ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

ACIDS BASES AND ALKALIS

All acids contain hydrogen. An acid ionizes (or A base accepts a proton from an acid solution to form a
dissociates) when dissolved in water to produce an salt and water.
H+ ion, a proton. Most metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal
carbonates / hydrogen carbonates are bases, such as
An acid is a proton (H+) donor. calcium oxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, etc.
e.g.
Examples of acids BASE + ACID → SALT + WATER
Mineral acids Organic acids CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O
calcium oxide hydrochloric calcium chloride
Hydrochloric acid Acetic acid acid
Sulphuric acid Ascorbic acid
Nitric acid Citric acid If sulphuric acid reacts with potassium hydroxide,
Phosphoric acid Tartaric acid potassium sulphate and water are formed. Both products
are neutral. This is a neutralization reaction.
Ionization of an Acid Neutralization reactions are exothermic- they give out
e.g. hydrochloric acid heat. The reactions show a rise in temperature.
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H 2O
Basicity of an acid refers to the number of potassium sulphuric acid potassium sulphate water
hydroxide
H+ ions formed when a molecule of an acid
ionizes. Since the acidity of a solution Some bases are soluble in water to form alkalis.
depends on the number of protons(H+) All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.
released by each acid molecule, acids can be
referred to as: A base is a proton (H+) acceptor.
.monobasic (or monoprotic)–i.e. one H+ , An alkali is a soluble base which produces
.dibasic (or diprotic) – i.e. two H+ and hydroxide (OH-) ions in water.
.tribasic (or triprotic) – i.e. three H+ ions e.g.
are formed. BASE + WATER → ALKALI
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq)
e.g. Sulphuric acid ionizes into: sodium oxide watersodium hydroxide
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Ammonia gas is also a base; it accepts a proton from water
Hence its basicity is 2, so it is dibasic. to form ammonium hydroxide or ammonia solution, and
forms ammonium (NH4+) ion.
Strength and Concentration of an acid(or base) NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
ammonia water ammonium hydroxide
Strength of an acid (or base) refers to a degree of Ionization of an Alkali
ionization in water, and it depends on the pH of the e.g. aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution. NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
e.g. 0.1M HNO3 is a strong acid, and 0.1M
CH3COOH is a weak acid ALKALI + ACID → SALT + WATER
Concentration refers to the number of moles of NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
dissolved acid (or base) per given 1dm3 of water. the net ionic equation gives:
e.g. 0.1 mol/dm3of HCl has low concentration, while
0.2 mol/dm3ofHCl has high concentration. OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O(l)
Concentration is increased by adding more acid, or [Remember: Na+ and Cl- are spectator ions.]
decreased by dilution with distilled water.
A Strong alkali ionizes completely and produces large
A Strong acid is the one which ionizes completely amounts of OH- ions in solution.
when dissolved in water and gives a lot of H+ ions e.g.
and other negative ions. hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium:

1
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

In solution the acid contains ions only but no NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2.
molecules. A Weak alkali ionizes partially to give few OH- ions in
solution.
A Weak acid is the one which dissociates partially e.g. ammonia or ammonium hydroxide solution,
when dissolved in water and it gives few H+ ions NH3 (aq) or NH4OH(aq)
and other anions.
In solution, while some molecules break into ions,
some ions rearrange to form molecules.
e.g. carbonic(H2CO3), ethanoic/acetic (CH3COOH),
methanoic/formic(HCOOH), lactic, citric acid, etc.

Methods For Measuring The Strength Of Acids / Alkalis

1. Using the universal (full-range) indicator and the pH scale.

A strong acid gives a red to orange colour i.e. pH 1 to 3.
A weak acid gives a yellow colour i.e. pH 4 to 6.
A strong alkali gives an indigo to violet colour i.e. pH 12 to 14.
A weak alkali gives a blue-green to blue colour i.e. pH 8 to 11.

2. Reaction of acid with a metal or a carbonate.

A strong acid will react faster with more bubbles than a weak acid of the same concentration.

Tube 3 contains a strong acid, tube 1 a weak acid.

