UNIT-1 QUANTUM PHYSICS AND SOLIDS

1Q). What are the matter waves? Mention the properties of matter waves.
Matter waves: When the particle in moving it exhibits wave nature these waves are called
‘matter waves’ and the associated wave length known as ‘de-Broglie wave length’.
Properties of matter waves:
i). Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
ii). Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated
with it.
iii). When v = 0, then 𝜆 = ∞ , i.e. wave becomes indeterminate and if v = ∞ then 𝜆 = 0.
This shows that matter waves are generated only when material particles are in motion.
vi).Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves but they are a new kind of waves are known as
pilot waves.
v). The velocity of matter waves can be greater than the velocity of light.
2Q). State and explain de-Broglie’s Hypothesis.
de-Broglie’s Hypothesis: According de-Broglie’s the radiation (light) exhibits dual nature i.e.
wave and particle nature. Similarly when the particle in moving exhibits wave nature these
waves are called matter waves and the associate wave length is known as de-Broglie wavelength.
If the mass of the particle is ‘m’ and moving with ‘v’ velocity, then the de-Broglie wave length is
given by,
ℎ
𝜆= Where h = plank’s constant,
𝑚𝑣
When the particle is moving the energy ‘E’ then the associated wave length is
given by,
ℎ
de- Broglie wave length , 𝜆=
√2𝑚𝐸

3Q). Derive expression for de-Broglie wavelength of matter waves.

de-Broglie wave length: The expression of the wavelength associated with a material particle can
be derived on the analogy of radiation as follows:
Considering the plank’s theory of radiation, the energy of photon (quantum) is
ℎ𝑐
E = h𝜐 = → (1)
𝜆
Where c is the velocity of light in vacuum and 𝜆 is its wave length and ‘h’ is known as plank’s
constant i.e. h=6.626 × 10−34 Jsec.
According to Einstein energy – mass relation
E = mc2 → (2)
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = → (3)
𝑚𝑐 𝑝
Where mc = p is momentum associated with photon.
 If we consider the case of material particle of mass m and moving with a velocity v , i.e
momentum mv, then the wave length associated with this particle ( in analogy to wave length
associated with photon ) is given by
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = → (4)
𝑚𝑣 𝑝

4Q. Prove that when an electron is accelerated by a potential difference ‘V’ volts the
12.26
associated wavelength is that, 𝜆 = A0 `
√𝑉
Ans: Whe When a charged particle carrying a charge ‘e’ is accelerated by potential difference
V, then the associated de-Broglie wavelength(𝜆) with this particle is
ℎ
𝜆 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉 (1)
√

The charge of an electron (e) = 1.602×10-19 C

Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 X 10-31 kg
Substituting above values in equation (1), we get
6.626×10−34 12.26
∴ 𝜆= = × 10−10 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
√2×9.1×10−31 ×1.602×10−19 ×𝑉 √𝑉
12.26
𝜆= A0 (∵1 A0 = 10−10 meters)
√𝑉

150
or 𝜆 =√ A0 (∵ √150 =12.26)
𝑉

5Q) .Derive time independent Schrödinger’s equation. ([Link].)

Schrodinger's time independent wave equation: Let a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with
velocity ‘v’ along X-axis and is associated with a group of waves, let 𝜓 be the wave function of
the particle. Let us consider a simple form of progressing wave represented by the equation
𝜓 = 𝜓0 sin(𝜔t − kx) → (1)
Where, 𝜓0 = amplitude
2𝜋
𝜔 = angular frequency, k=propagation vector, k = 𝜆
Differentiating eq (1) partially with respect to ‘x’, we get
𝜕𝜓
= -K 𝜓0 cos(𝜔t − kx)
𝜕𝑥
Again differentiating equation (1) with respect to ‘x’
𝜕2𝜓
= −K2 𝜓0 sin (𝜔t-kx)
𝜕𝑥 2
Substituting ‘ 𝜓 ‘ value in above equation from equation (1),
𝜕2𝜓
= − k2𝜓
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 2𝜓
+ k2 𝜓 = 0 → (2)
𝜕𝑥 2
 2𝜋
Since k = ,
𝜆
𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋2
+ 𝜆2 𝜓 = 0 → (3)
𝜕𝑥 2
According to de- Broglie the wavelength,
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Substituting 𝜆 in to eq (3), we get
𝜕2 𝜓 4𝜋2𝑚2𝑣 2
+ 𝜓 = 0 → (4)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
The total energy ‘E’ of the particle is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy, i.e.
1
The total energy of the particle (E) = kinetic energy ( 2 mv2) + potential energy (V)

1
∴ E = (2 mv2 + V)
1
mv2 = (E – V)
2
Multiplying both sides with ‘m’,
m2v2 = 2m (E - V) → (5)
Substituting eq (5) in eq (4), we get
𝜕2 𝜓 8𝜋2m(E − V)
+ 𝜓 = 0 → (6)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
For simplicity, we have considered only one dimensional wave (i.e. along X-axis),
When the extended this equation along three dimensional i..e. X,Y and Z axis. We can write
eq(6) as,
𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 8𝜋2 m(E − V)
+ + + 𝜓 = 0 → (7)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 ℎ2
Equation (7) represents Schrodinger's time independent wave equation.
Using Laplacian operator ( ∇2) the Schrodinger's time independent wave equation can be
written as,
8𝜋2 m(E − V)
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓 = 0 → (10)
ℎ2

2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
The Laplacian operator ∇ = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
Equation (10) represents the Schrodinger's time independent wave equation.
6Q) What is the physical significance of a wave function? ([Link].)
OR
Explain the Born interpretation of wave function.
the physical significance of a wave function:
i). It is a complex quantity.
ii). It is doesn’t have any physical meaning.
iii). | 𝜓 |2 represents probability density of the particle,
 which is real and positive.
iv). It gives the information about particle behavior.
v). The wave function is normalized. i.e. If a particle is present somewhere in space, then
∞ ∞

