The theory that company executives believe about ▪ 3 AREAS:
leadership will determine how an organization selects or o TRAITS
develops its managers. ▪ SELF-MONITORING – leaders do
as opposed to what they are.
✓ If we believe that certain people are “born leaders” o NEEDS [DAVID MCLELLAND’S LEARNED
because of their personal traits, needs, or NEEDS THEORY]
orientation, then managers could be selected ▪ POWER – the extent to which a
partially on the basis of their scores on certain person desires to be in control of
tests. other people.
✓ If we believe that leadership consists of specific ▪ ACHIEVEMENT – the extent to
skills or behaviors, then theoretically we should be which a person desires to be
able to train any employee to become an successful.
outstanding leader. ▪ AFFILIATION – extent to which a
✓ If we believe that good leadership is the result of person desires to be around
an interaction between certain types of behaviors other people.
and particular aspects of the situation, then we o ORIENTATION
might choose certain types of people to be leaders ▪ PERSON-ORIENTED LEADERS
at any given time, or we might teach leaders how • Country club leaders,
to adapt their behavior to meet the situation. Theory Y leaders.
• High in consideration,
act in a warm and
PERSONALITY AND LEADERSHIP supportive manner, and
show concern.
LEADER EMERGENCE • They believe that
▪ Certain types of people will become leaders and employees are
certain types will not. intrinsically motivated,
o People high in OCEAN, masculinity, and seek responsibility,
creativity, and authoritarianism and low in are self-controlled, and
neuroticism do not necessarily
o HIGH SELF-MONITORS – people who dislike work.
adapt their behavior to the social • Consult their
situation. subordinates before
o More intelligent people. making decisions,
o There is no “leadership gene”. We inherit praise their work, ask
certain traits and abilities that might about their families, etc.
influence our decision to seek leadership. • “HANDS-OFF”
approach.
MOTIVATION AND LEADERSHIP
• Under pressure: socially
withdrawn.
1. AFFECTIVE IDENTITY MOTIVATION
▪ TASK-ORIENTED LEADERS
o Motivation to lead as a result of a desire to
• Task-centered, Theory X
be in charge and lead others.
leaders.
2. NONCALCULATIVE MOTIVATION
o Seek leadership positions because they • High in initiating
will result in personal gain. [increase in structure define and
structure their own roles
pay or status]
to attain group’s goal.
3. SOCIAL-NORMATIVE MOTIVATION
o Lead out of a sense of duty or • See their employees as
responsibility. [“his turn” to lead] lazy, extrinsically
motivated, wanting
PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS AND LEADERSHIP security, undisciplined,
and shirking
LEADER PERFORMANCE responsibility.
▪ The idea that leaders who perform well possess • Manage or lead by giving
certain characteristics that poorly performing directives, setting goals,
leaders do not. and making decisions
▪ Intelligent, assertive, friendly, independent. Etc. without consulting their
subordinates.
• Under pressure: LEADERSHIP AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS
become anxious,
defensive, dominant. IMPACT THEORY
▪ Geier, Downey, and Johnson (1980)
MCGREGOR THEORY X AND THEORY Y ▪ Believed that each leader has one of six behavioral
✓ THEORY X: employees are extrinsically motivated styles: informational, magnetic, position,
and thus lead by giving directives and setting affiliation, coercive, or tactical.
goals.
✓ THEORY Y: employees are intrinsically motivated STYLE CLIMATE DESCRIPTION
and thus lead by empowering their employees. INFORMATIONAL Ignorance Information is
not available
LEADERSHIP STYLES MAGNETIC Despair Low morale
POSITION Instability People are not
1. TEAM LEADERSHIP sure what to do.
o Leader is concerned with both AFFILIATION Anxiety Worry
productivity and employee well-being. predominates
2. IMPOVERISHED LEADERSHIP COERCIVE Crisis Decision has
o Leader is concerned with neither extreme
productivity nor the well-being of consequences
employees. TACTICAL Disorganization Has the
3. MIDDLE-OF-THE-ROAD LEADERSHIP knowledge and
o Balanced orientation between people resources but
and task. does not know
how to use it.
UNSUCCESSFUL LEADERS
1. INFORMATIONAL
TRAITS THAT PREDICT FAILURE IN LEADERSHIP o Important information is missing from the
✓ PARANOID/PASSIVE-AGGRESIVE: leader has group.
deeply rooted, but perhaps unconscious, 2. MAGNETIC
resentment and anger. o Leads through energy and optimism. [ex.
✓ HIGH-LIKABILITY FLOATER: goes along with group. Ronal Reagan]
Is friendly to everyone, and never challenges 3. POSITION
anyone’s ideas. o Leads by virtue of power. [e.g.,
✓ NARCISSISTS: leaders who overcome their captain/mother telling you what to do]
insecurity by overconfidence. 4. AFFILIATION
o Liking and caring about others; similar to
LEADERSHIP AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS
person-oriented leader.