Effect of Acids and Alkalis on Indicators
Indicators are coloured dyes made from plants that change colour in acidic or alkaline solutions.
The common indicators are:
(i) litmus paper(red or blue), litmus solution(green)
(ii) methyl orange
(iii) phenolphthalein
(iv) universal (or full-range) indicators.

indicator in acid solution in neutral solution in alkali solution

litmus paper

methyl orange

phenolphthalein

universal

2
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

pH scale and Universal Indicator

The universal (full-range) indicator is a mixture of indicators. The pH scale when used together
with the universal indicator gives 3 things about the substance:
1. whether the substance is an acid or alkali
2. the strength of the acid or alkali and
3. whether a substance is neutral
because the universal indicator gives a range of colours: ROYGBIV (Red, Orange, Yellow,
Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).
The pH scale is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The scale runs from
1(strong acid) to 14(strong alkali).

pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

strong weak acid neutral weak alkali strong

acid alkali

RED ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BLUE-GREEN BLUE PURPLE

HNO3 H2CO3H2O NH4OH NaOH

HCl CH3COOH NaCl Ca(OH)2

R O Y G. B I V

Examples of Acids

type name & basicity ionization strong/ where found or used

weak
mineral hydrochloric HCl → strong -used in cleaning metal surfaces; found
acids (monobasic) H+ + Cl- in stomach

nitric HNO3 → strong -used in making fertilizers and

(monobasic) H+ + NO3- explosives

sulphuric H2SO4 → strong -used in car batteries; fertilizers;

(dibasic) 2H+ + SO42- detergents; paints

carbonic H2CO3 → weak -used in fizzy drinks

(dibasic) 2H+ + CO32-

phosphoric H3PO4 → strong -used in anti-rust paints; fertilizers

(tribasic) 3H+ + PO43-
natural and ethanoic/ CH3COOH → weak -found in vinegar
organic acetic H+ + CH3COO-
acids
methanoic/ HCOOH → weak -found in ant and bee stings; used in
formic H+ + HCOO- kettle discaler

3
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

lactic weak -found in sour milk

C3H8O7
citric weak -in lemons, oranges or other citrus fruits
-in tea
tannic weak
-in grapes
tartaric weak
C6H8O6 -in fruits and vegetables
ascorbic acid weak
(vitamin C)

Examples of Bases

Name& formula appearance soluble/ strong/ where found or used

insoluble weak
sodium hydroxide, white pellets soluble strong -making soap, paper,detergents, bleach,
NaOH oven cleaners
(caustic soda)
colourless
ammonia solution, liquid soluble weak -household cleansers; fertilizers
NH4OH
white pellets
calcium hydroxide, soluble strong - garden lime to neutralize soil acidity; to
Ca(OH)2 neutralize acid gases produced by power
(limewater) white solid stations.

sodium oxide,Na2O soluble to form strong -

white solid NaOH
Calcium oxide,
CaO soluble to form strong -neutralizing soil acidity and industrial
(quick lime) limewater waste; making cement and concrete.

magnesium oxide, white solid insoluble strong -in antacid indigestion tablets.
MgO

Copper(II)oxide, CuO black solid insoluble strong ____

iron(II)oxide, FeO
blue-black insoluble ____
solid

4
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Properties of Acids

-turn blue litmus red

-corrosive
-pH less than 7

Reactions of Acids
1. Neutralization reaction
a. Acid - alkali reaction

-acid + alkali →salt + water

Neutralization reactions using titration procedure.

e.g. Titration reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide in the presence of an indicator
methyl orange.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O

b. acid - base reaction

-acid + metal oxide → salt + water
e.g. Sulphuric acid is neutralized by excess of copper(II) oxide to form copper(II) sulphate .
The acid is heated before the solid is added, to increase the rate of reaction.

Copper II oxide powder

observation ; ………………………………

H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O ……………………………………………….

2. ACID – METAL REACTIONS

-acid + metal → salt + hydrogen

Exception: Nitric acid, HNO3(aq), react with metals to form nitrogen oxides instead of hydrogen.

e.g. magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen.

5
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g

3. ACID – CARBONATE REACTIONS

-acid +carbonate→ salt + water + carbon dioxide

e.g. hydrochloric acid is neutralized by marble chips/limestone to form calcium chloride, water
and carbon dioxide.

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

figure 2:

Observation ………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………

Properties of Alkalis
-‘bitter taste’
-turn red litmus blue
-corrosive, especially strong alkalis
-pH greater 7

Reactions of Alkalis

1. Neutralisation reaction

-alkali+acid → salt + water

neutralization reaction

2. Ammonium salt – alkali reaction

-alkali +ammonium salt →salt + water + ammonia

e.g. sodium hydroxide is warmed gently with ammonium sulphate to give sodium sulphate,
water and ammonia. ( ammonia gas has a pungent smell )

2NaOH(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) →Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O + 2NH3(g)

6
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

APPLICATIONS OF ACID-BASE (NEUTRALIZATION) REACTIONS IN DAILY LIFE

1. Soil Treatment– Farming

-The majority of plants grow best at pH 7. If the soil is acidic or alkaline the plant may grow
badly. Therefore, chemicals can be added to the soil to change its pH.