∫ 𝜓 2 dx dy dz = 1 (Or ) ∫ 𝜓𝜓 ∗ dx dy dz = 1
−∞ −∞

Q) Estimate the energies of particle limiting to one dimensional potential well. ([Link].)
Particle in Infinite square potential well: Consider a particle(say electron) of mass ’m’ with
velocity ‘v’ moving in a one dimensional box of length ‘a’ along X-axis. Inside the potential
energy is zero (i.e.V=0) and outside the box the potential energy is ‘V’ and the height of the box
is infinite.
Let us apply this Schrodinger’s wave equation to this particle.
The time independent Schrödinger wave equation in one dimensional case,
𝑑2𝜓 8𝜋2 m(E − V)
+ 𝜓 = 0 → (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
As the Potential energy V=0, So the equation (1) can written as
𝑑2𝜓 8𝜋2 mE
+ 𝜓 = 0 → (2)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

8𝜋2 mE
Let k2 = → (3)
ℎ2
Substituting ‘k’ value in equation (2),
𝑑2𝜓
+ k2 𝜓 = 0 → (4)
𝑑𝑥 2
Equation (4) represents second order differential equation.
Let the general solution of eq(4) can be written as,
𝜓(𝑥) = A sin 𝑘𝑥 + B cos 𝑘𝑥 → (5)
Where A and B are constants which can be determined from boundary conditions
 Boundary condition (i): At x = 0, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0
i.e. the particle doesn’t present at x = 0 since 𝜓(𝑥) is zero.
Applying above condition into equation (5) we get
0= A sin 𝑘(0) + B cos 𝑘(0)
∴ B=0
So equation (4) can be written as
𝜓(𝑥) = A sin 𝑘𝑥 → (6)
Boundary condition (ii): at x = a, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0,
Applying above boundary condition into equation (6),
Thus, eq (5) simplifies to,
0 = A sin 𝑘𝑎
Above equation A≠ 0,
So, sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0 → (7)
The above expression can be satisfied only
When, ka = nπ , where n = 1,2,3,…
nπ
∴ k = 𝑎 → (8)
n2 π2
Or k2 = → (9)
𝑎2
Comparing eq (3) and eq (9), we get
2 8𝜋2 mE n2 π2
k= =
ℎ2 𝑎2
n2 h2
E =
8𝑚𝑎2
n2 h2
Thus the energy of the particle En = → (10)
8𝑚𝑎2
Substituting ‘k’ value in equation (6),
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓 = A sin
𝑎
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓n =A sin → (11)
𝑎

‘n’ is called the quantum number. For each value of ‘n’, there is an energy level and the
corresponding wave function. Thus we can say that, each value of E n is known as Eigen energy
value and the corresponding value of 𝜓n is called as Eigen energy wave function.
The equation (10) represents Eigen energy (En) and equation (11) represents Eigen energy wave
function(𝜓n ).
Q) Describe Davisson & Germer’s experiment with neat diagrams and explain how it enables to
verify the wave nature of matter. ([Link].)
The first experimental evidence of matter waves was given by two American physicists,
Davisson and Germer in 1927. The experimental arrangement is shown in figure.
 1. A beam of electrons are produced by heating the filament (F) by the high variable
positive voltage battery (B1).
2. These beam of electrons are made narrow beam and allowed to incident on a large

single crystal of nickel known as target ‘T’ The electrons are scattered into different
directions after incident on the nickel crystal.
3. The scattered electrons enter into a counter and due to the scattered electrons
deflection is observed in the galvanometer (G).A graph is plotted between
galvanometer current against angles of scattered electrons with incident beam for
different accelerating voltages.

Figure: Variation of Galvanometer current with variation of angle ‘θ’ between incident
beam and beam entering the cylinder
4. The observations are repeated for different voltages
(the graphs are shown in figure).
The following points are observed from the graphs:
(i). Below 44V the graph remains linear. But from 44V there is
bump is observed in the graph.
(ii). The bump gradually increases further and it becomes maximum at 54 volts at
θ = 500.
(iii).Under this condition surface of the crystal( nickel) acting as a diffraction
grating.
 (iv). The bump gradually decreases from 54 volts.
(v).)The bumps gradually disappear and at 68V it is totally vanishes.
Calculation of wavelength ‘𝜆’ (Theoretically):
According to Bragg’s equation,
2dsinθ = n𝜆 → (1)
Where,
d= inter planar distance of nickel crystal
n = order diffraction and
θ = angle of scattered electron with plane of the crystal
In case of nickel crystal
d=0.91 A0, n=1 , θ = 650
Substituting above these values in equation (1),
(0.91A0) sin 650 = 𝜆 (2)
we get the wavelength 𝜆 ,
𝜆=1.65 A0
Calculation of wavelength ‘𝜆’ (Experimentally):
The bump in its most prominent state for 54 volts at angle 500establishes the existence of
electrons behavior as waves.
According de-Broglie the wavelength associated with electron accelerated through a potential V
is given by
12.26 0
𝜆= A (3)
√𝑉
12.26 0
𝜆 = A (4)
√54
∴ 𝜆 = 1.66 A0
This is value is good agreement with the wavelength computed from
de-Broglie hypothesis from equation (2)
i.e. 1.65 A0 and experimental value i.e.1.66 A0.
Thus, this experiment proves the de-Broglie hypothesis of matter waves.
Q) What is photo electric effect? Discuss the characteristics of photo electric effect.
Photo Electric Effect: When a radiation (light) of sufficient energy incident on metal surfaces the
electrons are emitted from the these metal surfaces this phenomenon is known as “Photo electric effect”.
The emitted electrons are known as ‘photo electrons’ and the metal is known as photo metal. The
photoelectric effect was discovered in 1887 by the German physicist Hertz when the ultraviolet light
incident on zinc plate.
Fundamental laws of photo electric effect:
1. The photo electric current is proportional to the intensity of radiation. (as the incident radiation
increase the photo current increases).
2. For a given material there a certain minimum frequency of the incident radiation so that photo
electrons can be ejected from the metal surface. If the frequency is less than this frequency no
electrons can be ejected. From the metal surface. No matter whatever may be intensity of the incident
radiation.
“ the minimum frequency of incident radiation where the photo electrons are emitted from the
metal surface is known as threshold frequency and corresponding wave length is known as the
threshold wavelength.
3. The maximum velocity and kinetic energy of the photo electron depends on the frequency of the of
the incident radiation not on intensity of radiation.
4. The emissions of photo electrons are the interdependent of temperature.
5. There no time lag between the incident radiation and the ejection of photo electrons.
6. The photo current increases with the intensity of radiation (the frequency of the incident radiation
should be more than the threshold frequency).
Q). Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors based on the band theory.
([Link].)

