arthr/o joint

articul/o joint

burs/o purse or sac, bursa

carp/o wrist

chondr/o cartilage

condyl/o knuckle of a joint

cost/o rib

cran/o, crani/o skull, cranium

fasci/o fascia

femor/o thigh, femur

fibr/o fiber

fibul/o fibula
ili/o flank, hip, groin, ilium of the pelvis

ischi/o haunch, hip joint, ischium

menisc/o meniscus

muscul/o muscle

my/o, myos/o muscle

myel/o bone marrow

orth/o straight

oste/o bone

pariet/o wall

patell/o patella

ped/o child

petr/o stone
 phalang/o phalanges

phys/o growth

pub/o pubis

radi/o radius

sacr/o sacred, sacrum

skelet/o skeleton

spondyl/o vertebra

stern/o chest, sternum

synov/o, synovial
synovi/o

tars/o tarsal bone

ten/o, tendon/o stretch, tendon

vertebr/o vertebra

The skeletal and muscular systems are combined in this chapter because their organs, bones,
and muscles are closely connected. Together they form the More Info system.
Notice how this constructed term is assembled with four word parts: muscul/o/skelet/al. As you
know, the bones and muscles work together to support the body and produce body
More Info. In fact, nearly every one of the 206 bones in your body receives an attachment to
one or more muscles.​

6.2 Each bone is an organ, composed of mainly connective tissue receiving blood vessels,
lymphatics, and nerves. Bones support and protect soft internal organs, store mineral salts
including calcium and phosphorus, and produce blood cells within the red bone marrow. They
also serve as an attachment site for muscles. Joints are organs of the musculoskeletal system
too and include the knee, elbow, shoulder, hip, and anywhere else in the body where two
opposing bones meet. Each More Info is an organ also, composed mainly of
skeletal muscle tissue and connective tissue. Muscles are attached to bones by way of tough,
dense bands of connective tissue called tendons. As a muscle shortens in length by contraction,
it pulls on the tendons attaching to More Info to produce body movement. The
range of motion (ROM) produced by the muscle contraction is mainly determined by the type of
joint between the opposing bones. The joints of the body allowing the greate
The diseases of the skeletal and muscular systems are often the result of physical injury but can
also be caused by infections, tumor development, endocrine disease, and inherited disorders.
The branch of medicine focusing on these diseases is known as orthopedics, which is
commonly abbreviated to ortho. The term More Info is a constructed
word: orth/o/ped/ic. It includes the combining form orth/o, which is derived from the Greek word
orthos and means “straight,” and the word root ped, which is also from the Greek language and
means “child.” A physician specializing in this field of medicine is called an

More Info. Did You Know?

Orthopedics

The term orthopedics was first coined in 1740 by French physician Nicholas Andry, who
combined the two Greek word parts orthos (“straight”) and ped (“child”) into the term orthopedie
(“straightening a child”) to describe his medical practice of treating the broken limbs of children.
The anglicized version of this term, orthopedic, entered worldwide medical use in 1840.

1.​ 6.5 In the following sections, we review the prefixes, combining forms, and suffixes that
combine to build the medical terms of the skeletal and More
Info systems.

a- without, absence of

brady- slow
dys- bad, abnormal, painful, difficult

hyper- excessive, abnormally high,

above

arthr/o joint

kinesi/ motion
o

my/o muscle

tax/o reaction to a stimulus,

movement

ten/o stretch, tendon

troph/o development

-a singular

-algia condition of pain

-dynia condition of pain

 -ia condition of

-y process of

Referring to the preceding word parts table, notice that the suffix -algia means “condition of
pain.” Add that to a combining form that means “joint,” and it forms the word that means
“condition of joint pain,” or More Info. This is often the first symptom of joint or bone
disease. Arthralgia is also a common complaint following injury to a joint. The constructed form
of this word is arthr/algia.​

6.7 The word root tax means “reaction to a stimulus.” By adding the prefix a- (“without”), the
meaning of the term becomes negative. When the suffix -ia (“condition of”) is added, it forms the
word More Info, which is the inability to coordinate muscles during a voluntary
activity. Ataxia is a sign of a nervous system disorder, often inherited, that results in a loss of
muscle coordination. The constructed form of this word is a/tax/ia.​

Stabilizing a broken limb by casting it in plaster is a common treatment for bone fractures. It
prohibits movement of the limb to promote the healing process. Unfortunately, the lack of
movement leads to a reduction in muscle strength due to disuse, a sign of reduced muscle size
known as atrophy. The muscle reduction is reversible when healing is complete and muscle
activity is restored. Similar to the term ataxia, the term More Info also uses the
prefix a- to make the meaning of the word root negative. The word root troph means
“development” and -y means “process of.” The three word parts that form the word can be
written as a/troph/y.​