-If the soil is too acidic - the most common complaint - it is treated with a base(chemicals
opposite to an acid) in order to neutralize it. Common treatments use quicklime (calcium oxide)
or limestone (calcium carbonate), or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).

2. Indigestion
-We all have hydrochloric acid in our stomach - it helps breakdown food! However, too much
acid leads to indigestion. Therefore, to cure this ailment we need to neutralize the acid with a
base such as, sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda), or an indigestion tablet, or remedy such
as ENO.

3. Insect Stings
-A bee sting contains acid. In order to relieve the painful symptoms of the sting we need to
neutralize the acid. By rubbing on calamine lotion (zinc carbonate) or baking soda (sodium
hydrogen carbonate) the acid can be neutralized.
-Wasp stings are alkaline, hence acid is needed to neutralize and remove the painful sting.
Vinegar (ethanoic acid) is used.

4. Waste from Factories

-Wastes from many factories are often acidic. If this acidic solution is not treated and enters
rivers it can kill fish. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is often used to neutralize the acid.

5. Toothpaste
-Toothpaste contains a base which neutralizes the acid produced by the bacteria in the mouth.

6. Household Cleaning Agents

- Jik, Handy Andy contain alkalis that neutralize the acids produced by bacteria working on food
left on utensils in the kitchen.

7. Descaling Kettles
- Limestone collects inside kettles and water heaters in hard water areas. Hard water contains
more dissolved Ca2+ ions than normal water. Calcium carbonate forms when water is boiled. The
calcium carbonate can be removed by treatment with vinegar(ethanoic acid) to descale the
kettles.

7
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

8. Baking powder contains sodium hydrogen carbonate and a weak acid. When water is added
the two react together. The carbon dioxide produced gets trapped and helps the cake-mix or
dough to rise.

SALTS
A SALT is a substance formed when all or part of the hydrogen ions(H+) in acid are replaced by
metal ion or the ammonium ion (NH4+). A salt is an ionic substance made up of an anion from
acid and a cation of metal or ammonium ion.

Types of Salts:
1. NORMAL SALT is formed when all the H+ ions are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
A normal salt is produced from any type of acid. A normal salt is neutral i.e. has pH 7.

2. ACID SALT is formed when part (not all) of the H+ ions are replaced by metal or
ammonium ions. Sulphuric, carbonic and phosphoric acids have more than one
replaceablehydrogen ions, so they can form acid salts.
The pH of an acid salt is lower than that of a normal salt of the same acid at the same
concentration. eg. pH of H2SO4 is 1; pH of NaHSO4 is 3 and pH of Na2SO4 is 7.

ACID NAME OF EXAMPLES OF TYPE OF SALT

SALT NORMAL SALT ACID SALT
Hydrochloric Chlorides Sodium chloride, NaCl ----
Sulphuric Sulphates Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 Sodium hydrogensulphate, NaHSO4
Nitric Nitrates Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 ----
Ethanoic Ethanoates Sodium ethanoate
(acetic) (acetates) (sodium acetate), CH3COONa
----
Sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3
Carbonic Carbonates Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3

SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE SALTS

Soluble salts dissolve in water to form aqueous solutions while insoluble salts do not dissolve in
water.
SOLUBLE SALTS INSOLUBLE SALTS
All Sodium, Potassium and
Ammonium salts

All nitrates

All chlorides EXCEPT Silver chloride &Lead chlorides [SiLe chlorides]

All sulphates EXCEPT Barium,Calcium&Lead sulphate[BaCaLesulphates]

8
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Sodium, Potassium EXCEPT All other carbonates

&Ammonium
carbonates
[SoPoAm]

METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS

REACTIONS / METHODS OF PREPARATION

[Link] REACTIONS
(a) ACID + ALKALI → SALT + WATER
The procedure used is TITRATION.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide sodium chloride

(b) ACID + METAL OXIDE → SALT + WATER

H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
sulphuric acid copper(II) oxide copper(II) sulphate

The reactions produce neutral substances, hence these are NEUTRALIZATION reactions.

