Design and Engineering

THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

A typical electric supply system has the following main components.

1. Power generating station.

2. Power generating station step up substation.
3. Primary Transmission Line.
4. Transmission Substation (Grid Substation/Bulk Power Supply
Substation).
5. Secondary Transmission Line.
6. Primary Distribution Substation.
7. Primary Distribution Line.
8. Secondary Distribution Transformer Station.
9. Secondary Distribution Line.

The primary transmission lines from different power stations are inter-
connected at the Grid Substation in the State, Regional and National
Grid Network.
The secondary or sub-transmission from each Bulk Power Supply
Substation may be arranged radially or to from a ring. In the radial
system, failure of a feeder interrupts the supply to a substation.
Therefore, duplicate feeders may be necessary for essential services.
Ideally the Grid substation/Bulk Power Substation should be in the hub
of the feeders. In this ring system, the failure of one inter-connecting
feeder does not interrupt the supply to any of the substations. The ring
system costs more but has higher reliability.
A diagram of the electric power system including the several
components that are usually found in the make up of such a system
shown in the sketch.
The sub-transmission system may supply several sub transmission
substations and may act as tie feeders between one or more sub-
stations that are either of bulk power or transmission type. They may
also be tapped to supply some distribution load usually through a circuit
breaker for a single consumer having a substantially large load, usually
industrial.

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Generation
Step-up
Power Generating Transformer
Substation s

Transmissio
High Voltage
Transmissio
n
Transmission Step-down

n
Substation Transformer
(Grid/Bulk Power Supply s

Sub
Overhead or Underground

Transmission
Primary Distribution Step-down
Substation Transformer
s
Bus
Voltage

Distributio
Regulators
Primary
(Feeders)
Distribution
Lines
(Feeder)

n
lines

Distributio
n
Transform
ers
Secondary
Distribution
Lines
(Distributors
)
Utilizatio

Service
Lines
n

Meters

Consumers
In
determining the design of secondary distribution systems three broad
classifications of choice need to be considered.
1. The Type of Electric System: DC or AC and if AC, single phase
or poly phase.
2. The Type of Delivery System: Radial, loop or network; Radial
systems include duplicate and throw over systems.
3. The Type of Construction: Overhead or Under ground.

Desired Features:

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Electrical Energy may be distributed over two or more wires. The

principal features desired are safety, and quality of power supply.
1. Safety: The safety factor usually requires the system voltage low
enough to be safe when the electric energy is utilized by a small
consumer.
2. Quality of Power: A steady, uniform, non fluctuating flow of
power is highly desirable both for lighting and for the operation of
motors for power purposes-uninterrupted supply at proper
voltage and frequency.
Types of Electric System:
i. AC Single Phase Two Wire System: It consists of two conductors
between relatively constant voltage is maintained, with the load
connected between the two conductors.
ii. A.C. 3 Phase 4 Wire Systems: It is the most widely used system.
The voltage vector of each phase is 120 0 out of phase with the
voltages of the other two phases. One conductor is used as a
common conductor for all of the system. The neutral is usually
grounded. Single phase loads may be connected between one
phase wire and the neutral, but may also be connected between
phase wires if desired. In the latter instance the voltage is 3 times
(1.73 times) the line to neutral voltage E. 3 phase load may have
each of the separate phases connected to the 3 phase conductors
and the neutral.
Power delivered is equal to the sum of the powers in each of the 3
phases. Power loss is equal to the sum of the I 2R losses in all 4
wires.
Types of Distribution:
The delivery of electric energy from the generating plant to the
consumer may consist of several more or less distinct parts that are
nevertheless somewhat interrelated.
The part considered 'distribution' from the bulk supply substation to the
meter at the consumers premises can be conveniently divided in two
sub-divisions.
1. Primary distribution
2. Secondary distribution
Primary distribution carries the load at higher than utilization voltage
from the substation to the point where the voltage is stepped down to
the value at which the energy is utilized by the consumer.

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Secondary distribution includes that part of the system operating at

utilization voltage up to the meter at the consumers’ premises.
1. Feeders (Primary Distribution Lines)
The 33/11 kV sub station (secondary substation) is established where
the load requirement is high and a number of primary distribution lines
(11 kV) emanates from the secondary sub station. There are three
different ways through which the primary distribution lines can be laid.
1. The radial primary circuit.
2. The loop primary circuit.
3. The ring main system (or Primary network).
2. Distributors (Secondary Distribution Lines)
The standard voltage transformation at distribution sub station is 11
kV/433 Volts. The declared Consumer voltage as per IE Rules is 415 V
between phases and 240 V between phase and neutral with permissible
voltage variations of ±6%.
The distribution transformers are located at the load centers and the
distributions have to be run to carry power to the consumer. However,
for large consumer such as factories power is supplied directly from the
primary distribution system to a transformer located in a-sub station in
the consumer's premises. The same is applicable to the supply system
for a thinly developed rural area, where the individual consumers are
directly given supply from the primary distribution lines through single
phase transformers. This High Voltage Distribution System is described
in detail separately.
When power is supplied to the consumers through the secondary
distribution system one of the following arrangements are used.
1. Radial system
2. Looped system
3. Net Work System
Planning a Distribution System:
A distribution system deals with the distribution of electrical energy. A
good system planning shall provide for an orderly development of the
system to meet the power requirements for a period of about 5 years
and to obtain optimum benefit from the available resources. The main
purpose of planning is

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i. To make the system economical while conforming to the Indian

Electricity rules
ii. To minimise losses and maintain regulation with in the
permissible limits.
For proper planning of a distribution system load survey and load
forecasting of the area are necessary.