6.9 An abnormally slow movement is a clinical sign of an underlying bone, muscle, or nervous
disorder. It is known as More Info, which literally means “condition of slow motion.”
This term is a constructed word that can be written as brady/kines/ia, in which brady- means
“slow,” kinesi is the word root that means “motion,” and the suffix -ia means “condition of.” (Note
that the i at the end of the word root is dropped when using a suffix that begins with an i.)​

The abnormal reduction of calcium in bone is a clinical sign known as decalcification, which is
often caused by a hormonal disorder upsetting the calcium balance between the bloodstream
and bone. In many patients, More Info can be treated with a combination of
hormonal therapy, a diet rich in calcium and vitamin D, and mild exercise.​

6.11 Difficulty in movement is a common sign of a musculoskeletal disorder. Remember from

the term bradykinesia that the word root kinesi means “motion” and the suffix -ia means
“condition of.” When the prefix dys- is added, it forms the word More Info, which
literally means “condition of bad, abnormal, painful, or difficult motion.” The constructed form of
dyskinesia can be written as dys/kines/ia.​

6.12 A general symptom of progressive muscle weakness that results from a genetic mutation is
often called a More Info, which literally means “process of (-y) bad, abnormal,
painful, or difficult (dys-) development (troph).” It is a constructed term that can be written as
dys/troph/y. The progressive muscle weakness is a common symptom of nine known forms of
the disease, most of which appear during early childhood and are collectively called muscular
dystrophies.​

The sign of excessive muscle growth or development is known as More Info.

Although it is an abnormality, it is often induced by exercise enthusiasts by adding tension to
weight-training activities. Muscular hypertrophy is produced by the addition of protein to muscle
fibers, which is stimulated by strenuous muscle activity. The constructed form of this word is
hyper/troph/y, in which hyper- means “excessive,” troph means “development,” and -y means
“process of.”​

6.14 During strenuous exercise, muscle cell activity may exceed the capacity of the cell to
obtain and use oxygen during metabolism. When this occurs, the resulting “oxygen debt” will
cause the cell to metabolize without oxygen (called anaerobic respiration), resulting in the
buildup of lactic acid in the muscle tissue. Because lactic acid causes muscle pain, a common
symptom of strenuous exercise is More Info, which literally means “condition of
muscle (myo) pain (-algia).” Its constructed form is my/algia. This form of myalgia is temporary,
lasting about one day. Chronic forms of myalgia usually suggest an underlying musculoskeletal
disease.​

Tendon pain, or tenodynia, is a common symptom of “weekend athletes”: people who work
inactive jobs during the workweek and become very active on their days off. The symptom of
More Info usually indicates minor injury to one or more tendons, often lasting weeks or months.
The suffix -dynia means “condition of pain,” and ten/o means “stretch, tendon.” The constructed
form of this term is ten/o/dynia. If tenodynia is intense, it may indicate tearing of the tendons,
which requires medical intervention. Remember that another suffix with the meaning of
“condition of pain” is -algia.

a- without, absence of

epi- upon, over, above, on

top

para- alongside, abnormal

poly- excessive, over, many

quadri- four

ankyl/o crooked

arthr/o joint

burs/o purse or sac,

bursa

carcin/o cancer

carp/o wrist

chondr/o cartilage

condyl/o knuckle of a joint

fibr/o fiber

kyph/o hump

leuk/o white
lith/o stone

lord/o bent forward

menisc/o meniscus

my/o, myos/o muscle

myel/o bone marrow

oste/o bone

por/o hole

sarc/o flesh, meat

scoli/o curved

spondyl/o vertebra

synov/o, synovial
synovi/o

ten/o, tendon/o stretch, tendon

 -algia condition of pain

-astheni weakness
a

-cele hernia, swelling, protrusion

-emia condition of blood

-genesis origin, cause

-itis inflammation

-malacia softening

-oma tumor

-osis condition of

-plasia formation, growth

-plegia paralysis

-ptosis drooping

Dwarfism is a condition characterized by abnormally short limbs and stature. A disease that
causes dwarfism is achondroplasia In the disease that literally means “condition of crooked,”
More Info, joints are abnormally stiff and movement is difficult. Ankylosis is the abnormal
adhesion of two bones, which damages the joint structure between them. When the condition
affects two or more bones of the vertebral column to cause a rigid spine, it is called ankylosing
spondylitis (AS), in which spondylitis means “inflammation of vertebrae” (Figure 6.5). The
constructed form of the term ankylosis is ankyl/osis, and spondylitis is spondyl/itis.