Classification of materials into conductors, semiconductors

and insulators:
On the basis of band theory, solids can be broadly
classified into three categories, viz, insulators,
semiconductors and conductors.
Insulators :
i). In case of insulators, the energy gap is very large, it is
about 10eV. Due to this fact electrons cannot jump from
valence band to conduction band.
ii). Electrons are completely tightly bounded to parent
atoms.
iii).They have completely filled valence band and
completely empty conduction band.
iv). The resistivity of insulators is very high.
v). Insulators are bad conductors of electricity.
vi).Examples : rubber, wood, diamond, air, pure water etc.
2. Semiconductors:

i). In semiconductors, the energy band gap is very small. It is about 1eV (for 0.7 eV for germanium and
1.1 eV for silicon).
ii).At 0K temperature, the conduction band empty and the
valence band is completely filled.
iii).As the temperature increases or electric field is applied
some electrons from the valence band jump into
conduction band.
iv). The electrical properties of semiconductors lie
between insulators and conductors.
iv). Example: Germanium , Silicon etc.

3. Conductors:

i). In case of conductors, there is no

energy gap between conduction and
valence band.
ii). The valence band conduction band
overlaps each other.
iii). Plenty of free electrons are
available for electrical conduction.
iv). They posses very low resistivity and
very high conductivity values.
v). Example: Metals like copper, iron,
aluminum etc.
 UNIT - II
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Q). What is Hall Effect? Derive an
expression for experimental
determination of Hall coefficient
and Hall voltage. What is its
importance?
Hall Effect: When a piece of
cunductor ( metal or
semiconductor) carrying current
current(I) is palced in a
transvese(perpendicular direction)
magnetic field (B) then an electric
fileld (EH) is developed in the
material in the direction normal to
both current and magnetic field
(B).This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect and the developed voltage is known as Hall
volatge(VH).
Derivation of Hall coefficient RH :
1). Let us consider an n – type semiconductor to which the current ‘I’ be passed along X- axis as
shown in figure and magnetic field ‘B’ is applied along ‘Z’ direction a result Hall voltage(VH)
is produced in y-direction as shown in figure.
2). Due to the magnetic field ‘B’ the electrons move towards down ward direction with ‘v’
velocity and the accumulation of negative charges(electrons) on face 2 and similarly the
accumulation of positive charges(holes) on face 1 (for p-type semiconductor the electrons
accumulate on face 1 and holes accumulate on face 2).
3). Due to accumulation of positive and negative charges on two faces a potential difference is
established between face 1 and face 2. Hence an electric field (E H) is generated between two
faces.
4). Due the electric field (EH) the electrons are subjected to electric force (FE) and given by,
Electric force (FE) = e EH → (1)
Where ,
e = charge of electron
v = velocity of electron
Due the magnetic field (B) the electrons are subjected to magnetic force (FB) and given by,
Magnetic force (FB) = Bev → (2)
Under equilibrium condition both electric and magnetic
forces are equal,
Electric force (FE) = Magnetic force (FB)
∴ e EH = Bev
or EH = Bv → (3)
We know that current density in J is given by,
J = nev
Where n=number of electrons for unit volune
 J
v=
𝑛𝑒
Substituting ‘v’ value in equation (3)
𝐽
∴ EH = B [ ]
𝑛𝑒
1
EH = ( ) B J
𝑛𝑒
EH = RH B J → (4)
1
Let RH =
𝑛𝑒
‘ RH‘ is known as Hall coefficient
If the RH is negative value then the semiconductor is n-type.
1
RH = - (electrons)
ne
If the RH positive value then the semiconductor is p-type.
1
RH = (holes)
pe
Where p=number of holes.

Importace of Hall effect: Hall effect is useful to identify the nature of charge carriers in a material
and hence to decide whether the material is n-type semiconductor or p-type semiconductor , also to
calculate carrier concentration and mobility of carriers.
Applications of the Hall Effect:
i. For determination of type of given semiconductor.
ii. Determination of mobility of charge carriers
iii. For measurement of magnetic flux density ‘B’ & Hall voltage.
iv. To determine the sign of charge carriers,
whether the conductivity is due to electrons or holes.
Q).With neat diagrams, explain the construction and working principle of a solar cell.
Solar cell:
1. Solar cell is a device which converts thermal (heat) energy into the
electrical energy.

