Welding Technology (II)

4th Year
*******
Lecturer
Rafat Alazzawi
Main Topics
 Brazing.
 Braze Welding.
 Soldering.
 Thermo-Chemical Welding Processes.
 Radiant Energy Welding Processes.
 Solid-State Welding Processes.
 Adhesive Bonding.
 Radiant Energy Welding Processes
 Radiant energy processes focus an energy beam on the
workpiece. The heat is generated only when the energy beam
strikes the workpiece.
 Radiant energy processes are:

1. Electron Beam Welding (EBW).

2. Laser Beam Welding (LBW).
Electron Beam Welding Process (EBW)
❖ Electron beam welding (EBW) is a welding process that produces coalescence with a concentrated beam,
composed of high-velocity electrons impinging on the joint.
❖ High velocity electrons strike the surface to be joined, their kinetic energy transforms to heat sufficient to
melt metals.
❖ The process is used without shielding gas, except in some nonvacuum applications, and without the
application of pressure. Variations of this process are high-vacuum electron beam welding (EBW-HV),
medium-vacuum electron beam welding (EBW-MV), and nonvacuum electron beam welding
(EBW-NV).
❖ Since nonvacuum EBW is accomplished at near atmospheric pressure it is sometimes called atmospheric
electron beam welding.
❖ It can produce both very shallow and extremely deep single-pass autogenous welds (that is, without the
use of filler metal) with a minimum amount of thermal distortion of the workpiece.
1.
Principles of Operation
Joint Preparation: Square butt joint with joint gap of 0.05 - 0.075 mm is commonly used, so
as the focused electron beam can heat both sides of the parent metal. However, all butt,
corner T and lap and edge joints can be used. Joints can be straight-line, irregular-outline,
circumferential or circular. Most welds are continuous, but intermittent, spot and plug welds
are also made.
2. Workpiece Cleaning: mechanically and/or chemically. The welding process should be start
within few minutes. Meanwhile, the joint faces should not be touched by tools or hands.
3. Fixturing of Workpieces: C-clamps suffice for many parts. Small tack welds can support or
replace C-clamps.
4. Demagnetization: Residual magnetism in the workpieces or fixture made of magnetic
materials results in electron beam deflection; therefore, they should be demagnetized before
welding by putting them in 50 Hz inductive field and slowly removing them.
 Principles of Operation
5. Setting up workpieces: workpiece is put in welding chamber over the work carriage.
The electron beam gun and gun-to-job distance are adjusted.

6. Pump down: to the required vacuum. For high-vacuum electron beam welding (HV
EBW), an absolute pressure of 0.0001 torr or less is produced by mechanical-piston
pump operating with an oil-diffusion pump. For electron beam welding in medium
vacuum, the pressure in the work chamber is 0.2 to 0.001 torr. The gun chamber in
which beam is generated, collimated and focused, is held at 0.0001 to 0.00001 torr. A
small diffusion pump is needed to provide vacuum in the gun chamber; a mechanical
pump is used for evacuating the welding chamber.
 Principles of Operation
7. Preheating of workpieces: Hardenable and difficult-to-weld materials need to be
preheated, especially for thick sections and where the weld is restrained. High-strength
alloy steels and tool steels thicker than 9 mm must be preheated before EBW to prevent
cracking. Preheating may be carried out using torch heating, furnace heating,
induction heating, infra-red radiation heating, etc.

8. Weld Schedule: Electron beam current, voltage, filament current and focusing current
controls are then set from the weld schedule. After setting these controls, the beam
current is switched on and off instantaneously for a weld spot alignment check.