. The term combines the prefix a- (“without, absence of”), the combining form chondr/o
(“cartilage”), and the suffix -plasia (“formation, growth”) to form the meaning “without cartilage
formation.” The constructed form of this term is a/chondr/o/plasia. About 80% of the cases of
achondroplasia are caused by a random mutation of genes before birth, and the remaining 20%
of cases are inherited. In either type, the condition involves the abnormal lack of growth of the
skeleton, mainly long bones, resulting in a short and disproportional body form.

In the disease that literally means “condition of crooked,” More Info, joints are
abnormally stiff and movement is difficult. Ankylosis is the abnormal adhesion of two bones,
which damages the joint structure between them. When the condition affects two or more bones
of the vertebral column to cause a rigid spine, it is called ankylosing spondylitis (AS), in which
spondylitis means “inflammation of vertebrae” (Figure 6.5). The constructed form of the term
ankylosis is ankyl/osis, and spondylitis is spondyl/itis.

The general disorder resulting in inflammation and degeneration of a joint is known as

More Info. It literally means “joint inflammation,” which is easy to see in the constructed form of
the term, arthr/itis, in which arthr means “joint” and the suffix -itis means “inflammation.” There
are two major forms of arthritis, each with a different cause. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common
condition as people age, in which the joint structures become worn over time and are gradually
replaced by bone. See Figure 6.6. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease, in
which joint structures become eroded by the action of the body’s own white blood cells.

Inflammation

The suffix -itis is used frequently in this chapter and means “inflammation.” The Latin word
inflammatio is the origin of this term, which literally means “to ignite” or “set ablaze.” Because
the symptoms of inflammation are heat, swelling, redness, and pain, this term is aptly named!

In the joint disease arthrochondritis, the articular cartilage within synovial joints undergoes
inflammation, resulting in joint pain during movements. Unlike arthritis, More Info is
usually a temporary condition caused by a localized infection. As a constructed term, it can be
written arthr/o/chondr/itis by putting together the combining form arthr/o (“joint”) with the word
root chondr (“cartilage”) and the suffix -itis (“inflammation”).​

6.20 A bunion is an abnormal enlargement of the joint at the base of the big toe. A
More Info is caused by an inflammation of a bursa near the big toe.

Bunion
The term bunion is derived from the Old French word buigne, which means “a swelling caused
by a blow to the head.” However, the modern meaning is limited to a swelling of the big toe.

1.​ 6.21 Remember that the suffix -itis means “inflammation,” and the word root burs means
“purse or sac,” referring to a fluid-filled sac or bursa that cushions certain joints. So the
inflammation of a bursa is known as More Info. The constructed form of this
term is burs/itis.​

2.​ 6.22 A calcium deposit within a bursa is known as a bursolith. The diagnosis of a
More Info is confirmed with an x-ray, and it is often surgically removed. The word root lith
is derived from the Greek word lithos, which means “a stone.” The constructed form of
this term is burs/o/lith. (Note that no suffix is used in this term.)​

3.​ 6.23 People working at computer stations for extended periods of time increase their risk
of a repetitive stress injury of the wrist. Commonly known as
More Info, or CTS, it is characterized by inflammation of the wrist (tenosynovitis; see
Frame 6.57) that causes pressure against the median nerve, resulting in local pain and
restricted movement.

Also known as “wrist drop,” the condition carpoptosis is a weakness of the wrist resulting in
difficulty supporting the hand. More Info is a constructed term: carp/o/ptosis. It
literally means “drooping of the wrist” (-ptosis is the suffix that means “drooping,” and the
combining form carp/o means “wrist”).​

6.25 Prolonged, involuntary muscular contractions cause pain wherever they occur, often
striking the stomach wall or thigh muscles after strenuous exercise. The painful contractions are
called More Info.​

6.26 A general term describing a disease of joints in which the cartilage undergoes
degeneration is called degenerative joint disease, abbreviated More Info. This type
of disease is progressive, becoming worse in time. During the process of joint degeneration, the
articular cartilage degrades and is often replaced with bone. Arthritis (see Frame 6.18) is the
most common form of DJD.​

6.27 Children are occasionally born with a disease causing skeletal muscle degeneration,
resulting in progressive muscle weakness and deterioration. Abbreviated DMD, it is called
Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Although it is the most intensively researched of the nine forms
of muscular dystrophy (see Frame 6.12), a cure for More Info is yet to be found.​
When the suffix that means “inflammation” is combined with the word root condyl (“knuckle of a
joint”) and the prefix epi- (“upon, over, above, on top”), it forms the term More Info.
The epicondyles are small bony elevations on the humerus near the elbow joint. In epicondylitis,
this area of the elbow becomes inflamed, usually due to an injury. The constructed form of this
term is epi/condyl/itis.​

6.29 A disease of unknown origin that produces widespread pain of musculoskeletal structures
of the limbs, face, and trunk is known as fibromyalgia. This term is constructed with the
combining form fibr/o, the word root my, and the suffix -algia, which together mean “condition of
pain of the fibers and muscles.” More Info can be written as the constructed form
fibr/o/my/algia. Also known as fibromyalgia syndrome, there is some evidence that it may be a
form of autoimmune disease, possibly triggered by infections or injury.

