Pulse width modulation
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Modulation and PWM modulation
• The modulation is a signal processing technique where the information
associated to a signal, called modulating signal, exploiting an auxiliary signal
called carrier, is transferred to a modulated signal.
• The modulated signal should have more convenient characteristics for its
transmission over the available transmission medium, and is often a power
amplified signal.
• In pulse width modulation (PWM) the modulated signal is a square-wave, of
assigned amplitude and frequency, but with pulse width which is proportional
to the modulating signal.
• In PWM modulation and transmission a high amplification can be easily
achieved, simply increasing the levels of the modulated signal.
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Analog PWM modulation
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Analog PWM modulation
• The modulation is realized by an analog comparator, which compare the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal 𝑣 ∗ , here constant, with the carrier
𝑝(𝑡), which usually is a triangular wave.
• The carrier determines the frequency of the output signal and transfer the
information from 𝑣 ∗ to the output signal.
• The output stage is just a buffer, which replicates the comparator logic level and
provides high output voltage E/2 and high output currents.
• The intermediate state indicated as driver translates the comparator logic level
in the activation signals of the two switches and manages the dead time,
introduced between positive and negative output to avoid the contemporary
activity of both switches.
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Analog PWM modulation
• The period T is the sum of two intervals, 𝑡1 where 𝑣𝑂 𝑡 = +𝐸/2, and 𝑡2
where 𝑣𝑂 𝑡 = −𝐸/2.
• 𝑑 = 𝑡1 /𝑇 is called duty-cycle of the modulator.
• The moving average over a period T is constant and equal to
• The information of the signal 𝑣 ∗ has been transferred to 𝑣𝑂 𝑡 , proportional to 𝑣 ∗
• By varying 𝑡1 from 0 to T, i.e., d from 0 to 1, the average output voltage change
from −𝐸/2 till +𝐸/2.
• 𝑣 ∗ does not need to be constant. If it is slowly varying we still have:
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Analog PWM demodulation
• The spectral properties of PWM modulated signal allow an easy reconstruction of
𝑣 ∗ (t).
• Let us consider a sinusoidal modulating signal with frequency 𝑓𝑚 much lower
than that of the PWM carrier 𝑓𝑃𝑊𝑀 .
• The spectrum of the modulated signal is given by the spectrum of the original
signal plus some periodic repetitions centered around multiples of 𝑓𝑃𝑊𝑀 .
• The spectrum repetitions fast decay at higher frequencies.
• We have a similar spectrum with any band-limited signal 𝑣 ∗ (t), provided the
maximum bandwidth is much lower than 𝑓𝑃𝑊𝑀 .
• The original signal spectrum is embedded in the modulated signal and can be
recovered by low-pass filtering the modulated signal.
• To facilitate the extraction 𝑓𝑃𝑊𝑀 is often 20 to 50 times larger than the
modulating signal bandwidth.
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Analog PWM demodulation
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Analog PWM demodulation
If the carrier signal is not much larger than 𝑣 ∗ (t) bandwidth:
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Digital PWM modulation
• The PWM modulation can be implemented also using digital circuits.
• The role of the triangular carrier is played by a binary counter, the role of the
analog comparator is played by a binary comparator.
• The binary comparator compares the value of the counter with a match value set
by the user. The match value determines the duty-cycle.
• The match value divided by the counter full-scale value, provides the fraction of
period where the output signal is high.
• The process is equivalent to an analog modulation in which the modulating signal
level is acquired and quantized every carrier period.
• The counter frequency is equal to the carrier frequency times 2𝑛 , where n is the
number of bits of the counter. For this reason, it is difficult to have digital
modulators with high resolution and high carrier frequency:
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Trailing edge PWM
• There are many ways for implementing digitals PWM modulators.
• In trailing edge PWM, the counter starts from 0 and goes up.
• The positive edge is aligned with the counter start, the descent trailing edge is
determined by the modulating signal.
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Leading edge PWM
• In leading edge PWM, the counter starts from maximum value and goes down.
• The descending edge is aligned with the counter restart, the positive leading
edge is determined by the modulating signal.
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Symmetric PWM
• In symmetric PWM, the pulse is symmetric with respect to the moments of
counter restarts, with the counter going from 0 till maximum and then back to 0.
• (Pulse symmetry is useful in some applications for its better harmonic behavior).
• The symmetric mode allows also to update the signal two times per period, but in
that case pulse symmetry is lost.
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Response delay problem
• A problem in digital PWM modulators is the delay in their response, since they
sample the signal at the frequency of the carrier.
• The maximum delay is equal to the carrier period.
• Symmetric PWMs halve the delay.
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PWM configuration
• The PWM modulator is configured similarly to a timer.
• The first parameter to choose is the modulation frequency. If not specified
choose the highest to facilitate demodulation. Do not reduce resolution, which
must be at least of 8 bits. Thus, the maximum 𝑓𝑃𝑊𝑀 = 𝑓𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 /256.
• The counter frequency can be chosen by setting a division factor P in a prescaler.
• 𝑓𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 in µCs are in the order to tens of MHz, 𝑓𝑃𝑊𝑀 in the order of hundred kHz,
thus P in most cases is 1, 2, 4, or 8.
• PWM configuration is completed choosing the mode (symmetric, leading-edge,
traling-edge) and the number of outputs to be activated (there can be multiple
outputs). In case of complementary outputs, sometimes we can set a dead-time.
• The IRQ generated by the PWM modulator must be serviced. The ISR typically set
the duty-cycle of the next PWM period.
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See:
• Simone Buso, «Introduzione alle applicazioni industriali di Microcontrollori e
DSP» Società editrice Esculapio, 2018
• Chapter 12
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