Joule’s laws of heating

When electric current is passed through a resistive wire, then heat is produced in the
wire. The amount of heat(H) produced in the wire is

(i) directly proportional to the square of current (I) passing through the wire

H ∝ I2

(ii) directly proportional to the resistance (R) of the resistive wire

H∝R

(iii) directly proportional to the time (t) for which current is passed through the wire

H∝t

Combining these relations, we get

H ∝ I 2 Rt
I 2 Rt
OR, H = (1)
J

where 1J is constant of proportionality and J is called mechanical equivalent of heat.

The value of J is 4.18 (=4.2) joule per calorie. Actually, J is used as conversion factor
2
in the above equation. The term H = I JRt gives heat energy in calorie and H = I 2 Rt
gives the heat energy in joule.

Derivation of Joule’s laws of heating

When electric current is passed through a resistive wire, source of EMF has to do work
to send the charge against the resistive force. This work done by the source is converted
into the heat energy in the resistive wire.

Consider a circuit having resistance R and potential difference V applied across the
resistance using a source of emf as shown in Figure 1. Then, according to Ohm’s law,
current (I) flowing through the wire is given by

V = IR (2)

1
 Figure 1

Let, current I is passed through the circuit for time t to transfer charge q from one end
of resistance to its other end, then

q = It (3)

If W is the amount of work done to transfer the charge q from one end of R to its other
end, then, from definition of potential difference, we have

W
V=
q
OR, W = V q (4)

Putting the values of V and q in Equation (4), we get

W = I 2 Rt (5)

This amount of work done is converted into the heat energy (H) in the resistive wire.
Therefore,

H = W = I 2 Rt (6)

The Equation (6) represents the Joule’s laws of heating. Using the relation V = I R, one
can obtain

V2
H = W = I 2 Rt = V It = t (7)
R

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Electric Power

Power of an electric load is defined as the time rate of doing work by the load or time
rate at which electric energy is transferred by the load into other forms.

W V2
P= = I2R = V I = (8)
t R

Note: 1. When same current is passed through different resisters, then power dissipated
in the resistors are proportional to the value of resistance of the resistors. When potential
difference is same across different resistors, then power consumed by them are inversely
proportional to their resistances.

2. There are constant voltage supply to the home of consumer. Therefore, manufacturer
produces the electric loads at constant voltage. Hence, resistance of the electric loads
are inversely proportional to the resistance of the electric loads.

Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter.

Galvanometer: It is an electrical device used to detect presence of the current in the

circuit and direction of current in the circuit. When electric current is passed through
a galvanometer, then deflection is produced in it. The deflection produced in the gal-
vanometer is directly proportional to the current passing through it. A certain fixed
amount of current (Ig ) is to be passed through the galvanometer which produces full
scale deflection in the galvanometer called full scale deflecting current for that gal-
vanometer. A galvanometer has a coil which has certain value of resistance (Rg ) called
resistance of the galvanometers. These values of Ig and Rg must be known to change
this galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter of desired range.

Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter

A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter of desired range by connecting a suitable
value of low resistance coil in parallel with the galvanometer. This low resistance coil
is called shunt.

3
 Figure 2: Ammeter

Consider a galvanometer having resistance Rg and full scale deflecting current of Ig .

This galvanometer is to be converted into an ammeter of range (0 − I). Let, S is the
resistance of the shunt to be connected in parallel with the galvanometer such that
when current I is passed through the resulting ammeter, then current Ig passes through
the galvanometer producing full scale deflection and remaining current (I − Ig ) passes
through the shunt as shown in Figure 7 .

Since, the resistances Rg and S are connected in parallel. Therefore,

P.d. across Rg = P.d. across S
OR, Ig Rg = (I − Ig )S
Ig Rg
OR, S = I−I g
. This is the required value of shunt to be connected.

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance coil of
suitable value in series with the galvanometer.

Figure 3: Voltmeter

Consider a galvanometer having resistance Rg and full scale deflecting current of Ig .