5. COERCIVE
FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY MODEL
o Leads by controlling reward and
✓ A theory of leadership that states that leadership
punishment. [ex. Do it or you’re fired!]
effectiveness is dependent on the interaction
6. TACTICAL
between the leader and the situation.
o Leads through the use of strategies. [ex. A
LEAST-PREFERRED COWORKER (LPC) SCALE
class breaks into small groups for
✓ A test used in conjunction with Fiedler’s
assignments]
contingency model to reveal leadership style and
SUBORDINATE ABILITY
effectiveness.
• Leaders will be successful if their subordinates
LEADER MATCH
perceive them as working with them to meet
✓ A training program that teaches leaders how to
certain goals and if those goals offer a favorable
change situations to match their leadership
outcome for the subordinates.
styles.
• Subordinates change with each new situation, so
A situation is FAVORABLE for a leader if the following are supervisors must adjust their behavior to meet the
present: needs of their subordinates.
1. TASK STRUCTUREDNESS – tasks have clear goals
and problems can be solved. [the more structured LEADER-MEMBER EXHANGE (LMX) THEORY
the task, the more favorable] ▪ Focuses on the interaction between leaders and
2. LEADER POSITION POWER – has the power to subordinates.
reward and punish subordinates. [no leader = Ingroup Outgroup
unfavorable situations] High-quality Low-quality
3. LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS – subordinates like relationship; more relationship; given
the leader. [most important] satisfied; perform direct orders; have
better; less turnover; less say in affairs
engage in OCB, higher
PA ratings
DECISION MAKING AND LEADERSHIP PATH-GOAL THEORY
✓ Decision making is a specific behavior or skill that ✓ House’s path-goal theory states that a leader can
is important for a leader to possess. adopt one of four behavioral leadership styles to
✓ Leadership performance can be improved by handle each situation.
teaching leaders to become better decision
makers. INSTRUMENTAL STYLE Leader plans and organize
the activities of
VROOM-YETTON MODEL employees.
✓ A theory of leadership that concentrates on SUPPORTIVE STYLE Leaders show concern for
helping a leader choose how to make a decision. their employees.
PARTICIPATIVE STYLE Leader allows employees
DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES to participate in
AUTOCRATIC I Decide without consulting decisions.
subordinates ACHIEVEMENT-ORIENTED Leader sets challenging
AUTOCRATIC II Leaders obtain STYLE goals and rewards
information and make a achievement.
decision
CONSULTATIVE I Leaders share the SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
problem on an individual
basis ✓ Hersey and Blanchard
CONSULTATIVE II Leaders share the ✓ A leader uses one of four behavioral styles:
problem to the group then delegating, directing, supporting, or coaching.
leader decides
GROUP I Share problem with the DIRECTING APPROACH Most effective; the leader
group to reach group directs the follower by
decision telling him what to do and
how to do it.
LEADERSHIP THROUGH POWER COACHING APPROACH Explain and clarify how
work should be done;
✓ Power is important to a leader because as it willing to do the work but
increases so does the leader’s potential to are not sure how to do it.
influence others. SUPPORTING APPROACH Followers already know
✓ Leaders who have power are able to obtain more what to do but are not
resources, dictate policy, and advance farther in sure whether they want to
an organization than those who have little or no do it.
power. DELEGATING APPROACH Followers are most
productive and happy;
TYPES OF POWER both willing and able to do
TYPE OF POWER DESCRIPTION the task.
LEGITIMATE They are powerful because
of their position NOTE: The only real job for the leader is to delegate
[elected/appointed] specific tasks to subordinates and then let them complete
EXPERT They are powerful because these tasks with minimal supervision or guidance.
of their skill and
knowledge LEADERSHIP THROUGH CONTACT:
REFERENT They are powerful because MANAGEMENT BY WALKING AROUND
people like them
COERCIVE They have the power to ✓ MBWA holds that leaders and managers are most
punish bad performance effective when they are out of their offices, walking
[punish others] around, and meeting with and talking to
REWARD They have the power to employees and customers about their needs and
reward a good progress.
performance [provide ✓ MBWA is thought to increase communication,
rewards] build relationships with employees, and
encourage employee participation.
LEADERSHIP THROUGH VISION:
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
✓ TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP: leader focuses on
task-oriented behaviors.
✓ TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP: leader
changes the nature and goals of an organization.
LEADERSHIP THROUGH AUTHENTICITY
AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP
✓ States that leaders should be honest and open
and lead out of a desire to serve others rather than
a desire for self-gain.
✓ Have high self-esteem that gives them the
confidence to be courageous and do the right
thing as well as the willingness to accept criticism
and make personal changes when necessary.
SELF-AWARENESS
✓ Important aspect of authentic leadership.
✓ For leaders to be successful they need to
understand who they are, recognize and accept
their weaknesses, and take steps to correct those
weaknesses.
NOTE: Leader performance affects organizational
performance. When employees trust their leader, they
perform better, are more satisfied with their jobs, are more
committed to the organization, are less likely to quit, and
are more likely to engage in OCB.