SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 1

Physics Notes

Syllabus

 Physics : General Infrmation

 Units
 Motion
 Gravitation
 Kelpler's law of planetary motion
 Pressure
 Sound Waves and Electromagnatic waves
 Light
 Static and Current Electricity
 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
 Heat
 Magnetism and Electromagnetism
 NMR and MRI

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Physics Notes

Physics
 Physics is that branch of physical science in which → the matter and energy mutually
interact with each other.
Matters
 That substance which Occupies space
Possesses mass
Can be experienced via senses

Mass
 Quantity of matter in a substance is called Mass.
 Mass of a thing is always remains constant.
 It is a scalar quantity
 SI Unit = Kilogram (kg)
Weight
 Weight is that force through which earth attracts objects towards it.
W = Mass×Gravity = mg
 Therefore, value of weight depends on gravitational force.
Acceleration
 It is a vector quantity.
 SI Unit → Newton (N)
 Weight of any object is variable.
 Value of the weight increases when we move from the equator to pole.
Energy
 Capacity to do work is called Energy.
 Energy can be experienced through senses
 Mass can be converted into energy.
 According to Einstein's theory of Relativity-
 E = mc2
 E = Energy
 M = Mass
 C = Speed of light [3x108 m/s]
Law of Energy Conservation -
 Energy neither can be created nor can be destroyed.
 It can only transfered from one state to another state
Generator
(i) Mechanical energy Electrical energy
Cell/Battery
(ii) Chemical energy Electrical energy
Motor
(iii) Electrical energy Mechanical energy

Bulb/ Tubelight
(iv) Electrical energy Light energy

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Physics Notes

Units
Units are standards for measurement of physical quanties.
Eg → Temp = 10K → unit
Physical quantity Magnitude

Units are of 2 types :-

Units

Fundamental Units Derived Units

Those units which do not need any Those units which need two or more
other unit for their expression are than two Fundamental units for their
called Fundamental units. expression are called Dexived units.
Eg- Distance = meter Eg- Area = M²
Mass = kilogram Volume = M3
Time = second Velocity = m/s

Systems of Units :-
(i) MKS system →
Distance = Meter
Mass = Kg
Time = Sec
(ii) CGS system
Distance = cm
In France
Mass = gm
Time = Sec
(iii) FPS system
Distance = Foot In UK
Mass = Pound
Time = Sec
(iv) SI system [International system of Unit.]
 SI system was adopted in the international conference of weight and measures in 1960
at Gener
 It is modified form of MKS system.
 Seven fundamental and two ssupplementary units of SI system.

 Seven fundamental units are :

Length → Meter
Mass → kg
Time → sec

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Physics Notes

Temperature → Kelvin
Electric current→ Ampere
Amount of substance → Mole
Luminous Intensity → Candela
 Supplementary units of SI system
Plane angle → Radian
Solid angle → Steradian
[1 Pound = 453 gm]
Large units of length
1. Astronomical Unit → It is mean distance between Sun and Earth.
1 AU = 1.5 X 1011 m = 15 cr km = 15x107 km
2. Light year → Distance travelled by light in voccum in one year.
1 Light year = 9.46 x 1015 Meter
3. Parsec = Largest Unit of distance among all astronomical units.
1 Parsec = 3.08 x1016 m.
1 Parsec = 3.26 Light Year
 These units are used to calculate distance between autronomical bodies.
Physical quantities
 Quantities which are expressed according to Law of physics are called physical
quantities.

There are 2 types of physical quantity.

Vector Scalar
 Quantities which have both  Quantities which have only
direction and magnitude are magnitude are called scular
called vector quantity. quantity
Eg - Force, Weight, Velocity etc. Eg - Mass, Distance, Energy,
pressure, work etc.

 Electric current is a scalar quantity.

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Physics Notes

 Various Exponents of 10 :-
101 - Deca (da) - Ten 10-1 - Deci (d)
102 – Hecto (h) - Hundred 10-2 – Centi (c)
103 – Kilo (K) - Thousand 10-3 – Mili (m)
106 – Mega (M) - Million 10-6 – Micro ()
109 – Giga (G) – Billion 10-9 – Nano (n)
1012 – Tera (T) - Trillion 10-12 – Pico (p)
1015 – Peta (P) – Quandrilion 10-15 – Femto/Fermi (f)
1018 – Exa (E) - Quintillion 10-18 – Atto (a)

10-10 - Å (Angustrom)

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Physics Notes

MOTION
 The motion is the change in position of an object with respect to its surrounding in a
given interval of time.
 Motion is a relative quantity.

 B is in motion with respect to A but respect to C, B is in rest.

Motion

Uniform Motion Non - Uniform Motion

Motion in which equal distance is Motion in which unequal distance

covered in equal interval of time is covered in equal time period.

Eg – Watch etc Eg – Human motion etc

Distance:-
 Total length of the path travelled by any particle/object is called distance
 It is always positive.
 It is a scalar quantity
 Unit – Meter
Displacement:-
 Shortest between intial position and final position of any particle/object is called
displacement.
 It is a vector quantity.
 It can be positive or negative or zero.
 Unit – Meter

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Physics Notes

 Distance ≥ Displacement & Distance ≥ 1

Speed :-
 Distance travelled by any object in unit time is called Speed.
 Speed = Distance /Time
 It is a scalar quantity
 Unit = Meter/Sec
Velocity :-
The range at which an object change its position.
 Velocity = Displacement/Time
 It is a Vector quantity
 Unit = Meter/Sec
 The total displacement covered by any object in unit time is called Velocity.
Acceeleration
 Rate of change in velocity of an object is called Acceleration .
 Acceleration (a) = Change in velocity/Time
 It is a vector quanity
𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐌
 Unit = =
𝐒𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝐒𝐞𝐜 𝟐

Equations of Linear Motion Final

 v = u + at v = Velocity
 v2 = u2+2as s = displacement
 s = ut + ½ at2 u = Initial velocity
a = acceleration
t = time

Newtion’s Law of Motion

1. First Law – An object will continue to be in the state of rest or in a state of motion unless
an external force acts upon it.
 It is also called the 'Law of Inertia'.
Example -
(i) When the bus suddenly stops, the passenger leans forward.
(ii) Falling of fruits when the tree is shaken.
2. Second law – According to this law the force acting on an object is proportional to the
rate of change of momentum.
 It is also called as the 'Law of Momentum Conservation'.
 Force  rate in change of momentum
 F  dP/dt
 F  d (mv)/dt
 F = MA

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Physics Notes

 According to this law, force applied on any object is equal to product of mass and
acceleration of that object.
Example - Pulling the hands back while the player catches the ball.
Momentum: - Product of mass and velocity of an object is called momentum.
P = MV (M = Mass, V=Velocity)
 It is a vector quantity
m
Unit = Kg
s
3. Third Law – For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 It is also called as 'Action-Reaction law'.
Action and Reaction acts on different objects.
Example – Rocket Launch
Pulling an elastic band

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Physics Notes

GRAVITATION
Force:-
 Force is that factor which brings changes in the state or position of a thing.
 Force is pull or push which brings changes in the position of a thing.
F = ma (m=mass, a=acceleration)
 It is a vector quantity
Unit SI Newton → Kg m/s2
CGS Dyne
 1 N = 105 Dyne
 There are 4 main forces in nature
(i) Nuclear Force
(ii) Electromagnetic force
(iii) Weak Interamoleculer force
(iv) Gravitational force
Nuclear Force Electromagnetic Weak Gravitational
Force Intermoleculer For
Force
Particles P-P, N-N, N-P Between charge Between Radio Between any
particles active particles two mass
particles
Strength Strongest Force Strong Weak Weakest
Range Shortest Long Short Longest
Nature Attractive Attractive & Attractive & Always
Repulsive Repulsion Attractive
Responsible for Nucleur Stability of atom For Radio For stability of
stability Activity Galaxy & solar
system

Gravitational Force :-
 Attraction force between two bodies having mass is called Gravitational Force.
 This force is negligible in bodies with very less mass.
 It increases as mass increases.
 It is weakest among all existing forces.
Eg :- (i) Motion of the earth around the sun.
(ii) Motion of the moon around the sun.
Universal Law of Gravitation
 Every body in the universe attracts another body with a force whose magnitude is
directly proportional to the product of the masses of those bodies and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. This force of attraction is
called Gravitational Force.

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Physics Notes

 Where, G = Gravitational constant (Scalar quantity)

G = 6.673×10-11 NM2/Kg2
Importance of Universal law of Gravitation :-
 The force that binds us to the earth.
 The rotation of the moon around the earth.
 Rotation of planets around the sun.
 Tides due to sun and Moon.
Characteristics of Gravitational force :-
1. Gravitational force is attractive in nature
2. Gravitaitonal force does not depend on nature of medium.
3. Gravitiational force is a conservative force is nature (Which does not depend on path).
4. It is a central force, acting along the line joining the centres of mass of two bodies and it
obeys the law of Inverse Square.
5. Its range is maximum.
6. It is the weakest force among all four.

Earth’s Gravitational Force

 The attractive force exerted on any object on earth is called Earth’s Gravitational Force.
Free fall condition:-
 When any object falls towards the earth due to gravitational force alone then this
condition is called free fall condition.