2. Solar is a p-n junction works under unbiased condition.

3. The principle of a solar cell photovoltaic effect.
4. The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a
 photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight.
5. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode, but p and n regions are heavily
doped so that more numbers of charge carriers (holes and electrons) to generate.
6. A very thin layer of p-type semiconductor is placed on a relatively thicker n-type
semiconductor.
7. p and n materials are heavily doped.
8. Between p-type and n-type layer there is a depletion zone (p-n junction) is
formed.
9. It consists of a glass window on the top surface.
10. The nickel plate ring around p-layer acts as positive terminal(anode) and meal
contact at the bottom acts as a negative terminal as cathode.
11. Si and Ge are mostly used for manufacturing of solar cell.
Working of Solar cell:
1. The incident light is composed of photons.
2. When sunlight hits the solar cell on the top surface (on glass window)
and the lightdirectly enter into the depletion zone (p-n junction).
3. The light energy (form of photons) is transferred to the atoms in the depletion zone
(p-n junction).
4. After absorbing the energy from the photons the atoms generates electron hole
pairs in the depletion zone.
5. The newly generated electrons in the depletion zone quickly move towards to the n-
type region side of the junction similarly, the newly generated holes move towards p-
type region side and the process continues.
6. Due to the movement of charge carriers (electrons and holes) the concentration of
electrons in n-region and the concentration of holes in the p- region become more and
more.
7. As a result the potential difference is developed both sides of the junction.
8. p region acts as a positive terminal and n region acts as a negative terminal. This
will behave like a small battery cell and causes flow of current.
Advantages of solar cells:
Solar cell are used in railway signals, traffic Solar cells are used in water
purifiers, in mobile phones, calculators, portable fans,radios, toys, garden
lights, fencing of walls, power supplyto remote villages.
Disadvantages of Solar cell:
1. It is association with pollution
2. Solar energy storage is expansive.
3. Uses lot of space.
4. The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high.
5. Weather dependent
Q). Explain the formation of a P-N junction/depletion region and
discuss V-I characteristics under various biasing conditions.
P-N Junction Diode:
1. When a layer of p-type semiconductor material is placed with a layer of n-type
semiconductor material in such a way the atoms of p-type combine with the atoms of n-
type across the surface of contact.

Such a surface contact region is known as a PN junction. Combined p-type and n-type
semiconductors with PN junction formation is known as PN diode.

2. The p-type region has majority of holes and n-type region majority of electrons.
Formation of depletion layer in p-n junction diode:
3. As soon as p-n junction is formed,
i). At the junction electrons from n-side region moves towards the p-region (due to
electrostatic attraction of holes of p region) similarly the holes from p region moves
towards n region. This process is known as diffusion.
ii). As shown in figure, the electrons and holes accumulate at the junction (boundary) of p
and n regions.
iii). Due to presence of these charge carriers (hoes and electrons) an electric field is
developed at junction of p-n diode (boundary area). This region is called as depletion
region or potential barrier as shown in figure.
Biasing:
The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is
called biasing. Let us discuss different biasing conditions of p-n junction diode.
1. Forward Biased p-n junction diode:
i. When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-type and negative terminal
to n-type as shown in figure, the junction is said to be forward biased .
ii. For small applied voltages no current flow is observed in diode.
iii. As applied voltage increases gradually the holes in ‘p’ region repels (as it is connected
to positive terminal of battery) and moves towards depletion region.
iv. Similarly the electrons from n region repel and move towards depletion region.
v. As voltage increase further the depletion region breaks and there is sudden rise of
current is observed.
vi. The voltage where sudden rise of current is observed is called ‘knee voltage’ or
‘threshold voltage.
 vi. In forward bias condition the width of the depletion region decreases.
2. Reverse bias:

i. If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the

p-type semiconductor and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-
type semiconductor as shown in figure then the diode is said to be in reverse bias.
ii. If the external voltage applied on the p-n junction diode is increased slowly, the free
 electrons from the n-region and the holes from the p region move away from the p-n
junction as shown in figure.

iii. This increases the width of depletion region and no current

flows through the junction.
iv. However, If the applied voltage is increased slowly for a particular voltage small
current (order of µA) starts flows through the junction this current is known as
‘reverse saturation current’ and the corresponding voltage is known as ‘breakdown
voltage ‘ or zener voltage’. This current is due to presence of small number of
minority charge carriers (in p a region presence of electrons and n region holes).
v. In reverse bias condition the width of the depletion region increases.

Q). Discuss the construction and working of light emitting diode with neat diagram.
LED (Light Emitting Diode):
LED (Light Emitting Diode) an optoelectronic device which
converts electrical energy into light energy and works on the
principle of electro-luminance.
Construction of Light Emitting Diode

1. The construction of LED is very simple because it is

designed through the deposition of three semiconductor
material layers over a substrate as shown in figure.

2. These three layers are arranged one by one where the top region is a p-type region, the
middle region is active and finally, the bottom region is n-type. The three regions of
semiconductor material can be observed in the construction.
3. As for the figure the p-type region have the holes, n-type region have the elections and
active region have both electron and holes.
4. The construction of LED is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that gallium,
phosphorus and arsenic materials
are used for construction instead of silicon or germanium materials.
 5. The semiconductor material used in LED is Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium
Phosphide(GaP) or Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP).Any of the above-mentioned
compounds can be used for the construction of LED.
6. However, silicon or germanium diodes do not emit energy in the form of light. Instead,
they emit energy in the form of heat. Thus, silicon or germanium is not used for
constructing LEDs.
7. In normal condition when no voltages are applied at positive and negative terminals then
all the holes are present at p-region and electrons are present at n-region.
Principle of LED and working of LED:

1. The principle involved in Light emitting diode (LED) is electroluminescence. LED

woks in forward bias only.

2. When the voltage is not applied to the LED, then there is no flow of electrons and
holes so they are stable.
3. When the LED is connected in forward biased, so the electrons in the n-region and
holes from p-region will move to towards active region. This region is also known as
the depletion region.
4. At depletion region holes and electrons recombines.
5. Due to recombination of these charge carriers (holes and electrons) at depletion
region energy is emitted as form of radiation (light) .
Q). Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors:
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCOR EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
1. In these semiconductors impurities are not 1. In these semiconductors impurities are present.
present. 2. These are called also impure semiconductors
2. These are called also pure semiconductors. 3. They have high conductivity.
3. They have low conductivity. 4. The number of holes and electrons in the
4. The number of holes and electrons in the conduction and valence band are not equal.
conduction and valence band are equal. 5. It conduct at OK temperature.
5. It doesn’t conduct at OK temperature.
Q). Discuss the construction and working of PIN diode with neat diagram.
PIN DIODE:
1. The PIN diode is a one type of photo detector, used to convert optical signal into an
electrical signal.
2. The term PIN diode gets its name from the fact that includes three main layers.
3. The diode consists the P - region, I – region and N-region. In between P and N regions
I region present.
4. Both the P and N regions are heavily doped while I region made of undoped intrinsic
semiconductor material.
5. In P-region the hole is the majority charge carrier while in n-region the electron is the
majority charge carrier.
6. Compare to p and n regions i-region is wider.
7. The intrinsic region has no free charge carrier. It acts as an insulator between n and the p-
type region. The i-region has the high resistance which obstructs the flow of electrons to
pass through it
Working of PIN diode:
1. PIN diode Works on the principle of Photoconduction.
2. The working principle of the PIN diode exactly

