleverest. Expressing approval.

Exercise (31)
‫ه‬. aback . ago
b. abashed 1. allied
‫م‬. abbreviate m. aloof
‫لم‬. abroad 10. angry
e. absence 0. appendix
f. academic 00 attribute
g. accord q. auxiliary
11. accordingly r. acts
:. 211111010 5. backward
‫ل‬. affect ٤. baggage

Exercise (32)
a. barbed k, eleventh
b. barrel 1. encyclopedia
c. baseball 100. ghost
0. bathing 10, giant
e. bathroom 0. gift
٤ cruiser 0. national
g. culture q. headache
0. curved 1. phenomena
1. downward 5„ psychiatrist
j. dwelling ‫ا‬. 91‫ل‬1٤

Exercise (33)
1‫سأ‬ k. /51:10/
b. /soulʤə/ 1. /tenʃər/
c. /fiziks/ 10. /houpt/
‫ل‬.‫أهمحا‬ 1. det/

345
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 ‫ح‬. /bætl/ ‫م‬. /kwestən/
f. /hæmə/ ‫آل‬٠ ‫هةأها‬2‫أ‬
‫ج‬. ‫؟‬٨‫أأه‬ q. /0135‫ح‬/
1. /ʃepəd/ r. /sti:fən/
:. /hæŋkətʃif/ %، ‫ل‬3‫ملحة‬
jt/mæri/ ٤. /preʃə/

Exercise (34)
‫ه‬. /ka:m/ ٦‫ي‬. ‫أمجما‬
b. /ha:t/ 1. /50111/
.‫ألمما‬ ‫ه‬. ٣‫ه‬7‫ا‬
d. /onist/ 10. /‫جزه‬/
‫ح‬. ‫م‬٠٩‫ل‬ ‫م‬. 1١‫سع‬
. HI 00. /lo:jə/ or /loiə/
‫ع‬. /hed/ ‫و‬. /pleiə/
h /bid/ ‫مم‬. /seven/
٩. m 5.1‫اا‬
‫ل‬. /auns/ ‫أ‬٠ ‫ا‬١‫إحجآل‬
Exercise (35)
a. write/rait/
10. psychology/ saikoɪəʤi/
. knight/ nait/
‫ل‬. listen/ lisən/
e. player/ pleiə/
٣ doubt/ daut/
g. walk/wo:k/
11. why/ wai/
1. giant/ ʤaiənt/
j. night/ nail/

Exercise (36)
2. blue/ 1‫ح‬٢٧ f. wait/ weight
0. buy/ 00‫آل‬ ‫ي‬. week/ weak
c. here/ hear h. would/ wood
d. made/ maid i. sum/ some
e. right/write j. hour/our

Unit Seven
346
Problematic Areas
 Exercise (37)
a. /ju:st/, /ju:zd/
. /11:‫ل‬/‫ و‬/led/
c. 1‫ة‬٦‫ة‬1,1‫سًا‬
‫ل‬. /lə,:nd/, /lə:nid/
‫ح‬.‫ذاهال‬12‫أ‬

Exercise (38)
‫ملجاذ ج‬ f. /bigə/
0. /spotid/ %‫لآلف! ا‬
c. /Id ‫ا‬ 1.100201115/
d. /hæmə/ i. /opəziʃən/

e. /tʌnəl/ j/imo:təl/

Exercise (39) '

‫ه‬. /boin/ Silent letter ‫و‬.
b. /rʌbə/ Double consonant and 1121 1
c. /kofi/ Double letters; f and e.
d. /soulʤə/ English spelling and final 1
e. /bigə/ Double consonant and final r
f. /spəʃiə,l/ English spelling.
‫ج‬. !‫!آلد‬ English spelling.
10. /roud/ Influence of Arabic vowel system.
1. /45٨‫ل‬5/ English spelling.
‫ل‬. /nait/ Silent letter k.

Exercise (40)
‫و‬. /fein/ 911910‫ ا‬letter ‫ع‬.
٥. /wen dei/ s lent letter ‫ه ل‬10‫ ل‬English spelling,
c. /əiaud/ weakening of vowel.
‫ة‬. ‫جها‬002‫أ‬ weakening 01 vowel doubling 01 p ‫ه‬10‫ ل‬Arabic.
. /imploiə/ English spelling and silent
‫؟‬. )٦‫اله‬ weakening 0٤ initied vowel and double 1.
‫ع‬. /eksəsaiz/ Influence of Arabic 210‫ ل‬spelling.