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Physics Notes

Gravitational Acceleration:-
 Change in the velocity of object which leads to acceleration in that object due to
gravitational force is called Gravitational Acceleration.
 It is denoted by ‘g’
 Unit – m/sec2
 It is a vector quantity
Mem
 F=G → 1. Force on objectby the earth
R2
 F = mg → 2. Acceleration produced due to F will be Gravitational
Acceleration.
Mem
 Mg = G
R2
 g = 9.8 m/s2
 Gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2
 Mass of Earth = 6×1024 Kg
 Radius of Earth = 6.4×106M
Gravitational Acceleration Gravitational Constant
1. Value = 9.8 m/s2 1. Value = 6.673×10-11 NM2/ Kg2
2. It is e variable 2. It is constant
3. Unit = m/s2 3. Unit = Nm2/Kg2
4. It is vector quantity 4. It is scalar quantity

Numericals
Q. Calulate the mass of a person whose weight is 49 N.
• W = mg
• 49 = m×10
• m = 49/10 – 4.9 Kg
• m = 5 Kg
or
g = 9.8 m/s2
W = Mg
49 = m (9.8)
4.9
m = 9.8 = 5 Kg

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Q. Weight of a person is 1200N on earth and it becomes 200N on moon.

(i) Calculate the mass of person on moon & earth
(ii) Calculate the gravitational acceleration on moon.

1. W = 1200 N (earth) W = 200 (moon)

g = 10 m/s2 m = 120 kg
(moon) W = 200 N g’ = ?
W = Mg W = Mg’
1200 = m (10) 200 = 120 g’
m = 120 kg 200 9
g’ = =
120 6

𝟏
❖ Gravitational Force of moon = Earth’s gravitastional force
𝟔
Changes in gravitational acceleration
 Due to height (h)
 The value of gravitational acceleration (g) decreases with increase in height (h)
Due to depth -
 The value of gravitational acceleration (g) decreases with increase in depth.
At Centre
 It become o at the centre of the earth.
Due to earth’s rotation on its axis -
 Value of ‘g’ increases when we move from equator to pole.
 Value of ‘g’ increases every where except poles when rotational speed of the earth is
decreases
 Value of g decreases everywhere except poles when the rotational speed of the earth
increases.

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Physics Notes

Kepler’s law of Planetary Motion

 Kepler propounded three laws related to the motion of planets.
1. First law/law of Orbits :- According to this law, every planet revolves around the
Sun in an elliptical orbit and the sun is located at a focal point of the planet’s orbit.

2. Second law/law of Areal Velocity :-

• The areal velocity of every planet remains constant. Therefore the line segment
joining the sun and planet covers equal area at equal interval of time.
• When the planet is near the sun then its velocity increases & vice-versa.

A1 = A2
3. Third law/law of Periods :-
• According to this law, the square of planets orbital period is directly
proportional to the cube of the length of the semi-major axis of its orbit (mean
distance between the planet and sun).
T2  3
• The planet located at a greater distance from the sun have a longer period of
revolution.
 Eg :- Mercury – 88 days
Earth – 365 days
Neptune – 165 year
Gravitational Field [E] :-
• It is a field around a body/object in which another body or object experience
gravitational attraction due to that body or object with higher mass..

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Intensity of Gravitational Field :-

 The force experience by one object of unit mass placed in gravitational field is called
intensity of that gravitational field.
 It denotes by E.
 Consider a particle of mass 'M', then the magnitude of the resultant gravitational field
strength 'G', at a distance of 'r', is given by the formula -
𝐺𝑀
E=
𝑟2

ESCAPE VELOCITY
 The minimum velocity required to escape an object from the gravitational field on the
earth is called Escape Velocity.
 The minimum velocity with which if a thing is thrown in space, it never comes back
into the gravitational field of earth.
 Earth’s Escape velocity = 11.2 Km/Sec.
2𝐺𝑀
Ve = √ 𝑟

 Escape velocity depends on the mass and radius of the celestial body.
 Escape velocity plays an important role in presence and absence of atmosphere around
any planet or satellite.
 Moon’s escape velocity = 2.4 Km/Sec
 Thatswhy atmosphere is absent on moon.
 Average velocity of Hydrogen = 2.6 Km/sec
Orbital velocity of the satellite :-
 The orbital velocity is a required velocity for a satellite to revolve on its orbit.

 The value of orbital velocity does not depend on the mass of satellite
 The value of orbital velocity depends on height between earth and satellite.

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Pressure
 The amount of force applied perpendicularly on the surface of an object per unit area.
Force (F)
P=
Area (A)
Unit = Pascal [N/M2]
 It is a scalar quantity
1
Area 
Pressure

Example
• To increase the pressure, the end of screw is sharpenes
• It is advisable to stay still to avoid drowning into mudpad.
Atmospheric Pressure
 The pressure applied on our body due to presence of air, dust particles and water
vapour is called Atmospheric Pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure is measured by Barometer.
 Pressure due to atmosphere is 760 mm of Hg.
Altimeter :- Instrument used for measuring height from oceanic surface uses atmospheric
pressurs.
Effect of pressure on metting point and Boiling point :-
 Generally on increasing pressure melting point reduces and boiling point increases.
(i) For those substance which contracts on melting, their melting, point decreases by
increasing pressure.
Volume in liquid phase < volume in solid phase → Melting Point 

(ii) For those substance which is extends while heating, their melting point increases
by increasing pressure.

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(iii) Boiling point always increases on increasing pressure.

 Food gets prepared very early in pressure cooker because of increase in boiling point.
 Food takes time in getting prepared at height due to less atmospheric pressure.
Upthrust Force :-
 When an object is dipped in the liquid two forces applies or that object.

 One pulls it downward and other push it upward.

Archimedes Principle :-
 When a thing is partially or completely immersed into a liquid then deficiency in its
weight is experienced. This deficiency is equal to weight of the displaced water
buoyancy force.
W2 = Weight displaced by liquid
W1 > W2 = Object will submerged.
W1 < W2 = Object will float.
Object will less weight then liquid will float.

Note :- An object which has less density than liquid floats on surface of water.
Q. What is weight lessness?

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Sound waves & Electromegnetic Waves

Waves :-
 Waves is a disturbance which travels/moves without changing original medium.
 Energy/momentum is transmitted from one place to another place through wave.
 They are of 2 types –
(i) Mechanical waves
(ii) Non – Mechanical waves
1. Mechanical Waves :-
 Waves which requires medium for their propogation.
Eg :- String waves, Sound waves
 Mechanical waves are of 2 types -
(A) Transverse (B) Longitudinal
(A) Transverse Waves
1. Those waves in which direction of vibration of Particles of the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of wave propogation.

2. They are generated in solid and on surface of liquid medium (not inside it).
3. Energy is transmitted in the from of crest and trough.
Ex. – String woves
Waves generated on surface of water.

(B) Longitudinal Waves

1. Those waves in which direction of oscilation of particles of medium is along to the
direction of wave progpagation.
2. They can be generated in solid, liquid and gas.
3. Energy is transmitted in the form of rarefraction and compression.
Ex. - Sound Waves, Earth Waves

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2. Non Mechanical Waves :-

 Those waves which do not require medium for their propogation are called non-
mechanical or electro magnetic waves.
 These waves can travel in vaccum
 They are transverse waves in nature
 Direction of wave propogation, electric field and magnetic field are perpendicular to
each other.
 Their velocity is equal to velocity of light (3×108 m/s)

Vocabulary
1. Amplitude :- Maximum displacement of the particle in a the medium from mean
position is called Amplitude (A)

2. Frequency – The number of oscillation executed by the particles of the medium in one
second is called frequency (f)
Unit = Hz (Hertz)
3. Time Period – Time taken by the particles of the medium to execute one oscillation
during wave propagation is called Time period. (T)
f = 1/T
4. Wave length – During wave propogation distance between two consecutive
crest/trough is called wavelength ()
Distance travel by the wave in one time period.

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5. Wave speed – Distance travelled by wave in unit time is called wave speed (VC)
V= f× f = Frequency
 = Wave length

Electromagnetic Waves
Characteristics:-
1. EMW are chargeless therefore they do not deviate in electric and magnetic field.
2. EMW are non-mechanical waves therefore, medium is not require for their
propogation.
3. They can travel in vaccum.
4. They are transverse waves in nature therefore they can be polarized.
5. In EMW, Electric field, magnetic field and wave's propogation are perpendicular to
each other.