[Link] REACTIONS.
SOLUBLE (a) ACID + METAL →SALT + HYDROGEN
SALTS H2SO4 (aq) + Zn (s) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
sulphuric acid zinc zinc(II) sulphate

(b) ACID + METAL CARBONATE →SALT + WATER + CARBON

- DIOXIDE
H2SO4 (aq) + CuCO3 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
sulphuric acid copper(II) carbonate copper(II) sulphate

(c) AMMONIUM SALT + ALKALI → SALT + WATER + AMMONIA

NH4Cl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + NH3(g)
ammonium chloride sodium hydroxide sodium chloride water ammonia

3. DIRECT COMBINATION (SYNTHESIS)

METAL + NON-METAL → SALT
2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl(s)
sodium chlorine sodium chloride

9
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

2Al(s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)

aluminium chlorine aluminium chloride

NH3 (g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

ammonia hydrogen chloride ammonium chloride

1. PRECIPITATION METHOD that involves the process of double decomposition (or

double dissociation) in which the use of two soluble salts form one insoluble salt-a precipitate,
and one soluble salt. The reactants dissociate into ions and this is followed by the exchange and
rearrangement of ions to form products.

INSOLUBLE SOLUBLE + SOLUBLE →INSOLUBLE + SOLUBLE

SALTS SALT SALT SALT SALT

PbCl2 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → PbCO3 (s) + NaCl (aq)

lead(II) chloride sodium carbonate lead(II) carbonate sodium chloride

NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

sodium chloride silver(I) nitrate silver(I) chloride sodium nitrate

2. DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS of acid-metal reactions.

METAL + ACID →SALT + HYDROGEN
Pb (s) + H2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H2 (g)
lead sulphuric acid lead(II) sulphate

Hydrated Salts: contain water of crystallization. The water of crystallization gives crystals their
shape and colour.
When hydrated salts are heated to dryness they lose the water of crystallization and crystals lose
shape and colour, and become powders. Anhydrous salts do not contain any water of
crystallization.

CuSO4∙5H2O (s) heat CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (g)

copper(II) pentahydrate copper(II) sulphate water
blue crystals white powder
(hydrated) (anhydrous)

hydrated salt formula colour

cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate CoCl2∙6H2O pink
iron(II) sulphate hexahydrate FeSO4∙ 6H2O green
sodium carbonate decahydrate Na2CO3∙10H2O white
magnesium sulphate heptahydrate MgSO4∙7H2O white

Efflorescent salts: give out some or all of their water of crystallization to the air.
e.g. Na2CO3∙10H2O (s) → Na2CO3∙H2O(s) + 9H2O(g)

Deliquescent salts: absorb water from the air and turn into a aqueous solution.

10
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

e.g. copper(II) nitrate,Cu(NO3)2 , zinc chloride, ZnCl2 and sodium hydroxide, NaOH are
deliquescent salts should be kept in a dessicator to keep them dry.

STAGES OF PREPARING AND PURIFYING SALTS PREPARED BY THE ABOVE

METHODS

STAGES IN PREPARING AND PURIFYING THE SALT PREPARED

1. WARM the acid. DISSOLVE excess insoluble base while stirring to react all the
acid.
2. FILTRATION of the mixture to purify the salt. The filtrate( solution of the soluble
salt goes through the filter paper). Discard off the residue (the solid left on filter paper).
3. EVAPORATE the filtrate by heating until saturated and crystals start to form,
4. Allow to cool, and the rest of the crystals form at room temperature, this is called
CRYSTALLISATION.
5. FILTER off crystals. WASH them with little distilled water. DRY crystals carefully
between filter paper.

Preparation of hydrated copper(II) sulphate crystals

Requirements: copper oxide, dilute sulphuric acid, Bunsen burner, stirring rod, wire
SOLUBLE SALT gauze, tripod stand, evaporating basin, 2 beakers, a funnel, filter paper.

1 2

4 3
1. FILTRATION of the mixture is done. The filtrate (solution of the soluble salt goes
through the filter paper)
2. WASHING of the residue (the insoluble solid left on the filter paper) using distilled
INSOLUBLE SALT water.
3. DRYING of the residue between filter papers, or in the oven, or in air to get your dry
salt.