same as a normal diode. The main difference is that the depletion region wider compare to
normal diode. Because of p and regions are doped heavily.
3. When absence of incident radiation (light) on the photodiode, a very small reverse current
flows through the device that is termed as dark current.
4. The electrons present in the p side and holes present in n side are the minority carriers.
When a certain reverse-biased voltage is applied then minority carrier, holes from n-side
experiences repulsive force from the positive potential of the battery.
5. Similarly, the electrons present in the p side experience repulsion from the negative
potential of the battery.
6. Due to this movement electron and hole recombine at the junction resultantly generating
depletion region at the junction.
When the PN diode exposed to radiation (light or photon incident on PIN diode) , most
part of the energy is observed by the intrinsic or depletion region because of the wide
depletion width. As a result, a large number of electron-hole pairs are generated.
7. Free electrons generated in the intrinsic region move towards
n-side whereas holes generated in the intrinsic region move towards p-side.
8. The free electrons and holes moved from one region to another region carry electric
current.
Q).Obtain the expression for the density of electrons in
conduction band semiconductor.( Expected Question [Link]).
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UNIT –III MAGNETIC MATERIALS & SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

1Q). What are the hard and soft magnetic materials? Distinguish between hard and soft
magnetic materials. ([Link])
Soft Magnetic Materials and Hard Magnetic Materials:
Depends on magnetization magnetic materials are classifieds in to two groups .They are
1. Soft Magnetic Materials and
2. Hard Magnetic Materials
Soft Magnetic Materials: A type of magnetic material which can be easily magnetized and
demagnetized is known as soft magnetic material.
Hard Magnetic Materials: A type of magnetic material which cannot be easily magnetized and
demagnetized is known as hard magnetic material.
Difference between Hard Magnetic Material and Soft Magnetic Material:
The major differences between the hard magnetic materials and the soft magnetic materials are
listed in the following table.
[Link]. Properties Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials
1. Hysteresis area Small large

2. hysteresis loss Small due to small of large

hysteresis loop
3. Coercivity low high

4. Retenvity low high

5. permeability high low

6. susceptibility high

7. Eddy current loss low high

8. Energy stored in the less energy high energy

magnetic field.
9. Magnetization easy Difficult (due to presence of
impurities crystal
imperfections)
10. Examples Iron , silicon alloys Carbon steel, tungsten steel,
chromium steel etc.
11. Uses: electrical motors, In loud speakers, permanent
generators, transformers, magnets which are used in,
telephone receivers etc. microphones etc.

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2Q). What is the hysteresis? Explain the B-H curve for ferromagnetic material.
([Link])
HYSTRERIS (B-H CURVE):
1. The hysteresis loop indicates the relationship between the intensity of magnetization
(or magnetic flux B) and the magnetizing field intensity(H).
2. When a ferromagnetic material is subjects to magnetic field, the variation of
magnetization (magnetic flux -B) )with respect to the applied field (H) can be
represented as a closed loop known as hysteresis loop or B-H curve.

When a ferromagnetic material is kept a magnetic field (H) the variation of

magnetization or magnetic flux (B) in the ferromagnetic material is follows:

1. From the point ‘O’ : The magnetic field intensity(H) is gradually increases at so
magnetization(B) also increases and finally reaches a maximum value at point ‘A’
which is known as the ”saturation point”.
2. From the point ‘A’ : The magnetic field intensity(H) is decreased slowly from this
point the magnetization also decreases, when it reaches the point ‘B’ the magnetic
field intensity(H) becomes zero but magnetization(B) will not becomes zero,
this point is known as a ”retentivity”.
3. From point ‘ B’: The direction of the magnetic field(H) is reversed and the
magnetic field intensity(H) is slowly increased then the magnetization (B) starts
decreasing finally at the point ‘C’ the magnetization (B) reaches to zero value this
point is known as ’coercivity’.
4. From the point ‘C’: The magnetic field intensity(H) is gradually increases at so
magnetization(B) also increases and finally reaches a maximum value at point ‘D’
which is known as the ”saturation point”(but in the opposite direction) as shown
in figure.
5. From the point ‘D’: The magnetic field intensity(H) is decreased slowly form this
point the magnetization also decreases, when it reaches the point ‘E’ the magnetic
field intensity(H) becomes zero but magnetization(B) will not becomes zero,
this is known as a ” negative retentivity” ( in the opposite direction) as shown
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in the figure.
6. The final conclusion is that, we will get curve closed loop, called as a ‘hysteresis
loop’ or B-H curve.
7. This loop includes some area. This is called as a magnetic hysteresis loss
measured in the area of the loop (or) curve.
3Q). What is superconductivity? Explain the Meissner effect of [Link]
the applications of superconductors. ([Link])
Superconductors:
i). When metals and alloys are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures in the absence of
magnetic field. The resistivity of these materials vanishes or become zero (conductivity
becomes infinity) this phenomenon is called superconductivity and the materials are
called super conductors.
ii).The temperature where the resistivity drops to zero is known as transition temperature
or critical temperature (Tc.).
iii).This was first observed by H.
Kammerlingh ones in 1911 that the
electrical resistance of pure mercury
vanishes suddenly at 4.2k.
iv). Above the transition temperature (T c)
the material possesses resistance and is
said to be in normal state.
Meissner Effect: When a superconductor martial is placed in a weak magnetic field
(T<Tc) the magnetic lines for forces penetrates through the material as shown figure.
Now the material is cooled below its transition temperature (i.e. T< T c) then the
magnetic lines of forces are expelled or ejected out of from the material as shown in
figure.
We know that the
diamagnetic materials
have the tendency to
expel the magnetic lines
of forces. Since the
super conductor also
expels the magnetic
lines of forces it behaves
as a perfect diamagnetic
material.
This behavior first observed by Meissner and hence called as “Meissner effect”.
Applications of the superconductors:
1. Superconductors are used data storage in computers.
2. Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate trains above its rails.