6. Their velocity is equal to velocity of light (3×108 m/s)

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Types of EMW :-
Gamma x-ray U.V. rays Visible Infra-red Micro Radio
10-14 m 10-11 m 10-9 m 10-6 m 106 m 10-3 m 0.1/1 m

3.9×10-7 m 7.8 × 10-7 m

VIBGYOR

Wavelength 

Frequency  Energy 

A. Gamma Waves
Discovered by = Paul Villard
Wave length = 10-14 m to 10-11 m
Frequency = 1020 HZ to 1019 HZ/greater than 1019 Hz.
Source = Decay of radioactive nuclei from a Nuclear reaction.
Uses :- (i) They are used for treatment of cancer.
(ii) To identify specific elements.
(iii) They are used to produce nuclear reaction.
Note :- Their penetration capacity energy and frequency are high due to less wavelength.
B. X – ray
Discovered by = Wilhelm Roentgen
Wavelength = 10-11m to 10-8m
Frequency = 1019Hz to 1017 Hz
Source – By bombarding high energy electrons on metal.
Uses – (i) Used in medical field for diagnosis.
(ii) Cancer treatment
(iii) Detection of interstellar gas clouds.
C. U.V. rays –
Discovered by = Johann Ritter
Wavelength = 10-8m to 10-7m/1nm to 400nm
Frequency = 1017 Hz to 1015 Hz
Source – Bodies which emit heat like the sun.
Uses :-
(i) In destroying bacteria in surgical instrument.
(ii) Water purifiers
(iii) Photo electric effect
(iv) Producing electric discharge
(v) In burgler alarm
(vi) Used in fluorescent tubes
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(vii) Eye surgery – LASIK

(viii) Study of hot stars.
D. Visible light
Discovered by = Newton
Wave length = 3.9×10-7 m to 7.8×10-7m/400nm to 700nm
Frequency = 7.5×1014 Hz to 4.3×1014 Hz
Source – Objects emitting or reflecting visible rays.

Uses – Object become visible due to it

Use in laser
VIBGYOR
Wavelength ()

Frequency (F)
Energy (E )

E. Infra red
Discovered by = Hurssel
Wavelength = 7.8×10-7m to 10-3 m/700 nm to 1mm
Frequency = 1014 Hz to 1012 Hz
Source = Objects with temp upto 3000 K emit their intense radiation in form of
infrared waves.
Uses –
(i) Used in photography
(ii) Data transmission
(iii) Remote sensing
(iv) Use in physio therapy to treat muscular strain
(v) Use in solar water heater
(vi) Solar cooker
(vii) Use weather forecasting
(viii) Fires, radiators
(ix) Maintain earth’s warm
(x) Infrared detectors

F. Micro Wave
Discovered by = Hertz
Wavelength = 10-3 m to 1m/1nm to 1 m
Frequency = 1011 Hz to 108 Hz
Source – Special vaccum tubes
(Oscillating circuits)

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Uses –
(i) T.V.
(ii) Mobile
(iii) Wireless Broadband Communication
(iv) Cooking purpose in microwave oven heating water molecule
(v) Used in Radar system of aircraft navigation.
(vi) Measure the speed of vehicle or speed of cricket ball.

RADAR
Radio Detection and Ranging
Inventor = Young and Taylor
Principle = Reflection
Uses →
(i) For aircraft navigation
(ii) To measure speed of vehicle

Micro wave frequency bands

(a) S Band – 2 to 4 GHz
(b) C Band – 4 to 8 GHz
(c) Ku Band – 12 to 18 GHz
Uses of S Band – ATM, Banking, sharemarket
Uses of C Band – T.V. Internet, Mobile
Uses of Ku Band – DTH, HD Video
G. Radio Wave
Inventor = Marconi
Wavelength = 1 to 104m/greater than 1m.
Frequency = less than 109 Hz
Source – Accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires
Uses :- (i) Mobile (ii) NMR & MRI (iii) Radio (iv) RADAR (v) T.V.

Sound Waves
 Sound waves are mechanical waves which required medium for propogation.
 They are longitudinal waves. Therefore they can travel in solid, liquid and gas.
 They are generated due to vibration in an object.
 Types of sound waves on the basis of frequency.
(i) Infrasonic sound waves
(ii) Sonic sound waves
(iii) Ultrasonic sound waves

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Physics Notes

Infrasonic Sonic Ultrasonic

Frequency < 20 Hz F between 20 Hz to 20 KHz F > 20,000 Hz
Not audible to human but Human audible Not audible to Human but
can herd by Rhinos, elephant, audible to Dolphin, Bat etc
etc.
Generated with earthequake

Ultrasonic Waves
 Ultrasonic waves generated by Galton for the first time.
 They are generated by flowing electricity through different crystals like quartz, lead-
zirconate

Use of Ultrasonic sound waves :-

1. In medical field – Sonography
2. Sonar system in ships to measure depth of ocean and identify icebergs.
3. To reduce fog in atmosphere so aircraft can land easily/safely.
4. To destroy bacteria.
5. Used by bat during night roaming.
6. Cleaning – expensive clothes, watches & machines
7. Dogs training (Galton whistle)

Speed of Sound
 It is a mechanical wave – needs medium to propogate.
 Sound has different speed in different mediums.

𝐸
V= E = elasticity
𝐷
D= density

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Physics Notes

Factors which affects the speed of sound –

1. Elasticity – Speed of sound increases with increasing elasticity.
• Elasticity of - solid > liquid > gas
• Solid has maximum elasticity and gas has minimum elasticity.
V voccum = 0

2. Density – As we increase the density, speed of sound decreases.

1
V V Wet air > V dry air
√𝑑

•
Speed of sound in low density wet air is greater than speed of sound in high
density dry air. That’s why we can hear from far in rainy seasion
Density of Wet air < Density of Dry air
3. Temperature – Speed of sound increases with increase in temperature.
V  √T 1º C = 0.6 m/s
4. Pressure – There is no effect of pressure on speed of sound.
5. Wind – Due to wind blowing speed, the sound either increases or decreases.
Characteristics of Speed
(A) Intensity :-
• That characteristic of sound which is used to identify slow or fast sound.
• Speed of sound depends on amplitude of sound.
I  A2
• Intensity of sound increases with increases in amplitude.
• Intensity of sound decreases with increase in distance.
1
I 
𝑟2
• It is measured in decibel (dB).
• Sound reading meter is used for this purpose.
I
Loudness = 10 log10
I0

I = Intensity of sound
𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑡
I0 = 10-12 𝑚2
• Whisper = 15 to 20 db
• Normal Talk = 30 to 60 db
• According to WHO
• Ear pain = 120 db
• Tearing of eardrum = 160 db
• Missile launch = 170 db

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Physics Notes

• Rocket launch = 200 db

(B) Pitch
• That characteristic of sound which is used to identify shrill or grave sound.
• Pitch depends on the frequency of sound.
• Pitch increases with increase in frequency.
• Women → Frequency → Pitch  → shrill sound
• Men → Frequency  → Pitch  → Grave sound
(C) Quality :- Sound of similar amptitude and frequency are distinguished on the basis of
quality.
Reflection of Sound Waves
 When the sound waves returned back after colliding the surface of another medium
then this phenomenon is called Reflection of Sound.
 For reflection of sound large reflective surface is needed as it has higher wave length.
Echo
 Multiple sounds which are heard after the reflection of sound are called Echo.
Conditions for Echo -
1. Time difference between original sound and reflected sound should be atleast 0.1 Sec.
(Our ear are not able to distinguish among sound coming during 0.1 sec reflecting)
2. Distance between source/listener and reflected surface should be atleast 17 m.
3. Reflective surface should be big/large.
Refraction of sound waves
 When sound waves travel from one medium to another medium its get deflected from
its path. This phenomenon is called Refraction of Sound.

 When sound waves travel from denser medium to rarer medium then it moves away
from the normal.
 When sound waves travel from rarer medium to denser medium then it bends toward
the normal.
 Because of refraction sound is heard to large distance in night as compared to day.

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Physics Notes

Interference of Sound
 When two sound waves of equal amplitude and frequency meet at a point then sound
energy gets redistributed at that point. This is called Interference of sound.
 They are of two types -
1. Constructive Interference – When two sound waves of similar amplitude and
frequency meet in same phase at a point then its amplitude get increased and its
intensity is maximum.

2. Destructive Interfrence :- When two sound waves of similar amplitude and

frequency meet in different phase at a point then its amptitude gets decreased and
its intensity is minimum.

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Physics Notes

Example :-
 In Pandal at some places intensity is maximum and some places it is minimum.
 In oceans at some places intensity of sound is minimum that’s why silent zone are
constructed.
 In radio at some places intensity of sound is maximum and at some places intensity of
sound is minimum.
Resonance
 When a body is freely oscillating/vibrating and an external force is imposed with equal
frequency then amplitude of oscillation gets increased. This phenomenon is called
Resonance.
 Sound waves can generate in freely vibrating body/object.
Example:-
 Radio works on the principle of resonance.
 Army personnel’s are not advised to have similar steps while walking on a bridge
 Pracking of glass due to tansen’s singing.
Dophler’s effect :-
 When there is a relative motion between source and listener then frequency of sound
appears to be changing this effect is called Doppler’s effect.

 If distance is reducing then frequency gets increased and when distance is increased
then frequency get reduced.
Eg .-
1. Radar decides velocity of aircraft on the basis of Doppler effect.

• In laboratory, if light received from a star is displacing towards violet color then
that star is moving towards earth.
• If light received from a star is getting displaced towards red shift/color then that
star is moving away from the earth.
• Doppler Effect is also seen in light waves.

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Physics Notes

Mach Number :-
 Ratio of speed of object and speed of sound is called mach number.
Speed of Object
 Mach Number =
Speed of sound
 Mach number <1 → Subsonic
 Mach number > 1 → Super sonic
Defraction of sound
 Quality of sound because of which sound gets diverted in different direction after
colliding at edges of an obstacle.
Eg. – Person sitting in room can listens sound of moving trains.