The clinical term for a break in a bone is fracture More Info. The most common fractures
are simple, or closed, in which the fracture is not visible from the skin, and open, or
compound, in which parts of the fractured bone visibly penetrate through the skin to
cause bleeding. Open fractures carry a much higher risk of infection.

In gout, a person experiences sharp pain in the joints of the toes, especially the big toe. See
Figure 6.7. The pain of More Info is often exacerbated by a diet high in protein
because the disorder is caused by an abnormal accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints,
which are waste products of protein metabolism. It is a form of arthritis because of the injury it
causes to the joints. It is sometimes called gouty arthritis. Roughly 8 million people are currently
diagnosed with gout in the United States, most of whom are men.

GOUT

The term gout is derived from the Latin word gutta, which means “a drop.” The foot pain that
characterizes gout was thought to be caused by a body fluid dripping internally onto the joint. It
was a malady common to European aristocracy before the 20th century, made worse by poor
dietary habits that included diets high in protein and low in fresh vegetables and fruits.

1.​ 6.32 The rupture of an intervertebral disk, which is a joint between two adjacent
vertebrae of the spine, is called a herniated disk. It causes pressure against spinal
nerves or the spinal cord to produce back pain. A More Info is a back
injury often caused by a sudden movement or an attempt to lift a heavy object.

Spinal curvatures are normal and help us to stand erect. However, some individuals suffer from
a deformity of the spine that alters the normal curves. The three primary spinal deformities are
kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis. A​ ​ More Info occurs when the upper
thoracic curve bends posteriorly, causing an abnormal hump at the upper back (kyph means
“hump”) that often accompanies osteoporosis (see Frame 6.46). A More Info is an
exaggerated anterior spinal curve in the lumbar area (lord means “bent forward”). A
More Info is a lateral curvature of the spine with a congenital origin, usually in the thoracic or
lumbar regions (scoli means “curved”). See Figure 6.9. All three terms for abnormal spinal
curvatures are constructed terms. For example, scoliosis can be written as scoli/osis.

The congenital disease called Marfan’s syndrome results in excessive cartilage formation at the
epiphyseal plates (growth plates), forming abnormally long limbs and a tall, thin body form. The
heart valves of those suffering from More Info are also deformed,
resulting in valvular heart disease. Some forensic scientists have argued that Abraham Lincoln
suffered from this syndrome.

A meniscus is a crescent-shaped band of cartilage that supports certain joints, such as the knee
and shoulder. The term meniscus is derived from the Greek word for “crescent moon,”
meniskos. Inflammation of a meniscus results in joint pain and is called More Info.
As a constructed term, it is written as menisc/itis.​

6.36 Myasthenia gravis is characterized by a progressive failure of muscles to respond to nerve

stimulation. The term More Info means “serious muscle weakness.” The
word gravis means “serious,” and you may recognize myasthenia, which means “muscle
weakness,” as a constructed term: my/asthenia.​

6.37 The red bone marrow is the site of blood cell formation. A malignant tumor associated with
this tissue is a myeloma, sometimes called multiple myeloma or plasma-cell myeloma. It arises
when a type of white blood cell, called a plasma cell, undergoes mutations to form a tumor that
first appears in red bone marrow. The term More Info literally means “tumor of bone
marrow,” in which the root word myel/o means “bone marrow” and the suffix -oma means
“tumor.” The constructed form is myel/oma.

