Chapter 4

Compressibility of Soil

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Immediate settlement

4.3 Primary consolidation settlement

4.4 Time rate of consolidation

4.5 Secondary consolidation settlement

1
4.1 Introduction
Causes of the soil settlement
Loads transferred to foundation.

Lowering of ground water level.

Liquefaction.

Water absorption in soil.

2
4.1 Introduction
Total settlement ST: total settlement
Se: immediate (elastic), without changes
in moisture content.
Sc: primary consolidation settlement,
water expulsion.
Ss: secondary consolidation (creep)
settlement, progressive deformation
under constant stress.

3
 4.2 Immediate (elastic) settlement
Contact pressure – settlement profile

Clay – Flexible foundation Sand – Flexible foundation

Clay – Rigid foundation Sand – Rigid foundation

4
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

• Various consolidation parameters for settlement analysis.

• Recorded reading: time-varying settlement and final
settlement at each load increment. Dial
Load gauge

Porous Cutting
stone ring

Soil sample

Water Initial void ratio e0

5
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

6
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

• Apparatus.

Consolidation cell

7
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

• Procedure.

Trimming the soil sample

8
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

• Procedure.

Adding water to make the sample saturated.

9
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

• Procedure.

Placing the consolidation cell in the loading frame.

10
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

• Procedure.
Load increment: 0.125; 0.25; 0.5; 1; 2; 4;
8… kG/cm2. Each load is kept until final
settlement.

Reading of settlement is recorded at:

15s, 30s, 1m, 2m, 4m, 8m, 15m, …, 1h,
24h.

After the final load increment, start

unloading: 8, 4, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.125
kG/cm2.
• Results: σi, ∆hi. 11
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

• Results: σi, ∆hi. 0.80

• Void ratio: 0.75

0.70

rỗng ee
0.65

hệ sốratio
• Coefficient of 0.60

compressibility: Void 0.55

0.50

0.45

• Deformation modulus: 0.40

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415 16171819202122 232425262728 29303132

Compressional stress
Ứng suất nén σ (kG/cm2)

12
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

e- logp

Void ratio e
Void ratio e

Compressional stress logp Compressional stress logp

13
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

• Pre-consolidation ratio of soil:

OCR = p’c / p’0
• p’c: pre-consolidation pressure (largest vertical effective
stress that soil has sustained)
• p’0: current vertical pressure due to soil self-weight.

• Normally consolidated soil: OCR = 1.

• Overconsolidated soil: OCR > 1.
• Under consolidated soil: OCR < 1.

14
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test
2.20

Compression index: 2.00

rỗngee
1.80

Hệ sốratio
Void 1.60 Cc

Swelling index: 1.40

1.20
Cs

1.00
0.1 1.0 10.0
Pc
2
Compressional
Ứng stress
suất nén σ (kG/cm )

15
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test
e- logp

Step 1: Determine A, minimum curve

diameter.
Step 2: A line passing through A,
parallel to Ox.
Void ratio e

Step 3: tangent line at A.

Step 4: bisector of angle created by line
2 and line 3.
Step 5: extend the linear part of the
“Initial loading” curve.
Step 6: pc is the intersection of line 4
and line 5.
Compressional stress logp
16
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.1 One-dimensional consolidation test

e Loading on normally consolidated soil:

A A → B; D → E and G → H

Unloading on overconsolidated soil:

B → C and E → F
C
B Loading on over consolidated soil
D
C → D and F → G
F
E
G The OCR:

OCR = σ B ′
• At C:
′
H
σC

OCR = σ E ′
′
• At F:
O σ C′ σ F′ σ B′ σ E′ log σ′ σF
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement

Vertical settlement, not horizontal

Oedometer test (1D consolidation
expansion.
test)
p1 ∆h1 final settlement under p1

∆h1 𝑒𝑒0 − 𝑒𝑒1

∆ℎ1 = ℎ
h0 1 + 𝑒𝑒0 0

Diameter >> soil thickness h0 e0 – initial void ratio

p1 is constant throughout h0 e1 – finial void ratio when final
settlement ∆h1 is reached
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement

Saturated clay is subjected to H << dimensions of

surcharge loading (sand). surcharge ⇒ Increased
vertical stress is constant
throughout H.
Very large area of
groundfilling
⇒ Only vertical settlement.