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Physics Notes

Light

 Light is that external factor which makes things visible to us.

Nature of Light :-
 Some properties of light like reflection, refraction, interference, etc are explained on the
basis of wave theory.
 While some properties like photoelectric effect are explaine by a corpuscular
phenomenon. (Newton)
 At present the dual nature of light (Both as a wave and a particle) acceptable.
Speed of light
 Light is an electromagnetic wave. That’s why its speed is maximum in vaccum (3×108
m/s)
 Speed of light changes according to the medium.
 Speed of light depends on the refractive index of the medium.
Speed of light in Vaccum
 Refractive Index () =
Speed of light in Medium
V Vaccum > V Gas > V liquid > V Solid
V Vaccum = 3×108 m/s
V Gas = 0.03
V Liquid = 2.25×108 m/s (water)
V Solid = 2×108 m/s (glass)
Reflection of Light

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Physics Notes

 When light ray returns back to the same medium after striking a surface then this
phenomenon is called Reflaction of light.
 It is of two types –

When incident ray returns into a When incident ray does not return
definite direction after striking the into a definite direction after
plane surface then it is called Regular striking the rough surface then it is
Reflection. called Irregular Reflection

Law of Reflection
 Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lay on the same plane.
 Angle of incident (i) and angle of reflection (r) are equal
i = r
Eg – Mirror works on the principle of reflection

Refraction of Light :-

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Physics Notes

 When light ray travels from one transparent medium to another then light ray gets
deflected from its linear path these phenomena is called Refraction of light.
When light ray travel from a rarer When light ray travel from denser
medium to denser medium then it medium to rarer medium then it
leans towards the normal leans away from the normal

 Refraction happens due to different speed of light in different medium.

 Speed, intensity and wavelength of the light get changed due to refraction but not its
frequency (constant).
Law of Refraction
1. Incident ray refracted ray and normal all lie in same plane.
2. 1 Sin i = 2 Sin r
sin 𝑖 2
= 1 (constant) → snell’s law
sin 𝑟
 Light ray does not deflect from its path when it comes along side with normal.

Normal

Example
(i) Twinkling of stars
(ii) A straight rod partially imergered in water seems to be bent.
(iii) The coin kept at the bottom of the container filled with water appears uplifted.
(iv) The sun is visible about 2 minutes before the sun rises and about 2 minutes after
sunset.

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Physics Notes

Total Internal Reflection

 When light ray travel from denser medium to rarer medium then refracted ray moves
away from the normal.
 As we increases incident angle, angle of refraction also get increased.
 At certain incident angle, angle of refraction becomes 90° this incident angle is called
critical angle.
 Angle more than critical angle then instead of moving into other medium light ray
reflects completely back, this phenomenon is called Total Internal Reflection.
Conditions for TIR
 Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
 Angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle. (i > c)
Example :-
1. Critical angle of diamond is 24°
TTR happens more in diamond and it causes more shining in diamond.
2. Crack part of glass appears to be shining.
3. Mirage formed in desert during summer.
4. Optical fibre.
Dispersion of Light
 When light ray passes through a prism it splits into 7 colours.
 This group of seven colours is called Spectrum and this activity is called Dispersion of
light.

 Formation of rainbow is its example

 Raindrops works like prism in this incidence.

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Physics Notes

Rainbow

1. Primary Rainbow 2. Secondary Rainbow

A rainbow in which the effective rays are A secondary rainbow is outside of a

refracted on entering each drop, reflected primary rainbow and develops when
from its interior surface and refracted light entering a raindrop undergoes two
again on emerging to pass to the internal reflections as happens with
observer’s eye. primary rainbow.

Scattering of light
 When light ray enters into the atmosphere, it gets Scattered by coalliding micro
particles like dust particle, water vapous etc. this phenomenon is called Scattering of
light.

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Physics Notes

Wavelength of scattered light wave is Wavelength of scattered light wave is

equal to the wavelength of original light greater than wavelength of original light
wave. wave.

• Because some part of energy is

absorbed by the particle

Example
1. Blue colour of the sky.
2. Space looks black where atmosphere is absent.
3. Red colour of sun during sunrise and senset.
4. The stop signal in road light is red.
5. Blue colour of the ocean.

Interference of light (Explained by young)

 When two waves of some amplitude and frequency meet at a point then at some point
intensity get increased and some other point it get decreased. This phenomend is called
Interference of light.
 If two waves meet in same phase then its intensity get increased and if meet in opposite
phase then its intensity get decreased.
Example
(i) Kerosene oil spread on water surface appears in descent colour.
(ii) Soap bubbles in sunlight appears having brilliant colour.
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Physics Notes

Polarisation

 When electric field vibrates in all direction perpendicular to direction of wave

propogation then such light is said non-polarised light.
 If electric field vibrates in a single direction perpendicular to direction of wave
propogation then such light is sai polarized light.
 Polariod is used to reduce the blindness/dozzle of light.
Uses of Polaroid
(i) Used in vehicle headlight
(ii) Used in wind screens
(iii) Used in 3-D glasses.
MIRROR
 When one surface of the glass is coated with thin layer of (Zn O) Zinc Oxide, Silver
(Ag), Mercury (Hg) then that glass is called Mirror.

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Physics Notes

(A) Plane Mirror

1. Virtual
2. Upright
3. Some distance
4. Same size
5. Laterally inverted
 The reflective surface of the plane mirror is plane
 For light rays striking a plane mirror, the angle of reflection equals to the angle of
incidence.
 The image formed by plane mirror is always virtual (meaning that the light rays do not
actually come from the image) upright and of the same shape and size as the object it is
reflecting.
 For looking the full image of an individual the size of the plane mirror should be at
least half of the person.
H
h≥
2
 If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle  then total number of
images mode between two mirrors
360 360
 No. of images = − 1, If 
= Even no


360 360
 No. of images = , if = Odd no
 
 Number of images depend on angle 
Uses of Plane Mirror :-
1. Mirror used in houses
2. Kaleidoscope
3. Periscope – during war time military uses periscope to detect the enemies. (In
submarine)

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Physics Notes

(B) Spherical Mirror

• The reflective surface is spherical
• It has two types

1. Concave Mirror

• Spherical surface in which outer layer is coated and reflection takes place from
inner surface.
• It is converging mirror because it converge all light rays coming from infinity at
focus point after reflection.

Position of Obj. Position of Image Features

1. At  Focus Point
2. Between  and C Between F and C Real & inverted, small
3. At Centre At Centre Real Inverted, same size
4. At Focus Infinity () Real, Inverted, large
5. Between F and C Behind the mirror Virtual, upright, large

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Physics Notes

Uses
(i) Head light in vehicles and search light.
(ii) ENT doctors use it to get large image of ears, nose, throat etc.
(iii) In solar cooker to converge light
(iv) During shaving
2. Convex Mirror

 Spherical surface in which inner surface is coated and in outer surface reflection takes
place.
 Convex mirror is known as diverging mirror because it diverge all the light rays
coming from inflinty after reflection.

Uses
1. Side mirror/ rear view mirror in motor car, trucks etc.
2. To spread light from road light.

LENS
 Spherical surface which provide medium for refraction of light is called lens.
 Lenses are made of glass and plastic.
 Lenses are used in microscope.

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Physics Notes

Convex lens are converging lens It is diverging lens because it diverge

because it converge all the light ray all the ray coming from infinity after
coming from infinity to focus point refraction .
after refraction.
Image :-
Image :- 1. Real 2. Inverted 1. Virtual 2. Upright

Power of Lens
 Capacity of bend light rays is called power of lens.
 Power of the lens is inversily proportional to focal length.
1
P=
f (Meter)
 Its unit is Dioptre (D)
 Power of convex lens is positive while power of concave lens is negative.

Eg. 1. P = 2.5 D
2. F = 20 cm F=?
P=? P=
1
1 𝑓
P= 1
f P 2.5 =
20 𝑓
P=1/ 10
100
10
F=
25
P=
2
P=5D F = 0.4 m = 40 cm
F = 2.5 cm

Mirror Formula
1 1 1 V = distance of image from mirror
+ =
𝑉  𝑓  = distance of object from mirror
F = Focal Length
Lens Formula
1 1 1
− =
𝑉  𝑓

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Physics Notes

Static & Current Electricity

 Charge = When two bodies are rubbed against each other them become charged
because of this, attraction or repelsion takes place between them.
 These properties occur due to charge
or
It is a property of any object/particle due to which they experience or produce electric
field or magnetic field.
 Unit of charge – Coulomb (c)
 Charge on electron = -1.6×10-19 C
 Charge on proton = +1.6×10-19C
Charge

Positive charge Negative charge

1. Those substances which donate 1. Those substances which receive
electron are called positivily electron are called negativily
charged. charged.
2. Effiency of proton, 2. Efficiency of elctron.
3. Deficiency of electron (P>E) 3. Defficieng of proton (E>P)
4. They are called Donor 4. They are called receivers.