A muscle is surrounded by a layer of tough connective tissue, known as fascia. An injury to a

muscle may cause the muscle to tear through the fascia, causing a protrusion. This condition is
known as a myocele. The constructed form of the term More Info is my/o/cele,
which is composed of the combining form for muscle, my/o, and the suffix -cele, which means
“hernia, swelling, protrusion.”​

6.39 A common result of muscle injury is a local inflammation known as myositis. Combining
myos (which means “muscle”) and -itis (“inflammation”), the constructed form of
More Info is myos/itis.​

6.40 When injured or exposed to infection, bone tissue often responds with inflammation. This
condition, which combines the suffix that means “inflammation” and oste, the word root meaning
“bone,” is known as More Info, which literally means “inflammation of bone.” The
constructed form is oste/itis.
Also called Paget disease, osteitis deformans results in bone deformities due to a failure of
bone remodeling, which is a balance between bone loss and bone deposition. Common
symptoms of More Info include severe bone pain and frequent fractures.
Recent evidence suggests this disease may be caused by a combination of environmental and
genetic factors. It strikes roughly 1% of the adult population in the United States, mainly men
over age 40.​

6.42 An osteosarcoma (Figure 6.10) is bone cancer arising from connective tissue, usually
within the bone itself. It is an aggressive form of cancer, striking mostly the young and middle
teens. The constructed form of More Info is oste/o/sarc/oma. A second form of
malignant bone cancer arises from the cells of the red bone marrow and is called leukemia (loo
KEE mee ah). This term literally means “condition of white blood,” named because of the high
levels of deformed white blood cells in a blood sample that are a diagnostic of the disease.

An inherited disease resulting in impaired bone growth and fragile bones is known as
osteogenesis imperfecta. The term means “imperfect bone development.” Tragically,
More Info is progressive, leading to severe bone pain, skeletal deformities, and frequent
fractures.​

6.44 The suffix -malacia means “softening,” and the combining form oste/o means “bone.” A
disease resulting in the softening of bones is generally known as More Info. It is a
constructed term with three word parts: oste/o/malacia. The cause is usually a hormonal
imbalance, resulting in the gradual loss of calcium from bone tissue.​

6.45 The word root myel means “bone marrow.” Inflammation of the red bone marrow is a
painful disease known as More Info, which literally means “inflammation of bone
marrow and bone.” The usual cause is a bacterial infection. Osteomyelitis is a constructed term
with four word parts: oste/o/myel/itis.​

6.46 The abnormal loss of bone density is a common result of aging, especially among
postmenopausal women. The condition is called osteoporosis and results in a loss of posture
and flexibility and an increased risk of fractures. See Figure 6.11. The term More
Info literally means “condition of holes in bone.” (The word root por means “hole.”) The
constructed term includes four word parts: oste/o/por/osis.

The suffix -plegia means “paralysis.” One form of paralysis is paraplegia More Info, in which
there is a loss of sensation or voluntary movement of the area of the body below the hips,
including both legs. In another form of paralysis, all four limbs are without sensation or voluntary
movement. The term for this form of paralysis utilizes a prefix that means “four” and is called
quadriplegia

The term More Info means “inflammation of many muscles.” It is an autoimmune

disease because the inflammation is the result of the body’s own white blood cells attacking
otherwise healthy tissue, in this case muscle tissue. The constructed form of this term is
poly/myos/itis, in which the prefix poly- means “many,” myos means “muscle,” and the suffix -itis
means “inflammation.”​

6.49 Children with a long-term deficiency of vitamin D or calcium in the diet may exhibit bowed
legs and growth retardation. The condition is known as rickets, which is a modern version of the
Greek word rhakitis that means “spine.” Most More Info cases occur in developing
countries because of widespread malnutrition. The skeletal deformities result from insufficient
levels of vitamin D, calcium, or both in the bloodstream that lead to bone softening. When bone
softening occurs in adults, it is called osteomalacia (Frame 6.44).​

6.50 The rotator cuff is a combination of four muscles and their tendons that surround and
stabilize the shoulder joint: teres minor, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and subscapularis. A
trauma to the shoulder can tear one or more tendons and muscles, resulting in a
More Info that can cause local inflammation, pain, and joint dislocation.

A trauma to the vertebral column may result in More Info,

which is abbreviated SCI. If severe, the injury can cause paralysis of areas of the body below
the vertebral level of the injury.​

6.52 The clinical term that is formed by combining the suffix meaning “inflammation,” the word
root arthr, meaning “joint,” and the word root spondyl, meaning “vertebra” is More
Info, which means “inflammation of joints of vertebrae.” It is a general term for inflammatory
diseases of the joints and their associated tendons and ligaments. Because the most common
source of inflammation occurs in intervertebral joints, the most common symptom is low back
pain. Ankylosing spondylitis, described in Frame 6.17, is an example of spondylarthritis. The
constructed form of this term is spondyl/arthr/itis.​

6.53 A More Info is a tear of collagen fibers within a ligament. See Figure 6.12. It is
usually caused by stretching the ligament beyond its normal range without warming up or slowly
stretching before exercise.​
​