347
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 1. /probləm/ Influence of Arabic consonant vowel system.
1. /102901/ Influence of Arabic consonant system.
‫ل‬. /wisəl/ Silent letter t.

Exercise (41)
a. /51:15/ k. /si:z/
b. /11010006/ 1. gə:lz/
‫ن‬. 101. /9:12/
1. /hæts/ n. 1٦‫ممم‬
. /heits/ o. /diʃiz/
f. /trips/ ‫م‬. /kætʃiz/
‫ع‬. /buks/ . /kisiz/
h. /si:dz/ r. /edʤiz/
1. /roubz/ ‫أس^ل^أهملم‬
‫ل‬. /bæts/ ٤. /miksiz/

Exercise (42)
‫ه‬. wishes/ wiʃiz/ k. sniffs/ 910107/
. asks/ æsks/ .‫أ لنج النج‬ 2
‫ن‬. matches/ mat iz/ m. hits/ 1115/
d. judges/ 512‫ل‬5٨‫ل‬/ 10. visits/ visits/
e. arranges/ əreinʤiz/ 0. adds/ædz/
f. catches/ kætʃiz/ 00. boy’‫؛؛‬/ boiz/
‫ع‬. courses/ksiz/ ‫و‬. finishes/ finiʃiz/
٦. faces/ feisiz/ r. eats/ i:ts/
:. John’s/ʤonz/ 5.11105/1‫ر‬105/1‫م‬٨102/
j. acts/ kts/ ٤. flowers/ flauəz/

Exercise (43)
2. /help/ ‫يا‬. /snail/
. /a:sk/ l. /vizit/
‫ع‬. /]٨/ m. /ʤʌ n /
4. /boks/ n. la:st/
e. /093/ 0. /diskraib/
f. /inʤoi/ ‫م‬. /01102: ‫ا‬/

348
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 g. /drai/ q, /‫لالم‬/
0. /æd/ 1‫ م‬/dima:nd/
1. /loud/ %.‫ًاا‬٠‫الآل‬
j. /kaunt/ ٤. /101:‫ل‬/

Exercise (44)
a. helped/ helpt/ k. 51101190/ smaild/
٦. asked/ a:skt/ 1. visited/ vizited/
c. rushed/ ‫الهم‬/ m. jumped/ ʤʌmpt/
‫ل‬. bod bokst/ 10. lasted/ ɪa:stid/
‫ح‬. paired/ peəd/ 0. described/ diskraibd/
f. 01100000/ lnʤoid/ 0. departed/ dipa:tid/
‫ع‬. dried/ dried/ q. 01051100/ put/
h, added/ ædid/ 1 demanded/ dima:ndid/
i. loaded/ ləudid/ s. rested/restid/
‫؛‬.counted/ kautid/ t٠ needed/ ni:did/

Exercise (45)
‫ألىب‬ , /ðə/
0./61/ ‫و‬ ‫ا^ملا‬
, ‫م‬.‫أها‬ ‫اها‬
‫ل‬. /ən/ ‫و‬ /‫مرح‬/
‫ح‬. ‫ا‬.‫ا‬ , ‫أةإ‬
Exercise (46)
RP Gen ٨10
‫ه‬. 56‫ملح‬ /hwen/
0. /jiə/ /1/
c. /heə/ /her/
0. /ʃuəli/ /urli/
‫ح‬. ‫امح‬ /ber/
/‫ام‬/ /lo:k/or /lo:k/
‫ع‬. /kjuə/ /kjur/
٦‫م‬. ‫أ‬٦‫اىهتيج‬ /hwer/
1. /kad/ /ka:d/or /ko:d/
j٠ /niəli/ /nirli/

349
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Exercise (47)
Listen to the tape.