9. Welding: is initiated by switching the sequence start switch to the on position. The
weld is made automatically. However, the welding can be carried out manually also.
 Mechanism of Weld Forming
The weld metal is formed by the combination of three effects that occur in the
same time:

1. Metal on the leading side of the hole vaporizes then condenses to form
molten metal on the trailing side of the hole.

2. The molten metal on the leading side of the hole flows to the trailing
side, and

3. The molten metal thus formed continuously fills the hole and solidifies
as the electron beam advances.
 Vacuum Levels
Welding can be carried out in:
1. Hard vacuum: where both electron beam and workpieces are enclosed in the same
vacuum chamber. The pressure is of the order of 0.0001 torr.
2. Partial vacuum or Medium vacuum: where the electron beam and the workpiece
are enclosed in separate vacuum chambers. Pressure of the gun chamber is of the
order of 0.0001 torr, whereas in the workpiece chamber is 0.005 to 0.1 torr. An
orifice permits electron beam to pass from gun chamber to work chamber but at
the same time limits leakage from the work chamber to the gun chamber.
3. Atmosphere or Non vacuum: the electron gun is enclosed in vacuum chamber
whereas the workpiece is held outside under the atmosphere on the carriage. An
orifice permits electron beam to pass from gun chamber to workpiece. Such a
welding system contains high-capacity vacuum pumps to control pressure leakage.
Comparison of vacuum and atmospheric welding systems
 The vacuum assure degasification and decontamination of the
molten metal and very high quality welds are obtained.

 Because negligible scattering due to atmosphere, little loss of beam

energy with distance, low-powered electron beam guns can be used
effectively. Moreover, vacuum prevents the reduction of electron
velocity.
Comparison of vacuum and atmospheric welding systems
 On the other hand, there are serious limitation on the size of the
workpieces that can be welded.
 Metal vapors released during welding from the molten weld pool can
obstruct the free passage of beam and absorb some of its power, and
enter opening of the gun resulting in shorting the high-voltage
elements of the gun and creating some problems.
 Time consuming because of pumping down for each new workpiece.
 Advantages of Atmospheric welding systems
1. They do not require vacuum around the workpiece.

2. Large workpieces can be welded.

3. Metal vapors do not damage the electron beam gun.

4. Loading and unloading of workpieces is rapid.

 Disadvantages of Atmospheric welding systems
1. An inert gas shielding is required to protect molten weld metal
from atmospheric contamination.

2. Wider welds are produced.

3. Absorption and scattering effect on the electron beam by the

atmosphere.

4. Protection must be provided to the operator against X-rays

produced when the beam impinges on the workpiece.
 EBW Equipment
1. Electron beam gun (5 to 150 kV).
2. Vacuum pumping system.
3. Mechanical tooling – fixtures, drives and motor control.
4. Beam-alignment system, including optics, scanner,
tape control and tracker.
 EBW Equipment
1. Electron beam gun consists of:
• Tungsten filament: heated to 2000°C and
emits electrons.
• Cathode (control) electrode: electrons, which
have negative charge are repelled by the cathode
and travel at high velocity to the anode thorough
a central hole.
• Anode.
• Focusing coil.
 EBW Equipment
• The cathode (-) and the anode (+) electrode concentrate and propel the
electrons. The electrons are greatly accelerated by the high voltage between the
cathode and the anode.
• Electron beam is then focused by an electromagnetic focusing coil (electronic
lens), which concentrates or spreads the electron beam to the user’s need.
• Thus concentrated electron beam and focused on the workpiece in a spot from
0.75 to 3 mm in diameter when strikes the workpiece., the kinetic energy of
the electrons is changed into intensive heat enough to melt the workpiece
material. The greater the kinetic energy, the greater is the amount of heat
released.
• Electron beams have a power density of about 1 MW/in², sufficient to vaporize
any metal.
• The purpose of the electron beam gun is to accelerate and focus the electrons
given off by filament into a narrow, high-velocity beam which can be used for
welding.
 EBW Equipment
2. Vacuum pumping system:
• The vacuum chamber is usually rectangular in shape, has heavy
glass windows to permit viewing the work while welding.
• Vacuum pumping system evacuates the interior of electron gun
and work chamber.
• When evacuated,
(i) Electrons are emitted at a lower filament temperature.
(ii) It eliminates air or metal vapor molecules from within the gun.
(iii) Electron beam does not lose energy within the gun by being
scattered or absorbed by molecules of air or metal vapor.
• A mechanical piston pump operating in conjunction with an oil-
diffusion pump may serve the purpose.
 Process Variables
1. Accelerating voltage
2. Beam current
3. Welding speed
4. Focusing current
5. Distance from gun to work