Saturated soft clay ⇒

settlement due to the
escape of water.

⇒ Identical to the soil

sample in the ring.
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement

p1

∆h1
h0

Final settlement ∆h1

𝑒𝑒0 − 𝑒𝑒1 Final settlement s

∆ℎ1 = ℎ
1 + 𝑒𝑒0 0 𝑒𝑒1 − 𝑒𝑒2
𝑠𝑠 = 𝐻𝐻
1 + 𝑒𝑒1
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement

Sand backfill
Final settlement s of the soft clay Unit weight γt
h
under surcharge loading:
Water table
Ground surface
e1 − e2
s= H Saturated soft clay pgl
1+ e1 γsat
p1

e1 – initial void ratio H

p2
e2 – final void ratio

Permeable sand
4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement
 From e – p Settlement calculation based on e - p

e1 − e2 0.80
s= H
1+ e1 0.75

e1 − e2 p2 − p1
s= × ×H 0.70

p2 − p1 1+ e1

rỗng ee
0.65

hệ sốratio
a 0.60
s= ∆p × H
Void
1+ e1
0.55

s = a0 ∆p H = mv ∆p H 0.50

0.45

β
s= ∆p H 0.40
E 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415 16171819202122 232425262728 29303132

Compressional stress
Ứng suất nén σ (kG/cm2)
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement Settlement calculation based on e – log(p)

e
e1 1 C
r
e1 − e2 e2
s= H (1)
1+ e1

1/ Heavily-Overconsolidated soil: p1 < p2 < p′c

1

⇒ Stress path is on “Reloading” Cc

e1 − e2 = Cr (log p2 − log p1 )

Cr p1 p2 p′c
O logp
(1) ⇔ s = H log p2 
1+ e1  p1 
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement Settlement calculation based on e – log(p)

e
e1 1 C
e1 − e2 r
s= H (1)
1+ e1

2/ Lightly-Overconsolidated soil: p1 < p′c < p2

1
e2
⇒ Stress path is on “Reloading” and Cc
“Initial loading”

e1 − e2 = Cr (log pc′ − log p1 ) + Cc (log p2 − log pc′ )

p1 p′c p2
O logp
Cr C 
(1) ⇔ s = H log pc′  + c H log p2 ′ 
1+ e1  p1  1+ e1  pc 
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement Settlement calculation based on e – log(p)

e1 − e2 1 C
s= H (1) r
1+ e1 e1

3/ Normally-consolidated soil: p′c = p1 < p2

1
⇒ Stress path is on “Initial loading” e2
Cc

e1 − e2 = Cc (log p2 − log p1 )

Cc
(1) ⇔ s= H log p2  O
p1= p′c p2
logp
1+ e1  p1 
Without the footing, vertical stress at SUM OF SUBLAYERS’ SETTLEMENT
Df is γ * Df
cho foundation project
After footing being constructed,
N tc
vertical stress at Df is + γ tbDf
F Ground surface
N tc
Stress causing settlement pgl = + (γ tb - γ *)Df N tc
F γ
γ* tb pgl Dfung
Dividing soils into sublayers having
hi = [0.4 ÷ 0.6] b
suat 1
thickness of
pgl
Stresses at the middle of sublayer i before γ∗ Df  h1
γ
and after the footing construction: p1i & p2i :
MNN
 h2
p1i = σ′v 0 i and p2i = p1i + σ gli p13 σgl3
l/b  p23
h3
where σ gli = K 0 i × pgl and K 0 i ∈ z / b
i γsat  h4
zi – distance from the base to middle of sublayer i σgl
 h5
Void ratio of sublayer i before and after
settlement e1i & e2i :

…
e1i ← p1i Overburden Stress increased
from e-p curve stress by pgl ( delta
e2i ← p2i sigma
e1i - e2i prime ( dau
Settlement of sublayer i: si = h
1+ e1i i phay
26 ) )
 p1i = σ′v 0 i = 5 σ gli Stiff soil
Considering settlement until:
p1i = σ′v 0 i = 10 σ gli Soft soil
n n
e1i - e2i
Settlement of the footing: s = ∑ si =∑ h
i =1 i =1 1+ e1i i
Check that s ≤ [s ] [s] – allowable settlement of the footing

For monolithic reinforced concrete [s] = 8cm.