Exercise (48)
RP Gen ٨1‫م‬
a. /disiʒən/ /disiʒjən/
‫ط‬. /‫كا‬٨11‫ل‬5/ /kʌ:ridʒ/
c./hrikən/ /hʌ:rikən/
‫ل‬. /fræʤail/ /fra:ʤil/ ‫ مرم‬/fra:ʤail/
e. /vaitnæm/ /vaitna:ɪɪi/
f. /aiðə/ /i:ðə/
‫ع‬. /14:100/ /ka:/
h. /da:bi/ /də:rbi/
1. /dinəsti/ /dainəsd/
‫ل‬. /ŋu:tail/ /fju:til/ 0 /1‫الت‬:‫ا‬/
k٠ /pə:ʃə/ or/pə:ʃjə/ /pə,:rʃə/
/0290/
].‫ؤج‬.‫اهل‬ /gæðəɪ/
1‫م‬. /misail/ /100111‫ى‬/ or/misəi/
toon .0‫؛‬ /011/
0. /va:ʃən/ ‫هال‬:‫ل^مة‬
. ‫أة]ماا‬ /trəʒər/
‫ًا‬. ‫اىمما‬ !‫م‬٦‫اج‬
s. /naiðə/ /ni:ðər/
. ‫و؟‬.‫إجال‬ /fædər/

Unit 5‫ح‬٧‫ه‬ Problematic Areas

 7. References
1. Gimson,A.C. (1970) An Introduction to the pronunciation of Eng-
I London: Edward Arnold.
2. Jones, Daniel (1956) An English Pronouncing Dictionary, new
edition,, London: Dent.
3. Jones. Daniel (1969) An Outline of English Phonetics. 9th ed.
Cambridge.
4. O’Conner, J,D. (1978) New Phonetic Readings. 139110: Francke.
5. O’Conner J.D. (1980) Better English Pronunciation, Cambridge
Universify 101955.
6. Roach, p. (1985) English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical
Course. 3‫ ل‬ed., London: Oxford University 101955.

351
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Phonetic Charts

352
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Chart 1-A
Phonemic Symbols Used in this Book
(Adapted from Hassan, 1999)

A. The English Consonant Phonemes

1/0/ 10011 0‫له‬
1٠ fol
/01:/
be
3.// tea /ti:/
4. ZdZ ‫مل‬ ZduZ
5٩‫يل‬ cat /‫هيأ‬/
6./‫ع‬/ go ZgouZ
1.‫اا‬ Fat ZfaetZ
8./v/ very ZveriZ
[Link] three zθri:z
10./6/ that zðætz
‫اا‬٠‫آلأ‬1 ‫ألحأل‬ /51/

12.// zoo ItwJ

13./(/ 51111 zʃipz

‫اآلل إدا‬ measure ‫ًاا‬٠1

15.7٤/ child Zta'ldZ
16./‫ل‬/ just ‫ ا‬٠‫<؟‬١‫ل‬
‫ا‬1.1١١‫ي‬ hat ZhastZ
18./1/ like ZlaikZ
/1001:/
19. /m/ me
2١.‫ال‬ no /00/

/510/
21 ./ŋ/ sing
22. /1/ read ZrdZ
23.155‫ال‬ we 5[٠‫ا‬
‫ني‬ yes ZjesZ

353
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 Chart 1-B
Phonemic Symbols Used in this Booh
(Confd.)
(Adapted 10110 Hassan, 1999)

18. 1106 English Vowel Phonemes

l./i:/ see /si:/
2.717 ‫ى‬1 15‫[؟‬
277f— bed 710207
w cat 71
5.72:7 arm 72:1017
6. /57 1 /hot/
7./0/ ٦oor 7do:7
5.7/ look 7I11k7
5711:. moon 711111:117
10. /ʌ/ up /٨007
11.79:/ Id /be:d.
2.73. ago /ə,gou/

c, The English Diphthongs

٦/ei/ wait /weit/
‫نال‬١‫ال‬ 20 /gou/
3./ai/i my /1021/
4//‫س‬
now 711117
5.‫ سأم‬boy /017
6// 1
/1
//‫س‬
there 1
57/‫س‬ -7‫سأ‬7
5111

Unit Seven
354
Problematic Areas
 Chart 2
12%8 of English Consonants

Staler of Voicing
Articulation

I
I
-

٠‫ء‬
‫ا ج‬
Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Velar Glottal
dental
Stops voiced b ‫ل‬ g
(Plosives) Voiceless p .‫؛‬ ٤ ! k
Fricatives voiced ٢٧ 5 ‫ي‬ ٤
‫إ‬
Voiceless ٤ 9 s ʃ h