• Penetration increases when accelerating voltage or beam current

is increased or when welding speed is decreased.
• Product of accelerating voltage and beam current determine the
amount of metal melted.
• Focusing current controls the focal length of the beam.
• Other factors being constant, gun to work distance determines
the beam spot size at the work.
 Safety in EBW
Protection must be provide against:
1. The electron beam itself.
2. The high voltages involved in generating the electron beam.
3. X-rays produced by impingement of the electron beam on the
workpiece.
4. Vapors and molten drops of metals evolve during the welding
process.
 Advantages of EBW
1. High quality welds (free from porosity and atmospheric contamination) and can be made at
high speed.
2. The fusion zone and HAZ re extremely narrow.
3. As the energy input is in narrow concentrated beam, distortion is almost eliminated.
4. The hard vacuum makes it possible to weld such highly reactive vacuum-melted materials
as titanium, zirconium, etc., with the same control of purity as in the original material.
5. Edge preparation for welding usually consists of closely aligning the edges. Butt joints can
be made in plates up to 6 mm without edge preparation.
6. Welded joints surfaces are clean and bright having no oxide, scale or flux slags and thus
need no cleaning up, after the weld is completed.
 Advantages of EBW
7. Electron beam welds have a highly desirable depth-to-width ratio. Much deeper
penetration can be obtained in a single pass.
8. Small thin parts can be welded to heavy sections.
9. Edge and butt welds can be made in metals as thin as 0.025 mm.
10. On stainless steel that is as thick as 100 mm, a weld can be made in one pass with
full penetration, with the pass performed at a speed of approximately 17
cm/minute.
11. Input power is small compared to the power requirements of other electrical
welding processes.
12. Precise control is possible. Welds can be made between components in remote
locations.
 Disadvantages of EBW
1. Initial cost of equipment is high and portable one is rare.

2. Work is to be manipulated through vacuum seals.

3. Time and equipment is required to create vacuum every time a new job is to be welded.

4. Precautions are needed to prevent damage from X-rays.

5. Electron beam travels on a line of sight, therefore, obstructed joints cannot be welded.

6. Because of complexity of circuitry, very professional persons are required.

7. Workpiece size is limited by the work chamber dimensions. Moreover, the workpiece
being in an evacuated chamber becomes inaccessible and thus need to be manipulated
by some special device.
 Applications of EBW
1. For welding reactive* and refractory* metals used in the atomic energy and rocketry
fields.
2. For welding other common similar** and dissimilar metal combinations [e.g. Invar
(64Fe-36Ni) and (72Mn-18Cu-10Ni); stainless steel and Inconel, Titanium, and Copper,
etc.].
3. For welding automobile, airplane, aerospace, farm and other types of equipment,
where especially low distortion is desired.
4. Since arc length may be varied from very short to very long without changing the
quality of welds, welds can be made even at those points that are virtually inaccessible
for other welding processes.

* Ti, W, Be, Mo, Nb, Ta, and their alloys.

** Stainless steel, copper, aluminium, tool steel, nickel base, iron base and cobalt base heat
resisting alloys.
 Applications of EBW
5. Parallel beads can simultaneously be obtained with one gun and find applications in
the mass production of type-writer carriages.
6. Electron beam welding is very suitable where high quality, large scale, automatic
welding operations are required or where other welding process will not produce the
desired results.
7. Electron beam welding can do the same jobs as TIG and plasma welding; sometimes
better.
8. Materials ranging from thin foils to 50 mm in thickness can be joined by electron
beam welding.
9. Electron beam welding is used to assemble conventional production parts such as
cams, gear clusters and driven shafts.