11
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Uses of some salts

Salt colour use

ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) white crystals fertilizers

limestone, chalk, marble chips (CaCO3) white making lime, cement, iron
extraction, decorative
stones

gypsum, plaster of Paris (CaSO4) white crystals wall plaster

washing soda (Na2CO3) white powder or in cleaning; water

crystals softening, making glass

Epsom salts(MgSO4) white crystals health salts (laxatives)

copper sulphate(CuSO4) blue crystals fungicides

OXIDES:
These are compounds formed when oxygen reacts with metals or non-metals.
colour possible identity of oxide solubility in water
white solid Na2O, K2O, CaO, ZnO All are insoluble except Na2O, K2O,
and MgO (slightly soluble) to form
alkalis.
black powder CuO, FeO

colourless gas CO2, SO2, SO3, NO2 All are soluble in water to form acids.

Classification of oxides
There are 4 classes or types of oxides: Basic, Amphoteric, Acidic and Neutral.

CLASS OF EXAMPLES PROPERTIES

OXIDES
Na2O, MgO,
CaO, CuO, -if it dissolves in water, alkalis are formed.
BASIC FeO, Fe2O3, etc. - they turn damp red litmus blue.
- they react with acids to form salt + water.

METAL OXIDES Al2O3 - they have both acidic and basic properties. i.e.
ZnO they react with both acids and alkalis to form salt +
PbO water.
AMPHOTERIC
[AlZiLe] ZnO + H2SO4→ ZnSO4 + H2O
zinc sulphate
ZnO + NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O
sodium zincate
- they react with water to form acids.
SO2, SO3 , CO2, SO2 + H2O → H2SO3sulphurous acid
NO2 , P2O5 SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 sulphuric acid
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 carbonic acid
NO2 + H2O → HNO3 nitric acid
ACIDIC P2O5 + H2O → H3PO4 phosphoric acid

12
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

NON-METAL
OXIDES - they react with alkalis to form a salt + water.
2NaOH + CO2→ Na2CO3 + H2O

H2O, CO, - are neither acidic nor basic, i.e. they do not react
NEUTRAL N2O dinitrogen with both acids and alkalis.
oxide

IDENTIFICATION OF IONS
To carry out a test the unknown substance must be in an aqueous form.
An ion can be identified by the
 the colour of the precipitate (ppt), and
 the solubility of the ppt in excess of the reagent.

Test For Cations:

Transition metals can be recognized by the colour of their hydroxides.
Amphoteric metals can be recognized because their hydroxides react with excess of the
sodium hydroxide solution.
cation test result on adding excess NaOH test results on adding excess
(aq) NH3(aq)
ammonium ammonia gas produced on warming.
NH4+
copper (II) blueppt of Cu(OH)2; insoluble in light blue ppt soluble in excess
Cu2+ excess. giving a deep blue solution.
iron (II) dirty green ppt of Fe(OH)2; dirty green ppt insoluble in excess.
Fe2+ insoluble in excess. (turns brown on standing)
(ppt turns brown on standing)
iron (III) red-brownppt of Fe(OH)3; insoluble red-brownppt insoluble.
Fe3+ in excess.
calcium white ppt of Ca(OH)2; insoluble noppt (or very slight ppt).
Ca2+
aluminium whiteppt of Al(OH)3; soluble in whiteppt; insoluble.
Al3+ excess giving a colourless solution.
zinc whiteppt of Zn(OH)2; soluble in whiteppt; soluble in excess giving a
Zn2+ excess giving a colourless solution. colourless solution.

Test for Anions:

anion test test result
chloride acidify with nitric acid; then add aqueous white ppt of silver chloride:
Cl- silver nitrate Ag (aq) + Cl(aq) → AgCl(s)
iodide acidify with nitric acid; then add aqueous yellow ppt of lead(II) iodide:
I- lead(II) nitrate Pb2+(aq) + 2I- (aq) → PbI2(s)
OR OR
acidify with nitric acid ; then add silver pale yellow ppt of silver iodide:
nitrate. Ag (aq) + I-(aq) →AgI(s)
sulphate acidify with nitric acid; then add barium white ppt of barium sulphate:
SO42- nitrate Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)
OR OR
acidify with hydrochloric acid; then add white ppt of barium sulphate
barium chloride
nitrate add aqueous sodium hydroxide; then add ammonia gas produced (test with moist red

13
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

NO3- aluminium foil and warm carefully. litmus paper; red litmus turns blue)
carbonate add dilute hydrochloric acid effervescence observed; CO2 gas produced
CO32- (test with limewater; limewater turns milky).

______________________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS:
1.

14