Figure 6.12​
​
Sprain. A sprain involves damage to one or more ligaments and is categorized into three
degrees of injury as shown.​
​
Description
6.54 Similar to a sprain but involving a muscle, a More Info is usually caused by
stretching a muscle beyond its normal range. Muscle tissue tearing and the resulting capillary
damage often cause a bruise.​
The temporomandibular joint is the junction of the mandible and the temporal bone, which
allows the lower jaw to move when speaking and chewing. A disease of this joint is known as
More Info, or TMJ, and results in frequent dislocations that make it difficult and painful to move
the jaw during speaking and chewing.​

6.56 Inflammation of a tendon is a common sports injury and is known as More Info.
An example occurs when damage is caused by throwing a ball without warming up, which is
known as rotator cuff tendonitis. Tendonitis is a constructed term, written as tendon/itis.​

6.57 A form of tendonitis that includes inflammation of the synovial membrane surrounding the
joint is known as More Info. This term has four word parts: ten/o/synov/itis, in which
ten/o means “stretch, tendon,” synov means “synovial,” and -itis means “inflammation.”

epi- arthr/o -astheni

a

poly- burs/o -itis

condyl/o -malacia

lith/o -osis

lord/o

menisc/o

my/o,
myos/o

oste/o
 synov/o

ten/o

arthr/o joint

burs/o purse or sac,

bursa

chir/o hand

chondr/o cartilage

cost/o rib

crani/o skull, cranium

electr/o electricity

fasci/o fascia

lamin/o thin, lamina

my/o muscle
orth/o straight

oste/o bone

pod/o foot

spondyl/ vertebra
o

syn/o connect

ten/o stretch, tendon

vertebr/o vertebra

-centesis surgical puncture

-clasia, break apart

-clasis

-desis surgical fixation, fusion

-ectomy surgical excision, removal

 -gram a record or image

-graphy recording process

-iatry treatment, specialty

-ist one who specializes

-lysis loosen, dissolve

-pathy disease

-plasty surgical repair

-rrhaphy suturing

-scope instrument used for viewing

-scopy process of viewing

-tic pertaining to

-tomy incision, to cut

​
The suffix -centesis means “surgical puncture,” and the combining form arthr/o means “joint.”
Many joint injuries result in the condition of inflammation, which may slow healing and lead to
additional complications. In the procedure known as More Info, excess fluids are
aspirated, or withdrawn by suction, through a surgical puncture into the synovial cavity of the
joint. See Figure 6.13. This constructed term includes three word parts: arthr/o/centesis.​
​

Figure 6.13​
​
Arthrocentesis. The aspiration of fluid is a common treatment for joint injuries resulting in
inflammation, such as carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), shown in this illustration.​

6.59 Occasionally, an abnormally stiff joint must be broken during surgery to increase the range
of motion, or ROM. This procedure is called More Info, in which the suffix -clasia
means “break apart.” After arthroclasia, it is common to undergo ROM exercises to increase
muscle strength and joint mobility. Arthroclasia is a constructed term with three word parts:
arthr/o/clasia.​

6.60 The suffix -desis means “surgical fixation, fusion.” Thus, the term More Info
means “surgical fixation of a joint.” The constructed form of this term is arthr/o/desis.​

Prior to joint surgery, it is common to obtain an x-ray of the joint after injection of contrast media,
air, or both to highlight the synovial joint. The image is printed on a film or recorded digitally and
is called an More Info because the suffix -gram means “a record or image” (Figure
6.14). The constructed form of this term is arthr/o/gram.​
​

Figure 6.14​
​
Arthrogram. X-ray of the lower back and pelvis that reveals inflammation (in red) of an
intervertebral disc.​
​
Source: Tlegend/Shutterstock.​

6.62 The suffix -lysis means “loosen, dissolve.” During an More Info, a joint is
loosened of abnormal restrictions, such as calcium deposits and bursoliths (see Frame 6.22).
The constructed form of this term is arthr/o/lysis.​

6.63 The suffix -plasty means “surgical repair.” The goal of an More Info procedure
is to repair a joint. A complete arthroplasty refers to a joint replacement, the most common of
which is a knee replacement. The constructed form of this term is arthr/o/plasty.

An endoscopic visual examination of a joint cavity uses an instrument that integrates

fiber optics, live-action photography, and computer enhancement, known as an
arthroscope. The viewing process is called More Info. When arthroscopy is
part of a surgery, the procedure is called arthroscopic surgery.