This galvanometer is to be converted into a voltmeter of range (0 − V). Let, R is the

4
resistance of the coil to be connected in series with the galvanometer such that when
p.d. V is applied across the resulting voltmeter, then same current Ig passes through the
galvanometer producing full scale deflection and through the resistance R as shown in
Figure 8.

Now, p.d. across the voltmeter = current through the voltmeter X resistance of voltmeter

OR, V = Ig (Rg + R)

OR, R= V
Ig − Rg . This is the required value of resistance of the coil to be connected.

Note: 1. Ammeter is connected in series with the resistance of a circuit. The function
of ammeter is to measure current in a circuit. The ammeter can measure current of a
circuit accurately only when all the current of the circuit passes through the ammeter as
well. This is possible only, when ammeter is connected in series with the circuit.
2. Resistance of ammeter must be very low so that the effective resistance of circuit
does not change on connecting the ammeter in series with the circuit. In this condition,
current in the circuit does not change on connecting the ammeter in the circuit and it
can measure the current accurately.
3. Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the resistance of a circuit. The function of
voltmeter is to measure p.d. across a resistor in a circuit. Therefore, two terminals of
the voltmeter must be connected with the two ends of the resistance and ultimately it
becomes in parallel with the resistance of the circuit.
4. Resistance of voltmeter must be very high so that the effective resistance of circuit
does not change on connecting the voltmeter in parallel with the resistance of the circuit.
In this condition, p.d. across the resistance and hence across the voltmeter remains
unchanged on connecting the voltmeter so that the voltmeter can measure the p.d. more
accurately.

Kirchhoff’s Laws

1. Kirchhoff’s current law.

The sum of current flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of currents flowing
away from that junction. In the figure, currents I1 and I2 are flowing towards the junction
B and current I3 is flowing away from this junction. Therefore, I1 + I2 = I3 .

5
 Figure 4

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

This law states that the algebric sum of p.d. in a close close loop of an electric circuit is
equal to zero.
Consider a circuit shown in Figure 4. When Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied in a close
loop ABEFA, then

VAB + VBE + VE F + VF A = 0 (9)

Here, VAB = I1 R1 , is the p.d. between points A and B which is positive because point
A is at higher potential than B. Similarly, VBE = I3 R3 and VE F = 0. The potential
difference between F and A is I1r1 due to potential drop across internal resistance r1
and −E1 due to emf of the cell. The negative value of emf is due the measurement from
lower value of p.d. at negative terminal of source to the higher value of p.d. at positive
terminal of source. Therefore, p.d. between points F and A becomes VF A = i1r1 − E1 .
Puttung these values in Equation (9), we obtain

I1 R1 + I3 R3 + I1r1 − E1 = 0 (10)

Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in loop BCDEB, one obtain

−I2 R2 − I2r2 + E2 − I3 R3 = 0 (11)

6
Applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage law in loop ABCDEFA, we obtain

I1 R1 − I2 R2 − I2r2 + E2 + I1r1 − E1 = 0 (12)

Note:-The p.d. between any two points say A and D can be written as the voltage sum
across the different elements between these points and given as

VAD = E1 − I1r1 (along path AFED)

= I1 R1 + I3 R3 (along path ABED)
= I1 R1 − I2 R2 − I2r2 + E2 (along path ABCD)

Wheatstone Bridge

A wheatstone bridge consists of four resistance that forms the four sides of a quadrilateral
ABCD as shown in figure. A cell is connected in one diagonal AC and a galvanometer
is connected in another diagonal BD. The resistances are adjusted such that the current
through the galvanometer becomes zero and the bridge is said to be balanced. If P,
Q, R and X are resistances on the four arms of the wheatstone bridge at the balancing
condition, then we have

P X
= (13)
Q R

This condition is called the wheatstone bridge principle.

Figure 5

PROOF.