The Load Characteristics

In planning an electrical distribution system, it is necessary to know
three basic factors.
i. The quantity of the product or service desired, (per unit of time).
ii. The quality of the product or service desired and
iii. The location of the market and the individual consumers.
A description of the above is as given here, first starting with individual
consu-mers and then determining efficient means of supplying their
needs, individually and collectively.
Connected Loads: The capacity of all electric devices (lamps,
appliances, equipment etc.) that consumers can connect to the supply
system. The ratings of the devices at specified voltage limits are usually
contained in the name plate.
Lighting Loads: Under this category come incandescent and
fluorescent lamps, neon lights and mercury vapour, sodium vapour and
metal halogen lights. The nominal voltage specified for lighting is 230
Volts.
Power Loads: Power loads are motors of all sizes direct current, shunt,
compound and series types, AC single phase and poly phase, induction
and synchronous types.
Heating Loads: The heating category may be divided into residential
and industrial (large) applications. Under industrial heating electric
furnaces, welding, high frequency heating, induction heating and
dielectric heating can be given as examples.
Electronic Loads: The electronic load category includes radio,
television, X-rays laser equipment, computers, digital time and timing
devices, rectifiers, oscillators for high frequency current production and
many other electronically operated devices. In general, these employ
electron tubes or solid state devices such as transistors, semi
conductors etc. Practically all of these devices operate at voltages
lower than the commercial power sources and employ transformers or
other devices to obtain their specific voltages of operation. They are all
affected by voltage variations.

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Consumer Factors: Normally an individual consumer is not apt to be

using all of electrical devices that constitute his or her ‘connected load ’
at the same time or to their full capacity. It would evidently be
unnecessary to provide facilities to serve such a total possible load and
much more economical to provide only for a probable load, the load
creating the demand on the distribution facilities.
Maximum Demand: The actual load in use by the consumer creates a
demand for electric energy' that varies from hour to hour over a period
of time but reaches its greatest value at some point. This may be called
the consumer's instantaneous maximum demand. In practice however,
the maximum demand is taken as that which is sustained over a more
definite period of time usually 15 or 30 minutes.
Demand Factor: The ratio of the maximum demand to the total
connected load is called the demand factor. These values are important
in determining the size of facilities to be installed for a particular
service. They are extremely useful in making estimates in planning new
distribution systems or in expanding existing ones.
Load Factor: The load factor is a characteristic related to the demand
factor, expressing the ratio of the average load or demand for a period
of time (say a day) to the maximum demand during that period. This
provides a means of estimating particular consumers’ maximum
demand if both their consumption and a typical load factor for their kind
of load are known.
Diversity: Consumer load diversity describes the variation in the time
of use, or of maximum use, of two or more connected loads. Load
diversity is the difference between the sum of the maximum demands
of two or more individual consumers' loads and the maximum demand
of the combined loads.
Diversity Factor: The diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of
maximum demands of each of the component loads to the maximum
demand of the load as a whole. This is the most important factor in
economical planning and design of distribution facilities.
Coincidence Factor: The coincident factor is the ratio of maximum
coincident total demand of a group of consumers to the sum of the
maximum demands of each of the consumers.
Utilization Factor: The ratio of the maximum demand of a system to
the rated capacity of the system is known as the utilization factor. Both
the maximum demand and the rated capacity are expressed in the
same units. The factor indicates the degree to which a system is being
loaded during the load peak with respect to its capacity.
The rated capacity of a system is usually determined by its thermal
capacity, but may also be determined by voltage drop limitations, the
smaller of the two determining the capacity.
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Power Factor: The ratio of power (in watts) to the product of voltage
and current (in volt amperes) is called the power factor. It is a measure
of the relation between current and voltage out of phase with each
other brought about by reactance in the circuit (including the device
served). Since facilities must be designed to carry the current and
provide for the losses which vary as the square of the current and for
voltage drops which are approximately proportional to the current, it is
necessary that current values are known. The power factor enables
loads in watts to be converted in to volt amperes. Transformer sizes,
wire and cable sizes, fuses, switch ratings etc., are all based on values
of current they must carry safely and economically.
Consumer Classification: Consumers may be classified into a certain
categories such as Residential, Commercial, industrial and Agricultural.
As aids in planning, load densities can be expressed in KVA per square
kilometer. Further, classification may be based on such items as
dependence on electric service because of critical nature of the
consumer's operations, under either normal or emergency conditions.

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