Stops voiced ٤ ʤ
(Plosives) Voiceless ʧ
‫ن‬ ٠

Stops voiced 10 0 ŋ
(Plosives) Voiceless
Stops voiced I
(Plosives) Voiceless
50008 voiced ‫ل‬ ‫دا‬ 1 ‫ل‬

(Plosives) Voiceless ___________________

(After Hassan, 1999)

 Chart 3
The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1989)

CONSONANTS
‫داه‬ ‫مصىغ‬ ‫بسلب‬٠‫ت‬ ‫*«*صد‬ Vu١n\a١ Vela* ‫*ها«ا*ال‬ ٤‫ادءحجوس‬ ‫\دل\تيه‬١‫ة‬١

. Plosive ] ‫لم‬
٦ ‫ج‬٩‫ع‬١‫م‬١
5 ŋ
t—
Tria

‫؟‬٥٣*" ٤3٥0
Ffiaitvc θ ð]s zjʃ ‫ة‬
٦‫م‬١‫\آلائ‬

٢rk٠،i٠»vc

ApproMimant ٤34
1،:‫ييي‬
49110 ‫؟‬441^1113‫ا‬ L
‫ذخأ‬٠‫ألآلس‬€‫جس‬

Implosive ʧ ‫ى‬
Whert symhuk ٠‫ محبي‬ill ‫ قب‬ibeoix )‫؛‬Hbcrifht KprtseniiS ‫ ه‬٧‫ وميمنه‬،‫د»ال‬,,‫ال فتعمووري طا‬٢*‫ع‬٠٦‫; ؛تد‬Wi‫?>؛‬٥ii0n،i juʤai impOMfata«u*

VOWELS
Front Central Bad،

١٧hf/c ٩yn>l ‫دحيوس‬in pair*, ihc 4 ‫ ببا‬UHh، rlflw

,‫مجيحي‬9٤‫ • ع‬nwnjed ٧٣‫اجب‬٠

(Arter Ladefoged, 1993)

Unitseven 356
Problematic Areas
 Chart 4
‫ لهم‬comparison 0٤ some systems 10 transcribing vowel
sounds. Where ٤600 symbols are shown corresponding ٤0
the vowel in ‫ ه‬single word, ٤00 first is appropriate ٤0‫ م‬most
speakers 0٤ American English, and the second for most
speakers 0٤ 08٤٤351 English.

Key Ladefoged Previous Kenyon Prator& Gimson/ Wells Webster’s

cActionary

word 1993 Edition & Knott Robinett Jones LPD

-EPP 14 -
‫سس^لفأليقلس‬

Beat i ‫ز‬ " iy iy 1٠ i: e

Bit I ‫ا‬ I I 1 I i
Bait el el ‫ه‬ ey ei el a
Bet ɛ e ɛ ɛ e e e
Bat as æ as æ as as ٤
Father ‫ق‬ 1 4 a a 4٠ ‫غ‬
Brother 0 0, 4 a 3 ‫ا‬0‫ر‬ a

Bought ‫ه‬ y ɔ 3 3: a:ɔ: ‫م‬

boat 0 0‫ى‬ o ow 014 0‫جأل‬٧ 0

put ʊ co ʊ 1٤ u u u
Boot u u 1 11٦٧ 11٠ u: u
Butt ٨ ‫ح‬٨ ٨ ‫ي‬ ‫ج‬ A ə

Bird 33 ‫ ج‬9 * ər 9٠ 5:3٠ ər

Bite al a ٤ al ‫ل‬٧ ai 41 1
bout aU aɑ) aU aw au au ‫ه‬
80‫ل‬ 3 1 31 ɔɪ ‫د‬5٧ ɔi ɔɪ oi

(After Ladefoged, 1993)

Unit Seven
357
Problematic Areas
 Chart 5
The latest and revised phonemic symbols 0 EPD ٤
Vowels and diphthongs
1 1 as 11‫ف‬
٠ ‫جآله‬1‫ه‬١٦1 11 ٠
3 ٤
as 140 3/14:)1(/