1.​ The suffix -tomy means “incision, to cut.” A surgical incision into the synovial cavity of a
joint is known as More Info. The constructed form of the term is
arthr/o/tomy.​

2.​ 6.66 A surgery involving the removal of a bursa from a joint is known as a
More Info. The constructed form of the term is burs/ectomy, in which burs means “purse
or sac” and -ectomy means “surgical excision or removal.”​

3.​ 6.67 The field of therapy that is centered on manipulation of bones and joints, most
commonly the vertebral column, is known as More Info. A practitioner of this
therapy is called a chiropractor (KIGH roh prak tor). The term chiropractor is constructed
from the combining form chir/o, which means “hand,” and the suffix -practic, which
means “one who practices.”​

4.​ 6.68 Surgical excision, or removal, of the cartilage associated with a joint is a common
procedure known as More Info. The surgery commonly uses arthroscopy to
reduce the size of the incision and improve the surgeon’s view. Chondrectomy is a
constructed term that can be written as chondr/ectomy to reveal its two word parts:
chondr, which means “cartilage,” and -ectomy, which means “surgical excision or
removal.”​

Words to Watch Out For

-ectomy or -tomy?

These two suffixes look very similar, but how do you tell them apart? One easy way is to
remember that -ectomy means “excision” (see how they both start with an e?). The suffix -tomy
means “incision” or “to cut,” and this meaning does not start with an e.

1.​ 6.69 The suffix -plasty means “surgical repair.” Surgical repair of cartilage associated
with a joint is known as More Info. The constructed form of the term is
chondr/o/plasty.​

2.​ 6.70 A surgery involving the removal of a rib (the combining form is cost/o) is known as a
More Info.​

3.​ 6.71 When one or more bones of the cranium (crani/o) undergo repair during surgery
(-plasty), the procedure is called More Info. The constructed term for this
 procedure is crani/o/plasty.​

4.​ 6.72 To perform surgery of the brain, a craniotomy is required, during which the surgeon
enters the cranial cavity by cutting an opening through the cranium. The constructed
form of More Info is written as crani/o/tomy, in which the combining form
crani/o means “skull, cranium” and the suffix -tomy means “incision, to cut.”

A surgical procedure that is used frequently to reduce the pain of a herniated disk by surgically
removing the intervertebral disk is a More Info. It may also be called a spinal fusion
when the adjacent vertebrae are fused together following the removal of the disk. An alternate
term for spinal fusion is spondylosyndesis (SPON dih loh sin DEE siss), which literally means
“surgical fixation to connect vertebrae.” This constructed term includes four word parts:
spondyl/o/syn/desis, in which the combining form spondyl/o means “vertebra,” syn means
“connect,” and the suffix -desis means “surgical fixation, fusion.” Also performed to treat a
herniated disk is a laminectomy (lahm ih NEK toh mee), during which the part of a vertebra
known as the lamina is surgically removed to relieve pressure on the spinal cord.​

6.74 The strength of a muscle contraction can be measured and recorded by a procedure called
electromyography (EMG). It utilizes an instrument that electrically stimulates a muscle, and the
resulting contraction is recorded and analyzed on a computer. In this term, electr/o means
“electricity,” my/o means “muscle,” and -graphy means “recording process.” More
Info includes five word parts: electr/o/my/o/graphy

A surgical incision into the connective tissue sheath surrounding a muscle, called fascia, is
known as a More Info. The constructed form of this term is fasci/o/tomy.​

6.76 Orthopedic surgeons, or orthopedists, treat fractures by aligning the broken bones to their
normal positions in a procedure known as reduction (Figure 6.17), which means “bringing back
to normal”. Manipulating the bone without surgery during reduction is known as
More Info. If surgical intervention is needed to align and stabilize the broken area, the procedure
is called open fracture reduction. During this procedure, pins, screws, rods, or plates may be
inserted to stabilize the alignment, known as internal fixation. In external fixation, metal rods and
pins are attached from outside the skin surface. External fixation carries the advantage of
avoiding the use of a plaster cast for immobilization. If the normal healing process is impeded,
bone grafting or electrical bone stimulation may be applied to stimulate the healing process.

The combining form my/o means “muscle.” A muscle can tear during a serious injury and
require surgical intervention to promote healing. During a More Info, a muscle
undergoes surgical repair (the suffix -plasty means “repair”). The constructed form of the term is
my/o/plasty. The repair often includes suturing the torn ends together in a procedure known as
More Info. The constructed form of the term is my/o/rrhaphy, in which the suffix -rrhaphy means
“suturing.”​
6.78 The most common pharmacological treatment for any condition, including inflammation or
pain of muscle or bone tissue, is the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, commonly
abbreviated More Info. Examples of NSAIDs are aspirin and ibuprofen.​