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3. Superconductors are used for production of electric generators and electric motors.
4. Since there is no loss of power (zero resistivity) super conductors are used
transmission of power over very long distances.
5. They are used to determine the unknown structure of chemical compounds.
6. Superconducting coils are also used in electric machines, transformers.
7. These are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) instruments. MRI is used to
scan human body.
8. Using super conducting magnets one can separate the damaged cells from the healthy
cells.

4Q). Distinguish between type-I and type-II superconductors. ([Link])

Differences between type-I and type-II superconductors:
[Link]. type-I superconductors type-II superconductors
1. Type-I superconductors becomes normal state at Type-II superconductors loses it
abruptly at critical magnetic field. superconductivity property gradually,
due to increase of magnetic field.
2. No mixed state exist. Mixed state present.

3. Low critical field High Critical magnetic field

4. Exhibits single critical magnetic field. Exhibits two critical magnetic fields.

5. Also known as soft superconductors. Also known as hard superconductors.

6. Due to the low critical magnetic field, type-I Due to the high critical magnetic field,
superconductors have limited technical type-II superconductors have wider
applications. technical applications
7. Exhibits completely Miesser effect Exhibits partially Miesser effect

8. These are perfectly dia magnets. These are not perfectly dia magnets.

9. Examples: Hg, Pb, Zn etc. Examples: Zr(Zriconium), Nb(niobium),

etc.

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UNIT – IV NANAOTECHNOLGY

Q). Define nano materials, nanoscale , nanotechnology, nano science.

Nanoscale: A nano means 10-9. The size of nano materials are measured with nano scale , the
scale refers to 1–100 nanometers (nm).
A nanometer (nm) or nano scale is one thousand millionth of a meter (10 -9) .i.e. 1 nm (nano-
meter) = 1/1,000,000,000 m or 10-9 m.
OR
Nano materials:
The materials are the materials in which the atoms size in the order of
1 to 100 nano- meters(i.e. 1-100nm).
also known as nao scale.
Nano-Technology: The design, production and application of nano materials are known as
nanotechnology.
Nano science: Nan science is the study of the fundamental principles of nano materials.
Q).Why nonmaterials different from the bulk materials? ([Link])
Due to the following factors that the nano materials different from the bulk materials ,
1). Increase in surface to volume ratio and
2). Quantum confinement
1). Increase in surface to volume ratio:
i).The surface to volume ratio of nano materials are
increases with the size.
ii). In nano materials a large number of atoms will present
on the small surface. It makes materials more chemically
reactive which leads to changes of their electric properties.
iii).Nanomaterials have larger surface area when compared
to the same volule of the bulk material.
For example let us consider a sphere of radius ‘r’.
Surface area of the sphere = 4π𝑟 2
4
volume area of the sphere = 3 𝜋r3
12 r
2
Suraface area of sphere 3
  
Volume of the sphere 4 r 3
r

Suraface area of sphere

 3
Volume of the sphere 𝑟
Thus the radius of sphere decreases as the surface to volume ratio increases.
Similarly, if the material is cubic, as it is divided into small cubes as shown in figure, then the
surface area increases and also, the surface to volume ratio increases.
2). Quantum confinement:

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When the materials change to bulk to nanosize, then the energy

levels of electrons reduced and the electrons are confined to a
small region of the material(as size decreases). This
phenomenon is known as Quantum confinement. This results
the conduction band electrons and valence band holes being
squeezed into a small dimension which results change of
properties of nano particles .
Due these two factors nano materials behaves differently
compared with the bulk particles.
Q). Describe the CVD technique for the synthesis of nano
materials ([Link])
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) Method: This method is used for prepare nano
Powders. As shown in figure the apparatus consists of,
a). Heating chamber
b). Reaction chamber
c). Cooling chamber
a). Heating chamber :
i). Metal organic precursor (precursor is a compound that participates in a chemical reaction that
produces another compound ) is taken in to heating chamber.
ii). Heated to high temperature by means of heater so that it can be melted and evaporated.
iii). Inert gas like He or Ne can be introduced into the heating chamber this acts as a carrier gas
and carries the precursor vapour in to the reaction chamber.

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b).Reaction chamber:
i). Some other reactants are introduced into reaction chamber to control reaction rate,
ii). The hot precursor atoms collide with the cold reactance and after collisions they get
condensation
iii). Due to the condensation, small sized nano particles (clusters) are formed. Finally
these nano particles from the reaction chamber is passed into cooling chamber
c). Cooling chamber:
i). The cooling chamber contains a scraper, rotating cylinder, cold finger and collector.
ii). The nano particles which are entered into the cooling chamber falls on the surface of rotating
cylinder,
iii). Then these nano particles are allowed to condense on the rotating cylindrical device by
means of a cold finger device (it is a device that is used to condense nano particles), finally the
nano particles are collected by collector.
Q).Discuss about the sol-gel technique used for the fabrication of nano materials.
([Link])
Sol-Gel Method:
Principle:
Sol-Gel method is the bottom up method is used for the preparation of nano particles, nano
powders, nano films etc. In this method bulk materials are divided to produce nano structured
materials by different techniques such as evaporation, heating, drying, spinning techniques etc.
In this method usually metal alkoxide solution is taken as precursor.
Preparation of Nanostructured Materials:

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There are different techniques are involved in the preparation of nano structures
materials as follows,
1. In this method the, the molecular precursor (usually metal alkoxide) is dissolved
in water or form a sol (solvent). (precursor is a compound that participates in a
chemical reaction that produces another compound).
2. By dehydration (condensation) the sol is converted into wet gel.
3. Coating (depositing) the sol on the surfaces of solids Xero films is formed.
4. By spinning or drawing the sol nano fibers are prepared.
5. By drying ( the process of removing water any other liquids) the sol is converted
into the uniform nano powders,
6. When the Xero films are heated dense nano films are formed.
7. When the gel is subjected to evaporation Xerogel is formed.
8. When the Xerogel is rapidly dyed Aerogel is formed.
9. When Xerogel is get heated to high temperature dense ceramics are formed.