E.g. Settlement of sublayer  (i=3) e

p13 = γ Df + (h1 + h )γ + (γ
2 - γw )h
3 e0
sat
2
e1
p23 = p13 + σ gl 3 and σ gl 3 = K 03 pgl
e2
ll b e13
h3 e3
where K 03 ∈ z b and z3 = h1 + h2 + 2 e23
3 e4 e-p loading curve
e5
e13 - e23
s3 = h3
1 + e13 O p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p
p13 p23 27
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement

Example 1: Given a 2m-height

surcharge layer of sand with unit
weight of 20 kN/m3. The surcharge
layer is uniformly distributed over
the surface of 15m thick layer of
saturated clay.
The oedometer test result of a soil
sample taken at 7.5m depth is in the
table below.
Determine the final settlement of the
saturated clay.

σ’ (kN/m2) 0 25 50 100 200 400

e 1.50 1.42 1.37 1.25 1.16 1.05
 4.3 Primary consolidation settlement
4.3.2 Final settlement

Assignment 1: Given a 2.5m x 4m simple

footing subjected to a uniaxial load Ntc =
1000 kN. The depth of footing is 2m. The
footing is placed on the ground with unit
weight of 18 kN/m3. The average unit weight
of concrete and soil is 22 kN/m3.
The oedometer test result of a soil sample
below the footing is as follows:

σ’ (kN/m2) 0 25 50 100 200

e 0.828 0.788 0.754 0.717 0.672

Determine:
a/ Stress causing the settlement.
b/ Overburden stress and stress increased by pgl.
c/ Concerned area of settlement.
d/ Final settlement by sum of sublayers’ settlement.
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.1 Basic concepts

= 25

delta qo

delta H (t )
= Sc

30
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.1 Basic concepts ống này sẽ drainage lâu nhất vì
nó ở giữa layer và cần thời gian
để mà thoát nước ra

31
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.1 Basic concepts

32
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.1 Basic concepts

area của u và effective stress bằng

nhau vì nó transfer qua mà

33
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.1 Basic concepts

những cái ống này là để xác định

delta u tại từng vị trí của layer hay
nói cách khác là xác định quá trình
consolidation settlement của nó

34
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

Assumptions:
 Clay-water is homogeneous.
 Fully saturated soil Sr=100%. ∞← →∞

 Compressibility of water and

soil particles are negligible.
 Flow of water is 1D
(compressional direction).
 Small strain.
 Darcy’s law is valid.
 ∆σ is instantaneous.
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

∞← →∞

Rate of water outflow – Rate of water inflow = Rate of volume change

V: volume of soil
vz: velocity of flow in z direction
t: time
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

∞← →∞

Darcy:

k: soil permeability
u: excess pore water pressure caused by ∆σ
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

∞← →∞

Rate of volume change:

Vv , Vs: volume of void and solid

e: void ratio
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

∞← →∞

u: excess pore water pressure

t: time
z: depth
Cv: coefficient of consolidation
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation delta u = 0

∞← →∞

Boundary condition:

u0: initial excess pore

water pressure
u0 = ∆σ
the solution of function

m: integer, 0, 1, 2 …
= delta u u(z,t )
Tv: time factor
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

∞← →∞

Note: Different boundary

conditions induce different
solutions.