6.79 The field of medical support involving the construction and fitting of orthopedic appliances,
such as lifts, artificial limbs, and retraction devices, to assist a patient is known as orthotics.
Formed from the combining form orth/o, which means “straight,” and the suffix -tic, which means
“pertaining to,” this constructed term includes three word parts: orth/o/tics. A specialist in
More Info is called an orthotist (or THOTT ist). The medical term for an artificial limb is
prosthesis (pross THEE siss), which literally means “to place in addition”

An More Info is the surgical removal, or excision, of bone tissue. It is performed to

remove unwanted bony formations. The constructed form of this term is ost/ectomy, in which the
suffix meaning “surgical excision or removal” is added to the word root for bone (ost).​

6.81 In some cases, it becomes necessary to break a bone purposely to correct a defect or an
improperly healed fracture. Formed by adding the suffix -clasis, meaning “break apart,” to the
combining form for bone (oste/o), the name of the procedure is More Info. It is a
constructed term: oste/o/clasis.

1.​ A medical field that emphasizes the relationship between the musculoskeletal system
and overall health with an emphasis on body alignment and nutrition is called
osteopathy. The constructed form is oste/o/pathy. A physician trained in
More Info is known as an osteopath or osteopathic surgeon and is symbolized by the
abbreviation DO (Doctor of Osteopathy).​

2.​ 6.83 The surgical repair of bone is a general procedure known as More Info.
This term is formed by adding the suffix -plasty (“surgical repair”) to the combining form
oste/o (“bone”). The constructed form is oste/o/plasty.​

Words to Watch Out For

-pathy or -plasty?

These two suffixes look very similar, but how do you tell them apart? The suffix -pathy means
“disease,” whereas the meaning of the suffix -plasty is “surgical repair.” One easy way to tell
them apart is to think of the sound of -plasty: it sounds like “plaster,” which is a home product
that is used to repair walls.

1.​ 6.84 The Greek word for foot is podos. When the combining form of this Greek word
(pod/o) is combined with the suffix -iatry, which means “treatment or specialty,” the result
 is the constructed term More Info, which is the specialty that focuses on foot
health. A healthcare professional trained in this field is called a podiatrist (poh DYE ah
trist).​

2.​ A very common treatment for most internal injuries of the musculoskeletal system, such
as sprains (Frame 6.53) and strains (Frame 6.54), is often called by its popular acronym,
RICE. The meaning of More Info is rest, ice compresses, compression of
the injury site, and elevation of the injured limb.​

3.​ 6.86 Some injuries involve damage to both the muscle and its associated tendon. The
surgical procedure involving the repair of both muscle and tendon is called a
More Info. This constructed term is shown as ten/o/my/o/plasty to reveal its word parts:
the combining forms ten/o, meaning “stretch, tendon,” and my/o, meaning “muscle,” and
the suffix -plasty, meaning “surgical repair.”​

4.​ 6.87 Stepping into a hole and falling can cause a serious injury to the calcaneal tendon
of the ankle. This tendon, also known as the Achilles tendon, attaches the powerful calf
muscles to the large heel bone (calcaneus). If it tears, mobility of the affected leg
becomes impossible until surgical intervention corrects the injury. The surgery is called a
More Info and involves the suturing of a tendon to close a tear. This constructed term is
ten/o/rrhaphy to reveal its word parts. In this term, the suffix -rrhaphy, which means
“suturing,” is added to the combining form that means “stretch, tendon.”​

5.​ A tenorrhaphy often includes the More Info procedure, during which one or
more incisions are made into a tendon. Also a constructed term, it is written as
ten/o/tomy, using the combining form that means “stretch, tendon” and the suffix that
means “incision, to cut.”​

6.​ 6.89 A surgical procedure that repairs damaged or diseased vertebrae is called a
More Info. Adding the combining form that means “vertebra” with the suffix that means
“surgical repair” creates this constructed term. It includes three word parts:
vertebr/o/plasty.

ACL anterior cruciate ligament, a ligament that stabilizes the knee

joint

AS ankylosing spondylitis
CTS carpal tunnel syndrome

DJD degenerative joint disease

DMD Duchenne muscular dystrophy

DO physician specializing in osteopathy

EMG electromyography

HNP herniated nucleus pulposus, a herniated intervertebral disk

MG myasthenia gravis

NSAIDs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

OA osteoarthritis

ortho orthopedics

RA rheumatoid arthritis

RICE rest, ice, compression, elevation

ROM range of motion

SCI spinal cord injury

THR total hip replacement

TKA total knee arthroplasty

TKR total knee replacement

TMJ temporomandibular joint disease

Vertebrae

C1 through C7 the seven cervical vertebrae

T1 through T12 the twelve thoracic vertebrae

L1 through L5 the five lumbar vertebrae

7.​