Types of Material on the basis of flow of charge

1. Conductor
Those substance in which charge can flow easily
Ex :- 1. Graphite, (Non-Metal)
2. Metals – Silver > Copper > Gold > Aluminium
3. Human Body
4. Acidic water

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Physics Notes

2. Insulator
 Those substances in which charge cannot flow easily.
Eg :- Glass, Wood, Rubber, Plastic, Diamond, Distilled water

3. Semi – Conductor
 Those substances which have properties of both conductor and insulator.
Eg . – Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
 On increase the temperature, conductivity of semi conductor also gets increased.
(Temp → Conductivity )
 Conductivity of the semi-conductor increases by adding impurities.

Electric Current

 Rate of flow of charge in an electric circuit is called electric current.

 Direction of electric current and direction of flow of positive charge are same.
 Direction of flow of negative charge & direction of electric current are opposite.
 Unit of electric charge – Ampere (A)
 It is a scalar quantity
 It is measured by Ammeter.
Ampere – If the 6.25×1018 electrons pass through a cross section cut of conductor per
second than called 1 ampere current flow.
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Physics Notes

Electric Current

1. If the direction of electric current 1. If the direction of electric current

always remains same then such changes at regular interval in a
current is called Direct Current. circuit then such current is called
Alternating Current.

 Discovered by Edison  Discovered by Tesla

 Example = Daniel cell, Dry cell  Eg = Household Power supply

 In India (Power supply)

Frequency = 50 Hz
Voltage = 220 V
Electric current (5 Amp., 15 Amp.)

Electric Potential: - Work done to bring a unit charge from infinity to a point in electric field
by an external agent.
 Unit – Volt
 It is a scalar quantity
 Measured by – Voltmeter
Potential Difference :- Work done to move a positive charge from one point to another in an
electric field is called potential difference.
 Unit = Volt
 It is a scalar q uantity
 Measured by = Voltmeter
Electromotive Force :- Force required for flow of electric current through a circuit.
 It is supplied by battery or generator .
Battery/Electric Cell :- Device in which chemical energy changes into electric energy
through various chemical reactions. They are called Cell or Battery.

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Physics Notes

Battery

Primary Battery Secondary Battery

 They are not rechargeable  They are rechargeable

 Chemical energy changes into  Chemical energy changes into
electrical energy but electrical electrical energy and electrical
energy does not change in energy also changes in chemical
chemical energy. energy.
Eg :- Dry cell, Daniel cell Eg – Lithium battery, Aluminium
battery, battaries used in E.V.

Resistance (R)
 Obstructions in flow of electricity called Resistance.
 During flow of electricity free electrons collide with different atoms and other electrons
which create obstruction in flow of the current.

Factors which affect resistance:-

1. Resistivity () : - The value of resistance increases with increase in resistivity.
2. Length (L) :- The value of resistance increases with increase in length
3. Cross section Area (A) :- The value of resistance increases with decrease in cross section
area.
4. Temperature (T) :- The value of resistance increases with increase in temperature
L
R=
A

Ohm’s Law
 At constant temperature potential difference across conductor's resistance is directly
proportional to the electric current flowing through an electric circuit.

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Physics Notes

Combination of Resistance
Series combination

 In a electric circuit resistance are connected in such a way that all component of
resistance are places one after another.
 Equal amount of current of flow through all resistance ammeter and fuse wire are
placed in series combination in our house.
 Resultant resistance in this arrangement is sum of all resistance.
Req. = R1+R2+R3+………………………………

Parallel Combination

1 1 1 1
= + +
Req R1 R2 R3
 In an electric circuit, resistance is connected in such a way they are attached to same
point.
 Potential difference at each resistance is same.
 Voltmeter and all requipment in our household are in parallel combination.
 Resultant resistance in this arrangement is less than minimum resistance
Electric Power
 Work done per unit time is called power.
 Rate of loss of electric energy in the electric circuit is called electric power.
P = V×I
V = Voltage
P = I2 R
I = Current
𝑉2
P= P = Power
𝑅
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Physics Notes

 Unit = Watt
 It is a scalar quantity
 In our pousehold energy expenses are measured in units
 1 Unit = Kilo Watt × hour
 1 Horse Power = 746 W
Power (Watt)×Time (hr)×Day
 Unit =
1000

Q. 40 Watt’s 10 tube lights are switched on for 5 hrs per day. Calculate energy expenses in a
month.
40×5×30
= 2×3
1000

Unit = 6
10 Tube Light = 6×10 = 60 Unit

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Physics Notes

Static Electricity
 The electricity in which the charges remain at rest on the surface of the substance is
called the static electricity.
 The static electricity generates due to rubbing the two static objects.
 Every object made of tiny particles called atoms. The atoms consist the nucleus and free
electrons.
 Generally the nucleus has an equal number of protons and neutrons. The elecrons of
the atom move across their orbit.
 The static electricity generates due to potential difference between two static objects.
Eg. (i) Lighting
(ii) When we rubbed the balloon on hair, negative charge transfer in the hair and
Positive charge transfer in the balloon.

Coulomb’s Law
 The magnitude of the electric force acting between two charge particles is directly
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of
distance between them.

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Physics Notes

Difference between static & Current Electricity

Basis of Comparison Static Electricity Current Electricity
Definition The electricity in which the charges Rate of flow of charge in an
remains at rest on the surface of the electric circuit.
substance
Causes It induces because of the movement The current electricity is
of the negative charges from one induced because of the
object to another movement of the electrons
Material Develops in both conductor & Develps only in conductor
insulator
Magnetic Field Not induces in magnetic field. It induces in magnetic field.
Time Period Exist for short time Exist for long time
Measuring Device Gold leaf electroscope Analog & Digital meter
Examples Lighting strikes, rubbing of the The current electricity is used
balloons on hair etc. for running the fan, light,
T.V. etc.

Electric Fuse :-
 To prevent damage due to short circuit in an electric circuit electric fuse is used.
 It is connected in series combination.
 In ideal Resistance – high
Melting point - low
 Made from an allay of lead and tin (Pb + Sn)
 Now a day’s miniature circuit breaker (MCB) is used.

Bulb

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Physics Notes

Tubelight

 Inside surface of tubelight is coated with thin layer of fluorescent material .

 Two ends of the tubelight has tungsten wire which is coated by thin layer of barium
oxide.
 When electricity passes through the tungsten wire electrons are emitted which causes
flow of current in the tubelight?
 Because of this electric current mercury vapour inside the tubelight starts emitting U.V.
rays.
 These U.V. rays are absorbed by the fluorescent material and it emits light energy.
 Starter = to provide initial high speed
 Choke = to provde high voltage.

Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)

 It is a kind of tube light which have been given shape of a bulb.
 Fluorescent material and mercury vapour are also used in it.
 It is more compact than tubelight
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 It is a light source based on semi conductor.
 P-n junction diode is used in it.
 It is connected in forward bias.
 Its energy efficiency is more than CFL

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Physics Notes

Transformer
 Transformer is used to increase and decrease the voltage.
 It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

V1 = Input Voltage
V2 = Output voltage
N1 = No. of turns in primary coil
N2 = No. of turns in secondary coil

Transformer

Setp-up Step-down
They increase the voltage They decrease the voltage

Generator
 That device which convert mechanical energy into electric energy.
 It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 There are of two types :-
(i) A.C. generator
(ii) D.C. generator

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Physics Notes

Nuclear Fission & Nuclear Fussion

 Atom :- It is the smallest particle of a substance which does not exists independently
but it participates in chemical reaction is called atom.

 In the middle part of the atom is a small dense nucleus consisting mainly of protons
and neutrons. In the outer part of atom there are electrons.
Electron Proton Neutron
Mass 9.1×10-31 kg 1.67×10-27Kg 1.67×10-27Kg
Charge -1.6×10 C
-19 +1.6×10 C
-19 0
Discovered J.J. Thomson Goldstein & James Chadwick
by Rutherford

 Atomic Numer :- The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called Atomic no.
 Mass Number :- The total number of proton and neutron in the nucleus of an atom is
called its mass number..
A=n+P
Here, A = Atomic Number
n = No. of Neutron
P = No. of Proton
Representation –
A
X = Element
Z Z = Mass no.

P N
Eg = 14C → 6 8
14N → 7 7
16O → 8 8
Nuclear reaction
 Nuclear reaction is a process in which the nucleus of an atom is changed by being split
apart or by merging with the nucleus of another atom.
It is of two types :-
(i) Nuclear fission
(ii) Nuclear fusion

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Physics Notes

Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear fission is such nuclear reaction in which a large/heavy nucleus breaks into
small nuclei & large amount of energy is released.
 Generally in this process, heavey nucleus is bombarded with approprite particle

Fissionable Material-
Those materials in which fission reaction is possible.
 These are of two types
(i) Fissile material
(ii) Fertile material

Fissile Material-

Those materials in which fission reaction start easily.

 Slow neutrons are used for such materials

Example: - Uranium – 233
Uranium – 235
Plutonium – 239
Plutonium - 241

Fertile Material-

Those materials in which fission reaction does’t start easily but if fast newtons are used then
these can be converted into fissile material.
Example: - Uranium – 238
Plutonium-240
Thorium – 232
Chain reaction:-
 When a fissile material is bombarded with neutrons then its nucleus becomes unstable
and breaks into two small nuclei.
At the end of reaction free neutrons are available which again start the reaction & a
chain reaction is started & large amount of heat is relased.