2 ٤ 25 in sit It/ 12 ə 45 in 2‫ححاو‬75‫ا‬

3 ‫ه‬ as in teɪɪ/ten/ 13 el as in page/pei ʤ/

4 æ as in hat/h æt/ 14 əʊ 45 in honɪe/hə,ʊm/

5 1 as in arm/d:m/ 15 as 21‫و‬
al five/falv/

6 ‫ر‬
0 as in gogt/ 16 ao 45 ‫و[ق‬ now/naɑ/

7
٥٠ ‫ه‬8 ٤18 saw/s):/ 17 ‫آد‬ as ٤10 join/ʤɔ 110/

8 ʊ ‫ ي‬٤1‫و‬ put/pʊt/ 18 ɪə as in
٦ ١‫أ‬
٦‫آآلىا‬1‫ًاعقأاًا‬

9 u: as in too/tu:/ 19 ‫ألج‬ as ٤10 hair/heə(r)/

10 ٨ as in eup/kʌp/ 20 75 as in
pure/pɪ'ʊa(r)/

Consonants
1 p as in 10910/1991/
13 ‫ى‬ as 111 8‫حتام‬75‫ا‬

2 b as in bad/bæd/ 14 z as in nlzʌrj

Unit Seven Probiematic Areas

 3 ٤ as m tea/ti:/ 15 ʃ 45 11٤ shezji:z

4 ‫ل‬ as in 16 3 as 10 ٧38٤01/2٧510
did/dɪ ‫ل‬/

5 k 4‫ ي‬in eat/kæt/ 17 1 as in 10077/10275/

6 ‫ي‬ as in got/g٠،t/ 18 m 25 ٤٣1 man/mæn/

1 tl as in ehm/tʃm/ 19 11 as in ‫هس‬٦‫اذ‬

8 ʤ as in june/ʤu:n/ 20 ŋ as in sing/siŋ/

9 ٤ as 110 fall/f)':l/ 21 1 2‫ ي‬in leg/legZ

٢٧ as in 22 r 2‫ و‬in red/red/
10 voice/١٠:i s/

11 θ 45 11 429210/0^10/ 23 ‫ز‬ as 31٤ ‫هل‬8‫ما‬8‫أ‬

12 ð as in then/ðen/ 24 6‫ل‬ 48 in 55[‫ااح‬55[‫لله‬

35‫و‬ Problematic Areas

Unit Seven
 REFERENCES
1. Abercrombie, 10. (1967) Elements of General Phonetics,
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
2. Akmajian Adrain et 1992) 1‫ )ه‬Linguistics: An Introduction to
Communication. 3٣‫ل‬. ed. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.
3. AlMutawwa N. and T. Kailani (1989) Methods of Teaching
English to Arab Students. Longman. Hongkong: Longman.
4. Crystal. 10. (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5. Formkin, Victoria and Rodman (!993)An Introduction
to Language. 5th ed. New York: Harcourt 181200 College
Publishers.
6. Gimson. A.c. (1970) An Introduction to the pronunciation of
English. 10100010: Edward Arnold.
7. Hassan,. m. (1999) English Phonetics and Phonology. Amman:
DaralHamed.
8. Jones. Daniel (1956) An English Pronouncing Dictionary, new
edition,, London: 1090٤.
9. Jones, Daniel (1969) An Outline of English Phonetics. 9th ed.
Cambridge.
10. Kharama, N. 210‫ ل‬٨. Hajjaj (1996) Errors in English Among
Arabic Speakers: Analysis and Remedy. 2nd ed. Beirut: Librarie
duLiban.
11. Ledefoged. p. (1993) A Course in Phonetics. 3rd ed. New York:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers,,
12. Mitchell,[Link](1989)Englhnnn
for Arabic Speakers. London: Longman.
13. O’Conner, .10. (19781 New Phonetic Readings. Bern: Francke.
14. O’Conner J.D. (1980١ Better English Pronunciation. Cambridge
University Press.
15. Random House (1995) Webster’s College Dictionary. New York:
Random House.
16. Roach. 1 (1985) English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical
Course. 3rd ed., 10100010: Oxford University Press.

360
Unit Seven Problematic Areas
 17. stageberg, N٠ (1971) Ar) Introductory English Grammar. New
York: Rienhart and 771115‫نا‬010‫ و‬INC,

361
Unit Seven Problematic Areas