Electric potential V allows us to describe the electric field E, as E = -dV/dx, indicating the direction in which V decreases most rapidly. According to Coulomb’s Law, F = k*q1*q2/r^2, electric potential V at a point due to a charge Q is V = k*Q/r, demonstrating how potential is scalar and simplifies calculation of electric forces and field distributions .

The horizontal range R of a projectile is given by the formula (u^2 sin2theta)/g. This derives from the two kinematics equations: horizontal distance s = ut and vertical motion g = v^2 - u^2/2s. By substituting the initial velocity components and solving for the time of flight, the horizontal motion equation R = u*cos(theta)*time of flight is obtained. The substitution of time of flight t = (2u*sin(theta))/g into the range equation leads to R = (u^2 sin(2theta))/g .

Newton's Second Law states F = ma. For a mass m being pulled up a frictionless incline with acceleration a, the net force is the component of the tension T along the incline minus the component of gravitational force pulling it down. The angle of the incline theta affects these components. Thus, T - mgsin(theta) = ma, solving for T gives T = ma + mgsin(theta), where the gravitational force component down the incline is mgsin(theta).

Torque and angular momentum are related through the equation L = I*omega, where torque tau = rFsin(theta). Torque causes a change in angular momentum, analogous to how force causes a change in linear momentum. Thus, the rate of change of angular momentum with respect to time is equal to the applied torque, i.e., tau = dL/dt .

Linear kinetic energy is given by KE = 1/2mv^2, where m is mass and v is velocity. Rotational kinetic energy is KE = 1/2Iomega^2, where I is moment of inertia and omega is angular velocity. Both expressions represent the energy associated with motion, but in rotational motion, mass is distributed over a radius, embodied in I, while linear motion emphasizes mass moving in one dimension .

Mechanical work is calculated by W = F * d * cos(theta), where theta is the angle between force and displacement. If force is not aligned with displacement, cos(theta) accounts for only the force component effectuating movement. Misalignment reduces effective work, illustrating the significance of force direction to optimize energy transfer .

To find displacement from velocity function v(t), integrate v(t) with respect to time: ∫v(t)dt. This integral yields the position function s(t) + C, where C is the integration constant. Calculus thus allows derivation of positional information from a rate of change function, as the antiderivative of velocity is displacement .

The cross product of vectors A and B, given by A x B = |A||B|sin(theta)n_hat, results in a vector perpendicular to both A and B, with magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram formed by A and B. This contrasts with the dot product, which yields a scalar. The direction of the resulting vector is determined using the right-hand rule .

Rydberg’s formula is given by 1/lambda = RZ^2(1/n1^2 - 1/n2^2), where lambda is the wavelength, R is the Rydberg constant, Z is the atomic number, and n1, n2 are integers representing energy levels. By identifying n1 and n2 for the transition, and the atomic number Z, one calculates the wavelength of emitted or absorbed light when an electron moves between these energy levels .

Planck's equation hf = phi + KE describes the photoelectric effect, where hf is the energy of incident photons, phi is the work function or minimum energy needed to liberate an electron, and KE is the kinetic energy of the emitted electron. The equation illustrates how photons with sufficient energy will cause electron emission from a material, foundational in quantum theory .