Chain reaction is of two types :-

Uncontrolled Controlled
 When no. of free neutrons are not  When no. of free neutron are controlled.
controlled.
 This is used in atom bomb  This is used for electricity production
and magnetic field.

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Physics Notes

 Controlled chain reaction is of three types :-

(a) Supercritical :- Average free neutrons are more than 1
(b) Critical :- Average free neutrons are equal to 1.
(c) Subcritical :-Average neutrons are less than 1.

Nuclear Fusion
 Nuclear fusion is such a nuclear reaction in which two small nuclei combines to form a
large nucleus & large amount of energy is released.
 This reaction takes place at very high temperature (106 °C)
 Nuclear fusion is source of energy for all stars.
 It has not been possible to control this reaction so far.
 It is used in hydrogen bomb.

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fussion

1. Occurs in large nucleus of heavy elements 1. Occurs with light elements nuclei
2. Large nucleus breaks into small nuclei 2. Two small nuclei combine to form a large
nucleus.
3. It can occur at room temperature 3. Occurs at very high temperature
4. It can be controlled 4. It can’t be controlled
5. Eg. Atom bomb, Nuclear Reactor etc. 5. Eg. – Hydrogen bomb, stars etc.

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Physics Notes

Heat
Temperature
 It is a degree of hotness and coldness. It is a thermal state.
Heat
 It is a form of energy which transfers from higher temperature to lower temperature
when two bodies of different temperature are placed in contact.

A B

100°C 40°C

Heat transfer

 It is a scalar quantity
 Unit – Joule, Calorie
 Heat can be converted into work
1 Calorie = 4.2 Joule
Calorie :- Heat required to raise temperature of 1 gm water by 1°C is called calorie.
International Calorie :- Heat required to raise temperature of 1gm water from 14.5 °C to
15.5°C is called international calorie.
British Thermal Unit :- Heat required to raise temperature of 1 pound water by 1° F is called
1 British thermal unit (BTU)
1 Pound = 453 gm
1 BTU = 252 Calorie
Thermometer
 It is used to measure the temperature.
(1) General thermometer/Mercury Thermometer
Hg (Mercury) is used in this thermometer because –
(a) Mercury is found in liquid from and it expands after heating.
(b) Because of shining nature.
• Freezing point of Hg is (-39°C) and boiling point is 357°C That’s why it’s range is
from -39°C to 357°C.
(2) Alcohol Thermometer
• It is used to measure the lower temperature.
• Generally, ethyl alcohol is used in it.
(3) Gas Thermometer
• It is used to measure the higher temperature.
• H2 gas is used to measure temperature from –200°C to +500°C
• N2 gas is used to measure temperature from +500°C to +1500°C
(4) Platinum resistant thermometer
• Along with rising temperature resistance of the conductor increases.

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Physics Notes

• PRT works on this principle. TR

• Range (–200°C) to +1200°C
• Digital thermometers used these days are based on resistance thermometer.
(5) Pyrometer/Total Radiation thermometer
• Extreme temperatures are measured by it.
• Every physical body emits radiation after being heated.
• These radiations are proportional to the fourth power of temperature of that body.
R  T4 Stefan’s law
• Pyrometer works on this principle.
• The temperature of all stars including the sun is neasured with the help of
pyrometer.
• Minimum temperature for this should be 800° C
Thermal Expansion
 Generally every substance expands after getting heat their volume increased and
density decreases.
 Soil expands after receives heat because of this reason?
(a) Gap is left between railway track lines.
(b) Wires are loosened on electricity poles.
 Liquids also expands after heating but water behaves differently between 0° to 4°C at
4°C water has maximum density and its volume is minimum.

 This behaviour of water is very important in day to day activities.

 Due to this, ice freezes on the surface of lake, pond during winter but on surface.
Because of this aquatic life remains safe.
Transmission of Heat
 There are 3 methods of heat transmission
(1) Conduction
• Method of heat transmission in which heat is transferrerd from one place to
another by vibration of the particles of the substance.
• But these particles do not leave their initial occupied position.
• Transmission of heat in solid takes place by this method.
(2) Convention
• Method of heat transmission in which particles of medium leave their place and
transfer the heat.

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Physics Notes

• In liquid & gases, heat is transmitted through this method.

• In liquid & gases, heat is transmitted through convection currents.

(3) Radiation
• Method of heat transmission in which medium is not required.
• Light energy is transmitted through radiations from one place to another.
• On the basis of conductivity substance are classified in three types
(i) Good Conductor
• Heat is transmitted easily through them.
• Eg. – Metals, Acidic water, Human Body, Diamond
(ii) Bad Conductor
• Only a few amount of heat transfer.
• Eg. – Wood, Fiber, Glass, Rubber, Air
(iii) Thermal Insulator
• Heat is not transmitted by only means
Eg :- Ebonite, Asbestos
Scales of temperature :-
(i) Celsius (°C) :- If the freezing point of water is taken as 0°and boiling point as 100° and
this range is divided in 100 equal parts than each part would make 1° C
(ii) Fahrenheit (°F) :- If the freezing point of water is taken as 32° and boiling point as
212° and this range is divided into 180 equal parts then each part would make 1° F
(iii) Kelvin (K) :- If the freezing point of water is taken as 273K and boiling point as 373K
and this range is divided into 100 equal parts then each part would make 1 K.
Reading can be not negative in this scale.

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Physics Notes

Relation between different scales of temperature

C F−32 K−273
= =
100 180 100
673−273 F−32
1. 68° F → K 3. =
100 180
68 − 32 K − 273
= 400 F−32
180 100
=
100 18
36 K−273
= F = 720 + 32
180 100

K= 20+273 F = 752° F
K = 293 K

200 F−32
2. =
100 180

F = 36+32 = 68 °F

Q. Find the value of temperature at which reading of °F scale & °C scale is same.
x x−32
=
100 180

18x = 10x-320
8x = -320
x = -40

Emission of Heat
 All substances at different temperature emit heat in the form of radiation.
 This emission depends on
(a) Temperature of the substance
(b) Area of the substance
(c) Nature of the substance
 White and smooth surfaced object emits less energy that why cups for tea with light
colours and smooth surface are preferred.
 Black and rough surfaced objects emit more energy.

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Physics Notes

Absorption of Heat

 When heat radiation strike a body then some radiation reflect back and some are
absorbed and some pass through the body.
 Black and rough things absorb more heat
Black Body
 A perfectly black body is one which completely absorbs all radiations.
Eg :- Kajal
Kirchhoff’s Law
 According to it bodies which are good emitters are also good abrobers.
 Black and hard bodies are good emitter as well as good absorber.
Newton’s Law of Cooling
 According to this law the rate of heat loss of any object due to radiation is directly
proportional to the temperation difference between the body and the surroundings.
dH
 (T − T0) T = Temp. of the surrounding
dt
T0 = Temp. of the Object
 A body temperature falls from 80° to 70° C in less time compared to fall from 60° C to
50° C
80° 60°
t1 t2
70° 50° t1 < t2

Specific Heat
 The amount of heat required to raise temperature of 1gm of a substance by 1°C is called
specific heat of that body.

Q
S= Q = required heat
m∆T
m = mass of the object
 T = Change in temperature
 Water has maximum specifc heat which is 1 calorie.
Calorie
 Unit =
gm.°C
 It is a scalar quantity
 Mercury has minimum specific heat.
 Soil’s specific heat is less than water that’s why soil gets easily heated and cooled.

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Physics Notes

Latent Heat
 At a certain temperature heat required by a body to change its state is called Latent
heat.
Q
L= Q = Required heat
m
M = Mass
Calorie
 Unit =
gm
 It is a scalar quantity.

Latent Heat of Fusion Latent Heat of Vapourization

At certain temperature (0°c) heat At certain temperature (100°C) heat

required to convert 1 gm solid into required to convert 1 gm liquid into gas
liquid is called latent heat of fusion . is called latent heat of vapourization (540
. For water it is (80 cal/gm) cal/gm). Steam produces more warmth
because of latent heat.

Relative Humidity
 At a given temperature, ratio of water vapour present in a certain volume and total
water vapour needed to saturate air present in that volume is called Relative Humidity.
Water vapour present
Relative Humidity =
Maximum quantity of water vapour
 It is expressed in %.
 Measured by Hygrometer.

See beck effect

 When ends of different 2 metals are connected which
are placed at different different temperature than
electricity passes through the circuit.

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Physics Notes

Magnetism & Electromagnetism

600 BC

Asia Minor (Turkey)

Magnesia → Megnetite (Fe3 O4)

 600 Year before Christ, at a place called magnesia in Asia minor present day turkey,
such stones were found which attracts small pieces of iron that was called magnet.
 These stones are actually oxides of iron called magnetite Fe3O4 which are found in all
regions of the earth.
Magnetism
 Truely hanging magnet always stays along the north-south direction and attracts or
repels other magnets. These properties of magnet are known as magnetism.
Types of Magnet :-
(i) Natural Magnets – They are naturally occurring magnets
Eg :- Magnetite/Magets which are freely found as called magnetism.
Not stronger than artificial magnet.