Q). Draw and explain SEM technique for the characterization of nano materials.
([Link])
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM):

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SEM stands for scanning electron microscope. The SEM is a microscope that uses electrons
instead of light to form an image of object. It produces detailed, magnified images of a sample
(the object which the image to be recorded) by scanning its surface. SEM is used to the study of
physical properties of the objects by recoding its images.
Principle of SEM:
i). A beam of high-energy electrons are focused on the selected portion of the surface of the
solid sample.
ii). The interaction between the electrons of the beam and the sample are recorded and send
detector to study the information about the internal structure of the sample.
Construction & Working of SEM:
1. Electron gun: The electron gun is
used to produce the high velocity
of electrons and these are focused
in to a metal plate (anode).
2. Anode: By passing through the
anode these beam of electrons
made coherent and narrow and
then enter into the condenser
lens..
3. Condenser lense: The beam of
electrons made pencil narrow
beam (i.e. the beam become
further narrow) by passing
through the condenser lens and
the beam allowed to enter into the objective lens.
4. Objective lens: The objective lens is used to focus the electron beam on the surface of
the sample object. When the beam of electrons incident on the sample object which
results emission of different kind of electrons from the sample and these electrons are
send in to the electron detector.
5. Electron detector: The emitted electrons from the sample are reaches to the electron
detector then these electrons are sent to image display unit.
6. Image display: The image display unit amplifies the inner structure of the sample object
and can be viewed. Further the sample structure can be analyzed are studied.
Applications of SEM:
1. Handwriting and print analysis.
2. Jewellery examination.
3. Soil quality measurement for farming and agriculture.
4. The arranging of atoms in specimen and there degree of order.
5. The shape, size and arrangement of particles making up the objects.
Q). What are applications of nanotechnology?([Link])

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1. Nanotechnology is used in water purification.

2). It is possible to produce unusual colors paints using nano particles.
4. Sunscreens and cosmetics;
3). Nano-materials are used to make CD’s and semiconductor laser.
4. They are used in mobiles, laptops etc.
[Link] nanoparticles are used in cancer treatment.
6. Nanotechnology is used to preparation of medicines.

UNIT - V: LASER AND FIBER OPTICS (Long Questions)

Lasers: Introduction to laser and it’s characteristics-three quantum processes-Population
inversion - lasing action - pumping methods- ruby laser, He-Ne laser, Semiconductor Laser-
Applications of laser.
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on
the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. T.H. Maiman demonstrated the first Laser
in 1960.
ACRONYM OF LASER (LASER STANDS FOR):
L- Light A-Amplification S-Stimulated E-Emission o R-Radiation
Q).What are the characteristics of laser? Expalin the following terms.
i) Absorption ii).Spontaneous emission and iii). Stimulated emission of laser.

Characteristics of laser:
1. Highly directionality
2. Highly Coherence
3. Highly Monochromatic:
4. Highly intensity
Q). Distinguish between the spontaneous emission and stimulated emission of radiation of
laser. ([Link])
Differences between Spontaneous emission and stimulated emission of radiation:
[Link]. Property Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1. Type of radiation Polychromatic Monochromatic
2. intensentity less more
3. Photons emission One photon emitted Two photons emitted
4. Coherence Incoherence Highly coherence
5. Direction Emitted photons move all Emitted photons move one directions
directions
6. process uncontrollable process controllable process

7. radiation No radiation incident on atoms. radiation incident on atoms.

8. Population No Population inversion takes Population inversion takes place

inversion place
9. Examples Light from an ordinary electric Rubylaser,semiconductor laser etc.
bulb, Light from an LED.

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Q). Q). Explain the following terms i). Pupation inversion ii). Pumpingiii)What is
pumping? Discuss the different types of pumping methods.

i). Population inversion:

The state of achieving more number of atoms in the excited state compared to the ground state
atoms is known as population inversion. Consider a system, where the number of atoms (N 1)
present in the ground state (E1) and the number of atoms (N2) present in the higher energy state.
The process of making N2>N1 called population inversion. In order to emit laser beam the
condition N2>N1 is to satisfy. Incase N2<N1, no laser beam is emitted.

Population is achieved by pumping mechanism.

ii). Pumping:
The process of exciting the atoms from ground level state to higher energy level state by
supplying energy is known as pumping. So the number of atoms in excited state become more
than the atoms of ground state.
OR

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In order to achieve population inversion (N1<N2) ,the process of sending the atoms form lower
energy level to higher energy level is called as pumping.

Pumping: The process of raising more number of atoms to excited state by artificial means is
called as pumping process. There are several pumping methods by which population cab be
achieved. The most commonly used methods are,
a) optical pumping
b) Electric discharge
c) Inelastic atom to atom collision
d) Direct conversion
e) Chemical process
a). Optical pumping :
In this process ,the radiation(light) is allowed to incident on the atoms in ground state. The
atoms absorbs energy from the incident radiation and raise to excited state.
Example: Ruby laser.
b).Direct electron excitation: In this method, the electrons are subjected to high electric field
(electrons gain high velocity) and get excited.
Example: Co2 laser, He-Ne laser.
c). Inelastic atom –atom collision: In this method a combination two types of gases(i.e. mixer
the two kinds of gases) are used. By application of strong electric field the collision take place
within the atoms and the electrons ,then the atoms are excited to the higher energy level.
Example: Co2 laser, He-Ne laser.
d) Direct conversion: When the electrical energy is supplied to the semiconductors then the
electrons from the conduction band and holes from the valence band recombines and energy is
liberated in the form the laser beam (light).
Example: semiconductor laser.
e) Chemical process: Due to some chemical reactions, the atoms may be raised to excited state.
Example : Dye laser.
Q). Describe the construction and working of a Ruby laser with relevant energy level diagram.
(Expected [Link])
Ruby laser:
Construction:
i). It is 3 level solid state laser and pulsed lased.
ii).It consists of cylindrical shaped pink color rod. The length of the rod is varying from 2 to
20cm and diameter is 1 to 20mm.
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ii). Ruby rod is made as by doping aluminum oxide (Al 2O3) with 0.05% of chromium ions
(99.95%). Due to presence chromium the ruby rod appear in pink color.