7
Let, I1 and I2 are the currents flowing through the resistances P and X at balancing
condition respectively, then currents through Q and R becomes I1 and I2 according
to the Kirchhoff’s current law because no current is there through the galvanometer.
Further, when current through the galvanometer becomes zero, then the points B and D
becomes at same potential i.e. VB=VD. Since, one terminal of both the resisters P and
X are common at A and another terminals B and D are at same potential. Therefore,

P.D. across P (P.D. between points A & B) = p.d. across X (P.D. between points A & D)
OR, I1 P = I2 X (14)

Similarly,

p.d. across Q (P.D. between points B & C) = p.d. across R (p.d. between points D & C)
OR, I1 Q = I2 R (15)

Dividing equation (2) by (3) we obtain the balancing condition as stated in Equation (5).

Wheatstone bridge principle using Kirchhoff’s laws

Applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage law in loop ABDA, we get

I1 P + Ig Rg − I2 X = 0
OR, I1 P = I2 X (16)

Here, Ig is the current through the galvanometer which is equal to zero at balancing
condition and Rg is the resistance of the galvanometer. Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law in loop BCDB, we obtain

I1 Q g − I2 R − Ig R = 0
OR, I1 Q = I2 R (17)

Dividing equation (4) by (5), we obtain

P X
= (18)
Q R

This is the balancing condition of Wheatstone bridge.

Meter Bridge
Meter bridge is a device used to measure resistance of a wire and works on Wheatstone

8
bridge principle.

Construction of Meter bridge and its use to measure resistance of a wire

Meter bridge consists of a constantan wire having uniform area of cross-section and
length 100 cm stretched on a wooden board with the help of two thick copper strips.
Another strip is fitted between the two strips to obtain two gaps called left gap and right
gap. Screws are provided on the strips at points A, B, C, D, E, F and G to connect the
different devices with it. A meter scale is fitted on the wooden board parallel to the
meter bridge wire shown in figure-6.

Figure 6

The unknown resistance wire, whose resistance ‘X’ to be measured, is connected in the
left gap and a resistance box (R.B.) is connected in the right gap. A cell is connected
between two ends A and B of the meter bridge wire and the screw at point E on the
central strip is connected to a jockey through a galvanometer.

Then, certain resistance R is introduced from the resistance box and jockey is slided on
the meter bridge wire from end A towards B to find a balancing point J on the meter
bridge wire such that the galvanometer does not show any deflection and bridge is said
to be balanced. The balancing length ‘l’ (in cm) of the segment AJ is measured sothat
the length of the segment JB becomes ‘100 − l’ cm. If resistance of the segment AJ is
P and that of segment JB is Q, then from Wheatstone bridge principle, we have

X P
= (19)
R Q

Since, area of cross-section and resistivity of both the resistances P and Q are same.
Therefore, their resistances must be proportional to their length. i.e.

P l
= (20)
Q 100 − l

9
Using equation (20) in equation (19), we can obtain

l
X= R (when X is in left gap) (21)
100 − l

As the length ‘l’ is the measured length and resistance R introduced from resistance box
are known , the value of X can be calculated.

If the positions of X and R are interchanged (i.e. X in right gap and R in left gap), then
we obtain

R P l
= =
X Q 100 − l
100 − l
OR, X= R (when X is in right gap) (22)
l

Potentiometer
Working principle:- When constant current is passed through a resistive wire of uniform
area of cross-section then potential difference across different segments of the wire are
proportional to the length of that segments.

Consider a resistive wire of uniform area of cross-section ‘a’ and resistivity of the
material of the wire ‘ρ’. If ‘l’ is the length of a segment of the wire, resistance of the
segment of the wire is given by

l
R=ρ (23)
a

If constant current (I) is passed through the wire then p.d. across the segment of the
wire becomes

l
Vl = I R = I ρ (24)
a

Since, ρ, a and I are constants for any segment of the wire. Therefore,

Vl ∝ l

Measurement of internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer

10
 Figure 7

Let, the sugment AB in Figure 7 is representing the total length of the potentiometer
wire. The positive terminal of a driver cell is connected to A and its negative terminal is
connected to point B through a rheostat as a variable resistor. The positive terminals of
the experimental cell of emf E, whose internal resistance (r) to be measured, is connected
the point A and its negative terminal is connected to a jockey through a galvanometer.
A resistance box (R.B.) is connected across the experimental cell through a key (K).