(ii) Artificial magent :- Magnets which are made from different components of iron
in various shape and size for different uses with the help of artificial process are
called Artificial magnet.
Eg :- Bar Magnet
Horse Shoe Magnet
Magnetic Compass
Electro Magnet (Temporary)
 More powerful

Characteristics of Magnet
1. Magnet has property of attracting metals like Iron, Nickel, Cobalt etc.
2. Magnet has two poles (North pole and South pole)
3. Magnetism is hightest near the poles and it is lowest in the middle
There is no magnetism at the centre of the magnet, so it is called neutral point
4. There is repulsion between same poles and attrction between two opposite poles of the
magnet.
5. When a magnet is broken, each piece of it, becomes a new magnet, which again has two
poles. That means poles of the magnet cannot be separeated.

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Physics Notes

6. Piece of iron also behaves like magnet when it is brought near the powerful magnet’s
electric field.

Use of magnets
1. In the identification of ferrous material.
2. Used in NMR and MRI
3. In the manufacturing of computer memory
4. In the strip of magnetic material on the back of ATM cards and credit card.
5. Magnetic materials are coated on the tapes used in sound recording and playing pre-
recorded sound.
6. Used in magnetic compass.
7. Used to accelerate charged particals.
8. Magnetic materials are used in video tape and photography tape.
Types of magnetic material
 Materials can be divided into three categories on the basis of magnetic
characteristics/tendency-
1. Para MagneticMaterials
 The materials which are not strongly attracted to a magnet.
 Those substances which placed in an external magnetic field, acquire weak magnetism
in the direction of the magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances.
Eg :- Platinum, Aluminium, Sodium, Oxygen, Magnese etc.

Magnetic field

2. Dia – Magentic materials

 The materials which are repelled by a magnet.
 Those materials which placed in an external magnetic field, acquire weak magnetism in
the opposite direction of the field are called dia-magnetic materials.
Eg :- Bismuth, lead, water, gold, silver, nitrogen, diamond etc.
Magnetic field

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Physics Notes

3. Ferromagnetic materials
 The materials which are strongly attracted to a magnet
 Those substances which placed in an external magnetic field, acquire strong magnetism
in the direction of the field are called ferromagnetic material.
Eg. – Cobalt, iron, magnetite etc.

Curie temperature
 The magnetic characteristics of a ferromagnetic material is inversely proportional to its
absolute temperature, this called curie’s law.
c
x= x = kai
t
C = Curie’s constant
T= Temperature

 On increasing the temperature, a point comes at which due to thermal disturbance its
ferromagnetic properts get vanished and the substance turns into a paramagnetic
substance, this temperature is called curie temperature.
 Para
Ferro
T→ Curie Thermal Disturbance Magnetic
Magnetic
Material Material

 The curie temperature for iron is 770°C and for nickel it is 358°C

Magnetic field
 The area around a magnetic in which the effect of magnet can be felt is called the
magnetic field.
 The direction of the magnetic field is determined by the magnetic needle.

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Physics Notes

SI
1 Tesla = 104 Gauss
Units Tesla

Gauss 1 Gauss = 10-4 Tesla

CGS
Induction

Intensity of the Magnetic field/Magnetic Intensity

 When a unit’s length of conductor wire with a unit of electric current (1 Ampere) is
placed perpendicular on a magnetic field than the force acting on the conductor wire
will be the intensity of the magnetic field.

 The amount of force experienced by the imaginary, independent single unit North Pole
of a field at a magnetic point is called the intensity of the magnetic field at that point.

𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
 Unit
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒.𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2

 Magnetic intensity is a vector quantity

Magnetic lines of force

 Magnetic lines of force are imaginary curve in a magnetic filed in which a tanget drawn
at a particular point represents the direction of the magnetic field at that point.

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Physics Notes

 Properties of magnetic lines of force –

1. The magnetic field lines always emerge from the North Pole and end at the South
Pole.
Inside the magnet, the direction of the magnetic lines of force never interest with
each other.
2. Magnetic field lines froms a closed loop.
3. Inside the magnet, the direction of the magnetic lines of forces is from the South Pole
to the North Pole.
4. Magnetic lines of force never intersect with each other.
5. The magnetic lines at the poles are very close to each other at various places that is
why the magnetic field at the poles is strong.
6. If the magnetic field is uniform than the lines of force are parallel to each other and
at equal distance.
1M Uniform magnetic field
1M

1M

7. As the distance between the poles increases, the density of magnetic lines decreases.
8. They all have the same strength.

Electromagnetism
 Electromgnetism is a process where a magnetic field is created by passing the current
in the conductor.
 First time, it was explained by orsted.
Electromagnet
 Electromagnet is a solenoid coil in which magnetism is generated due to electric
current.

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Physics Notes

 It works on the law of magnetic effect of electric current.

 The intensity of the magnetic field produced by an electromagnet depends on -
(i) No of turns in solenoid coil (n) :- It the no of turns is more than the intensity of the
magnetic field will also be high.
(ii) Nature of core material :- If the core is of soft iron then the intensity of the
imagnetic field is high.
(iii) Magnitude of the current (I) :- The greater the magnitude of the current the more
intense is the field.
Solenoid :-
 If the insulated wire is wrapped around a cylindrical hellow tube, it is called solenoid,
the cylindrical tube is called its core.
 It is used in dynamo, transformer, electric bell, telephone etc.
❖ Force on current carrying conductor wire due to magnetic field –

 F = I (L×B)
 F = Force
 I = Current
 L = Length
 B = Intensity of Magnetic Field
 The force acting on conductor wire depends on its length and current passing through
it.
 Conductor wire experience maximum force when it is placed perpendicular to the
magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux ()

 The no. of magnetic lines of force passing perpendicular to a surface in a magnetic field
is called the magnetic flux of that surface.
  = BA Cos   = Angle beween B& A

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Physics Notes

B = Magnetic field
 Unit = Weber (Wb)
 It is a scalar quantity

Electromagnetic Induction
 This phenomena was discovered in 1831 by faraday.
 When the no. of magnetic lines of force of magnetic flux passing through a closed coil
or circuit change, an EMF (electromagnetic force) is produced in the coil.
 Due to this EMF, an electric current flow in the coil.
 This electric current keeps flowing as long as the magnetic flux keeps changing.
 The EMF produce in the coil is called Induced Electromotive Force and electric current
produced in the coil is called Induced Electric Current and this phenomena is called
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
Coil

Magnetic Flux
EMT
Change

EMF
Induced
Current

Faraday’s Experiment

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Result
 The induced current in the coil flow only as long as there is relative motion between
coil and magnet.
 The electric current stops flowing as soon as the magnet is stopped.
 The faster the magnet is moved, the greater is the induced current.
 The strength of the induced electromotive force increase as the number of turns in the
coil increases.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
1. First Law – When the number of magnetic line of force passing through a closed coil
or magnetic flux changes then the induced electromotive force is produced in that coil
it causes flow of induced currents and this current keeps flowing till the number of
magnetic lines keeps changing.
2. Second Law – The amount of induced electromotive force produced in a closed coil is
directly proportional to the rate of change in the magnetic flux.
𝑑
E
𝑑𝑡

Lenz’s Law
 According to this law, the induced current or electromotive force in coil is produced in
such a direction that it can oppose the cause which produced itself
−𝑑
E= 𝑑𝑡
 Where –ve sign means opposing the producing causes.

Self Induction
 The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction in which the change in current flow in a
coil produces an induced current in the same coil is called self-induction.

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Mutual Induction
 The phenomenon of EMI in which changing the electric current passing in primary coil
produces an induced current in secondary coil. It is called mutual induction.

 The magnetic flux passing through secondary coil is directly proportional to the electric
current flowing in primary coil.
I
 = MI
M = Cofficient of mutual induction
Unit of M = Henry

Eddy Currents
 First time eddy current was discovered by Leon Foucalt.
 When there is change in the value of magnelic flux passing through a metallic
conduclor then the induced current start forming in form of closed loop. This closed
loop induced current looks like eddies, therefore these currents are called Eddy current
or Faco currents.

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Disadvantages of Eddy currents

1. If the core of dynamo and electric motor made of soft iron, then eddy current is
generated in them and because of these an electric energy is lost in the form of heat.
2. To solve this problem instead of making the core of these instruments only from soft
iron it is made by joining thin blades of soft iron.

 This method increases the resistance of core and as the resistance increases the eddy
current decreases.
Applications of Eddy Currents :-
1. Electromagnetic damping
2. Induction motor
3. Speedometer
4. Energy meter
5. Electric break: - When the train is required to be stopped a strong magnetic field is
applied to the drum attached to the wheel due to which eddy current is generated in
the drum which opposes the motion of the drum, thus stopping the wheels along with
the drum.
Some definitions related to the magnetic circuit :-
1. Magneto motive force (MMF)
 The work done to bring a unit magnetic pole from one point to another in a magnetic
circuit is equal to magneto-motive force (MMF) between two points.
 MMF is the source of establishing the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
MMF = NI Here, N = No. of turns
I = Current
 Unit = Ampere – Turn (AT)
Reluctance
 Reluctance is that property of magnetic medium which opposes the establishment of
magnetic flux in the magnetic medium.
 It is denoted by S.
MMF
S= 
Permeance
 The inverse of reluctance in a magnetic circuit is called permeance.
 It is analogous to conductivity in an electric circuit.
 It is denoted by P
1  Magnetic Flux
P= = =
s MMF MMF

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Difference between Magnetic circuit & Electric circuit

Magnetic circuit Electric circuit

1. Magnetic motive force cause magnetic 1. EMF causes the flow of current
flux 2. EMF = IR
2. MMF =  × S EMF
𝑀𝑀𝐹 3. Resistance =
3. Raluctance = I

1
1
4. Conductance =
R
4. Permeance =
s
5. Conductivity of the circuit does not
5. Magnetic permeability on a constant depend on the intensity of the current.
temperature depends on the total
magnetic flux 6. The value of current in an electric circuit
becomes zero if the EMF is completely
6. Some magnetic material posses some removed from the circuit.
amount of magnetic field even after
removal of MMF.