iii). A fully reflecting is mirror is placed on one end and a semi transparent mirror placed on
other end acts optical resonator (which used amplifies light) as shown in figure.
iv). The ruby rod is surrounded by a helical Xenon flash lamp of high intensity (as shown in
figure).
Principle: The chromium atoms are raised to excited state by optical pumping using xenon flash
lamp.

Working:
i).When the Xenon flash lamp is switched on. Then the high power intensity of light (radiation)
is emitted from the flash lamp.
ii). This high power radiation incident on the ruby rod and this radiation absorbed by the ruby
rod.
iii).The ruby rod absorbs two kinds of wavelengths from the incident radiation and this radiation
(energy) used for excite to chromium ions from the ground state (E0) to excited state.
vi). From the ground state E0 by absorbing 5600A0 (green) wavelength chromium ions are
excited to E1 level and absorbing 4200A 0 (blue) wavelength excited to E2 energy level as
shown in figure.

v). After reaching excited state the chromium ions drop to the meta stable state (M) (the state
remains in between exited sate and ground state),
v). In the meta stable(M) state more number of chromium ions accumulate(gathering of particles)
and population inversion is achieved.
vi).The chromium ions returns back to the ground sate from the meta stable state( M) by
emission of laser beam of the wavelengths 6943 A0 and (of red color) and 6927A0 but

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6943 A0 wavelength is weak while the wavelength of 6943 A0 is strong and significant in the
emission of high intensity laser beam.
Applications of Ruby Laser: It is used military & research applications, drilling of small areas,
pulsed holography, used in eye treatment, extensively in tattoo and hair removal.
Drawbacks of Ruby laser: Low efficiency, high energy pumping required and output laser beam
is continuous beam.
Q). With the help of suitable energy level diagram, explain the principle, construction
and working of a Semiconductor laser. ([Link])
Semiconductor laser:
Principle:
i) The electrons from the conduction band combine with holes in the valence band
recombination takes place,
ii) The recombination of electrons and holes produces energy in the form of high
intensity laser light.

Construct ion and Working Semiconductor laser:

i. Semiconductor laser is specifically prepared p-n junction diode.

ii. p-n junction is made from Gallium Arsenide(GaAs),

Semiconductor laser the p-region is doped with Germanium and the n-region with
iii.
the Tellurium,
iv. the junction of the ‘p’ and ‘n’ are well polished and parallel to each other which work
as a optical resonator,
v. Active medium is p-n junction diode where laser beam is emitted.
vi. Active centre is recombination of electrons and hole pairs,
vii. The pumping process is direct pumping,
viii. the p-n junction diode is forward biased with high forward voltage,
ix. During this process the holes from the p-side and the electrons from n-side crosses the
junction and recombines,
x. If the forward voltage is increased further the electrons and holes recombines,

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xi. this recombination results emission of photon(radiation),

xii. in this process finally high intensity radiation (laser beam) is with wave length of
8626 𝐴0 is emitted.
Q). What are the applications of lassrs..
Applications of Lasers:
1. Lasers are used in metal cutting, welding, surface treatment and hole drilling.
[Link] has been carried by using laser beam.
3..Dissimilar metals can be welded.
[Link] are used in treatment of cancer.
[Link] are used to destroying kidney stones.
4. Eye surgery surgery.
[Link] are used in lung and liver treatment.
[Link] are used in optical fiber communications
7. Lasres are used in RADAR system.
Q). Define Acceptance angle & Numerical aperture. Derive the expression for numerical
aperture and acceptance angle of an optical fiber.

i). Numerical Aperture(NA):

Numerical aperture represents the light gathering capacity in optical fiber.
Numerical Aperture (NA) = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
Where, n1 = refractive index of the core
n2 = refractive index of the cladding
ii) Acceptance angle(θmax.)):
The maximum incident angle at optical fiber is known as “acceptance angle” .
Acceptance angle (θmax.) = sinˉ¹( √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 )
Derivation of Acceptance angle:
Let n0 = refractive index of air
n1 = refractive index of core
n2 = refractive index of cladding
As shown in figure the light ray enters into optical with the angle of incidence ‘θ 0 ‘at
the point ’A’.
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Inside the fiber at the point ‘B’ on the core cladding interface, the angle of incidence
= (900 – θ1)

i). Applying snell’s law at point ‘B’,

n1sin(90 - θ1) = n2sin 900
n1cos θ1 = n2
𝒏
∴ cos θ1= 𝒏 𝟐 → (1)
𝟏
ii). Applying snell’s law at light ray entry point A,
n0sinθ0 = n1sin θ1
𝒏
Sinθ0= (𝒏𝟏 ) sin θ1
𝟎
𝒏𝟏
sinθ0 = ( 𝒏 ) √𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝛉𝟏 → (2)
𝟎
Substituting cosθ1 value from equation (1)
in equation (2),
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 −𝒏𝟐𝟐
sinθ0=(𝒏𝟏 )√𝟏 − (𝒏𝟐 )𝟐 = (𝒏𝟏 )
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒏𝟏

If the medium surrounding fiber is air, then the refractive index of

the air n0=1
∴ sinθ0 = √𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
∴ Acceptance angle (θ0.) = sinˉ¹(√𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐 )
From the definition of acceptance angle,
∴ Numerical Aperture (NA) = sin θ0. =√𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
Numerical Aperture (NA) =√𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐

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