Then, constant enough current ‘I’ is adjusted through the potentiometer wire so that p.d.
between two ends A and B exceeds the emf E of the experimental cell. Then, plug is
removed from the key K. Then, jockey is slided on the potentiometer wire from end A
towards B to find a balancing point J on the wire so that the galvanometer does not show
any deflection. Then, balancing length ‘l1 ’ the segment AJ of the potentiometer wire is
noted.

At the balancing condition, p.d. across the balancing length ‘l1 ’ of the wire becomes
equal to the terminal p.d. of the experimental cell which is equal to its emf E because
cell is not sending any current at the balancing condition.

E = p.d. across the balancing length l1

ρl1
 
OR, E = I RAJ = I (25)
a

where, ρ and a are the resistivity and area of cross-section respectively of the poten-
tiometer wire. Then, certain resistance R is introduced from the resistance box and plug
is inserted in the key K. The jockey is slided again on the potentiometer wire to find

11
the corresponding balancing length l2 . In this case, p.d. across the balancing length l2
becomes equal to the terminal p.d. (V) of the experimental cell because cell is sending
current (say I’) through resistance R at the balancing condition. i.e.

V = p.d. across the balancing length l2

ρl2
 
OR, V=I (26)
a

Now, dividing the equation (25) by (26), we get

E l1
= (27)
V l2

Npw, we have the relations,

E = I 0(R + r) and V = I0R
Therefore,

E R+r
= (28)
V R

From equations (27) and (28), one can obtain,

R + r l1
=
R l2
l1
OR, R + r = R
l
2   
l1 l1 − l2
OR, r = −1 R= R (29)
l2 l2

Comparision of emf of two cells using potentiometer

Let, the sugment AB in the figure-8 is representing the total length of the potentiometer
wire. The positive terminal of a driver cell is connected to A and its negative terminal
is connected to point B through a rheostat as a variable resistor. The positive terminals
of both the experimental cells, whose emf E1 and E2 to be compared, are connected
the point A and their negative terminals are connected to the two end screws of a two
way key. The central screw of the two way key is connected to a jockey through a
galvanometer.

12
 Figure 8

Then, constant enough current ‘I’ is adjusted through the potentiometer wire so that p.d.
between two ends A and B exceeds the emf E1 and E2 of the experimental cells. Then,
plug is inserted in the gap K1 of the two way key to connect the cell of emf E1 with the
circuit. Then, jockey is slided on the potentiometer wire from end A towards B to find
a balancing point J on the wire so that the galvanometer does not show any deflection.
Then, balancing length ‘l1 ’ the segment AJ of the potentiometer wire is noted.

At the balancing condition, p.d. across the balancing length ‘l1 ’ of the wire becomes
equal to the terminal p.d. of the experimental cell which is equal to its emf E1 because
cell is not sending any current at the balancing condition.

E1 = p.d. across the balancing length l1

l1
OR, E1 = I RAJ = I ρ (30)
a

where, ρ and a are the resistivity and area of cross-section respectively of the poten-
tiometer wire. Then the plug is removed from the gap K1 and inserted in the gap K2 of
the two way key to connect the cell E2 with the circuit. The jockey is slided again on
the potentiometer wire to find the corresponding balancing length l2 . In this case,

E2 = p.d. across the balancing length l2

l2
OR, E1 = I ρ (31)
a

Now, dividing the equation (30) by (31), we get

E1 l1
= (32)
E2 l2

13
As the balancing lengths l1 and l2 are known, the ratio of E1 to E2 can be calculated.

Note:- Potentiometer is preferred to measure emf of a cell than the voltmeter. Poten-
tiometer does not receive any current from the experimental cell at balancing condition
and behaves as a voltmeter of infinite resistance and can measure the emf accurately.
When voltmeter is used to measure emf of a cell, then it receives certain current from
the source and therefore, cannot measure the emf accurately.

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