Earth’s Magnetism-

 Earth behaves like a big magnet and also has property of attraction; these properties of
earth are known as Earth’s magnetism.
 Earth’s magnetic axis is obtained by joining the north and south pole of imaginary
magnet of the earth’s geographic axis.
 Earth’s magnetic field at a place is expressed by three components
1. Angle of Declination :- The angle between the magnetic meridian and the
geographical meridian at a place is called angle of declination.

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2. Angle of Dip :- The angle made by the earth’s magnetic field with its horizontal
plane at a plane is called angle of dip for that place.
• The angle of dip at poles is 90° and at equator is 0°
3. Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field : The horizontal component (H) of
the entire magnetic field of the earth various place to place but its average value is
considered to be 0.4gauss or 0.4×10-4 Tesla.
Domain Theory
 Domain theory has been given to explain why any substance has the property of
magnetism.
 Domain in a substance is a small local region in which all the magnetic dipoles align
parallel to each other giving rise to certain magnetization within the domain.

 The direction of magnetization within a domain is different from that in the

neighbouring domain; as a result the net magnetization of the specimen as a whole is
almost zero.
 When the substance is magnetized the domain expands in space such that all the dipole
aligns parallel to each other in a single direction.
 Because of this magnetism is produced in substance.
Causes of Magnetism in magnetic material –
1. Every substance is made up of atoms.
• In the middle of atom, nucleus is found and electrons revolve around the nucleus
and spin around its axis.

• Electrons have negative charge. Due to rotational and spinning motion of the
electrons, electrons behave like a magnetic dipole.
• Due to this, election behaves like a micro magnet because of these properties of
magnetism is produced in substance.
• Magnetic field around an atom depends upon the number of unpaird electrons in an
atom.

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Permeability:-
 The conducting property of the matter due to which the density of magnetic lines of
force inside metal is increases or decreases is called magnetic permeability.
 It is denoted by 
B
 =H
Henry
 Unit = Meter
 Fe =  > 1
 Al = <1
Magnetic susceptibility
 The property of a substance that describes how easily the substance acquires magnetic
property.
 It is denoted by x (Kai)
I
 x=H

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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

 NMR is a technique in which the nucleus of an atom is excited under the influence of
an external magnetic field by radio frequency applied to it to produce electromagnetic
effects.
 The nucleus re-emits the radio frequency photon charged on it at a certain frequency
which gives information about its structure.
 Under this technique its structure is determined on the basis of H and Proton present in
an unknown organic mixture.
 Various tyopes of NMR active nuclei are studied by NMR technique such as 1H, 13C,
15N, 19F, 31P.

 Radically active elements :- The atomic number or atomic mass or both, of these
elements are add numbers, due to which their Nuclear spin Quantum No  0 (Not zero)
and the property of nuclear spin is found in them.
Example- 11H, 147N, 136C etc
 Nuclear magnetic resonance can occur only in NMR active elements.
 NMR technique was discovered in 1946 by Feliv Bloch and Edword Purcell.
 The medical use of this technique (MRI) was initiated by Raymond Demedian.
Nuclear Spin
 Negatively charged atom C, which revolvs around the nucleus, also rotates on its axis.
similarly, the nucleus of an atom which is positively charged due to the protons present
in it, also roatates randomly on its axis, it is called (Nuclear Spin) and due to this the
nucleus produces a magnetic effect. Since all protons rotate randomly, they lack
uniformity.
 Alpha Spin State :- On applying an external magnetic field to the nucleus most of the
protons align themselves in the direction of the applied magnetic rotate in the same
direction. That's why this condition is permanent.
 However, even in this situation, some protions organize the opposite direction, but they
require a lot of energy to stay in this opposite direction.
Beta spin state By applying radio frequency energy to the nucleus in the spin state, the protons
rotate 180° on their axis and come into the excited state and get aligned in the direction
opposite to the applied external magnetic effect. This is called beta spin state
 It requires more energy and is a temporary state To come to the opposite state (b state) of the
proton, additional energy (AE) is required. When the energy of the applied radio frequency
reaches that level, it is absorbed by the protons and the protons enter the state. This is the state
of NMR
 Since the beta spin state is temporary, the proton will try to return to the alpha state and re-
emit the absorbed radio frequency energy E at certain Frequencies. These emitted radio waves
give us the beam NMR spectrum of the atom which is studied to determine its structure
 Application-
• NMR technology is widely used in the medical field in the form of MRI.
• Useful for the analysis of chemicals in the industrial sector.

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• It is helpful in analyzing the structural nature of molecules in liquids and solids.

• To determine water fat ratio in food/medicinal material
• Useful in monitoring the flow of corrosive liquids in plants
 NMR & MRI -
• Both these techniques are based on the study of radio Frequency waves emitted by
protons.
• NMR uses the frequency of these waves to collect information, whereas MRI uses the
intensity of these waves to collect information.
• The purpose of NMR (spectroscopy) is to determine the chemical composition of a
substance while the purpose of MR (spectroscopy) is to make detailed images of the
body of organis tissues.
 Magnetic resonance imaging-
• This is a modern technique of radiology in the medical field, through which pictures
of the internal structure and physical functions of the body are obtained.
• This method is a medical application of NMR technique, so magnetic field and radio
waves are used in it. In this, like conventional scanning methods, x-rays or ionizing
radiations are not used, due to which the MRI method is considered relatively safe
Imagery of soft tissues/organs of the body makes it better than other scans
• This technique works on the principle of NMR which requires an NMR active
element. Hydrogen is the best NMR active element which is also found naturally in
abundance in our body in the form of water (10% of the body), fat etc. in MRI scan,
these hydrogen atoms are used to generate NMR effect, hence good images of soft
parts of the body are obtained by MRI and organs like teeth, bones, which do not have
water or fat etc. due to lack of hydrogen atoms, MRI scan is not useful for this.
• Apart from examining internal organs, MRI is also useful in medical research to check
blood flow in the body.
• MRI technique is also useful in obtaining images of Living objects, chemical analysis
in industries etc.
 Procedure :-
• The patient is made to lie down in the empty space in the middle of the machine
• In this, a superconducting magnet is used to generate the external magnetic effect,
which is arranged in the form of a coiled tube in the machine
• This superconductor magnet produces a magnetic effect of 15 tesla in MRI machines
of medical use To maintain the superconductivity of this magnet, it has to be kept
very cold, so it is Kept cold by filling
• Liquid helium on both its sides. Both the layers of liquid helium have a magnet on
one side and on the other side they are covered with a heat-insulating layer. Inside the
layers of magnet and helium there is a layer of magnetic gradient, which works to
focus the applied magnetic field on the particular place to be scanned.

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• Inside the gradient, there is a layer transmitting radio frequency waves, which excites
the NMR protons of the atoms of radioactive elements and takes them from  spin
state to  spin state.
• The proton emits radio waves in order to return from its temporary spin state to the 
spin state. These emitted radio waves vary in their energy, intensity, wavelength etc.
according to the structure of the concerned tissue organ of the body, with the help of
which the image of the internal structure of that part of the body is made, because the
water present in different tissues organs is different. The amount of fat also varies.
That's why their clear pictures are obtained by MRI
• Whenever there is any change in the structure of a tissue, such as the formation of a
lump, the presence of cancer cells, etc, then the waves emitted by the affected part of
the tissue become different from the waves emitted by the healthy part, as a result of
which this deformation occurred in the tissue, it is clearly visible in the image
obtained by MRI.
• A contrast factor gadolinium is used to obtain more clear and high quality images in
MRI.
• Images produced by an MRI scan range from white to black depending on the
amount of fluid present in the tissues. Tissues with abundant water fat content give
better signal (radio wave emission) and their image becomes lighter in color.
• The picture of the parts having swelling/lumps etc. becomes dark. The picture of
teeth, bones etc. is made almost black.
 Benefit
• From this, Layer by layer pictures of internal organs can be obtained.
• Body functions/blood flow etc. can be checked.
• Any type of lump can be detected in the initial stage. Examination of gray and white
matter in the body.
• This technique is more secure as harmful radiations are not used.
• By studying the internal structure of plants, their development can be studied.
 Drawbacks-
• This technology is more expensive.
• Other organs like teeth bones which do not contain water cannot be examined by
MRI.
• Due to the use of strong magnetic force those persons cannot be scanned who has any
device made of metal inside there body like - pacemaker, metal rodbolt for joining
bone, etc.
• Sometimes negative effects of gadolinium on the body are observed.

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