Similar problems:

Two-way and one-way

drainage: same solution,
choose proper Hdr.
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

Degree of consolidation at
z at time t: ít dùng

Uz ( Z,t )

uz: excess pore water pressure at z at

time t

∞← →∞
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation
u(z,t) -> Uz ( z,t ) ( từ cái 1 - uz/u0 á) -> U
Average degree of consolidation for
the entire layer at time t: dùng nhiều hơn

U: average degree of consolidation

Sc(t): settlement of layer at time t
Sc: ultimate settlement of layer

∞← →∞

biến đổi từ công thức

tích phân á
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation
từ phương trình U(z,t) mà ra á

Average degree of consolidation for

the entire layer at time t:

Sivaram & Swamee (1977):

(U from 0 to 100%)
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation
nếu không có trong bảng thì dùng công thức tính
tay cho nhanh á

có thể dùng interpolation

 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

Example 2: A soil profile consists of a 12m thick layer of saturated clay, overlaying
an impermeable stiff clay. The surcharge loading includes a 3m thick layer of sand
having γ = 21 kN/m3. Properties of a soil sample taken at the middle of saturated
clay are: γsat = 17 kN/m3, Cv = 1.1x10-7 m2/s, and oedometer test provides:

Estimate:
a/ The final consolidation settlement of the saturated clay.
b/ The consolidation settlement at time t = 2 years.
c/ How long will it take to reach 85% consolidation?
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

Example 3: A soil profile consists of a 12m thick layer of saturated clay, overlaying
an impermeable stiff clay. The surcharge loading includes a 3m thick layer of sand
having γ = 21 kN/m3. Properties of a soil sample taken at the middle of saturated
clay are: γsat = 17 kN/m3, Cv = 1.1x10-7 m2/s, Cc = 0.4, Cs = 0.04, p’c = 68 kN/m2,
initial void ratio e0 = 1.4.

Estimate:
a/ The final consolidation settlement of the saturated clay.
b/ The consolidation settlement at time t = 1 year.
c/ How long will it take to reach 90% consolidation?
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

Example 4:
4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

cái 3m này là one drain á vì nó chỉ lấy 3 m trong tổng 25 mét đó, thì nó vẫn sẽ drained at bottom
rồi ở top thì ko drain á
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.2 Terzaghi’s model: 1D consolidation

∆σ varies with depth (not a rectangle).

 Pattern 0-1 Pattern 0-2
Pattern 0 Pattern 1 Pattern 2

Pattern 0: Pattern 1: Pattern 2:

 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.3 Determination of coefficient of consolidation

Casagrande method (log t)

• Plot deformation
- logt.
• Sample height at
U=100% :point C.
• Sample height at
U=0%: pick t1
(point A) and
t2=4t1 (point B),
draw horizontal
line with distance
to A is ζ - equal
to distance from C
A to B.
• Sample height at
U=50% and t50.
 4.4 Time rate of consolidation
4.4.3 Determination of coefficient of consolidation

Taylor method ( 𝑇𝑇)

• Plot deformation - 𝑡𝑡 curve.
• Draw a line AB from the straight
portion.
• Pick a point C so that OC = 1.15OB.
• AC intersects with the curve at D,
which corresponds to U=90%,
estimate H90 and 𝑡𝑡90 .
 4.5 Secondary consolidation settlement

Secondary consolidation occurs after primary consolidation.

Secondary compression index:

 4.5 Secondary consolidation settlement

Secondary consolidation settlement:

 4.5 Secondary consolidation settlement
Example 5: Given a 5m thick layer of saturated clay with 2-way drainage. The
settlement after 3 years of surcharge loading is 32mm, while the final settlement is
40mm. A 20mm thick soil sample was taken from the above clay layer for the
oedometer test with 2-way drainage. The overburden stress state is the same for
soil sample and soil layer. The U-Tv relationship for pattern 0 is shown in the table
below.
Estimate:
a/ The time (in minutes) required for the clay sample to reach 50% of
consolidation.
b/ Coefficient of consolidation Cv (m2/year) of the clay layer.

U 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95 0.99
Tv 0 0.008 0.031 0.071 0.126 0.197 0.283 0.403 0.567 0.848 1.13 1.78