LECTURE NOTE

ON

RESEARCH METHODS

FOR

SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

 MODULE ONE
NATURE AND TYPES OF RSEARCH
Introduction

The concept of research study has been defined in various terms in relation to the sector where
such study is being undertaken. However, research outlines a systematic and logical procedure of
achieving tenable results that can be used to make decisions and also to generalize such decisions
about the population of study irrespective of the location of study, but such result could be
affected with little or no variance in the outcome.

Nature and Meaning of Research

Research has been defined by various writers to suit the circumstances in which it is used.
Literally, the term research means 'to search for'. Research is a systematic investigation of a
particular phenomenon, using a set of procedures, which is embodied in the scientific methods of
presentation. Since research is basically science oriented, it may be applied or carried out in
information setting for societal use. Hence, the characteristics of scientific approach to
conducting research will include:
(a) Logical and systematic presentation of procedures;
(b) Ability to control the variables involved in the studies;
(c) Information or data collected must be empirical that are based on observational facts or
experience alone; and
(d) Critical analogy of the hypothetical assumptions made about the variables that are being
investigated.

Asika (1991) defined research as any organized enquiry that aims at providing information for
solving identified problems. In the same vein, Fagbohungbe (1993) defined research as a quest
for new knowledge pertinent to an identified area of interest or problem through the application of
the scientific approach or process of investigation. In less restricted sense, however, research
refers to an organized investigation of a problem, a systematic approach to its solution or
alleviation of the simple, complex, immediate or long-term problem.

Howard and Sharp (1983) viewed research as 'seeking through methodological processes to add
to one's own body of knowledge and hopefully, to that of others, by the discovery of none-trivial
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facts and insights'. A pertinent question that may be asked however is 'what is the role of research
in science?' According to Renihard (1994), research is the systematic effort to secure answers to
questions. He termed it as a very practical effort to get answers to questions, and it usually
requires examining past inquiry into the issue at stake. On the other hand, Osuagwu (1999)
defined business research as a study conducted or a systematic and objective method of finding
solution to problems relating to the business and the environment.

Thus, business research is seen as a systematic and objective collection, analysis and
interpretation and reporting of data and information for business decision-making. From the
various definitions of research given above, research is simply the process of arriving at
dependable solutions to problems through a planned and systematic procedure which involves
collection of data, analysis and its interpretation. It is the most important tool for advancing
knowledge, for promoting progress and for enabling man to relate more effectively with his
environment, so as to accomplish his purposes and to resolve his conflicts. Research is therefore
directed towards the discovery of the relationship that exists among phenomena of the world in
which we live.

Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to be of service to society;

5. Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about

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new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

Purpose of Research
The purpose of research can be deduced from most of the definitions proffered. This can be
achieved by asking the question, 'why is the need for research?' A brief explanation to the
question is summarized as follows:
a. To quench the curiosity
b. Willingness to solve a problem.
c. Desire to find out the relationships that exist between objects or concepts; that is,
variables.
d. Willingness to reduce the level of uncertainty when plans are being made.
e. Decision or intention to monitor performance after the plans had been put into operation.
f. Helps to make prediction of future events. An individual or organization that can predict
future environmental changes has better chance of survival than one that lacks such
ability.
g. Is concerned with objective description of events in the observable world.
h. Involves a careful collection, organization and articulation of what is already known
about the problems and what is yet to be known.
i. Is a structured process, which follows a systematic order or rule of execution? Such rules
include the procedure for Identifying and defining variables, establishing the plan of
study and relating the data thus collected to the originally stated problem and hypothesis.
j. Is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply vigorous analysis. That is, it
involves a careful statement of how the steps for data collection are followed; the subjects
or objects studied; how the instruments are administered or the observations made and
recorded, and how the data are analyzed.
k. Involves rigorous application of logic and objectivity in the procedures employed in the
data collected and conclusions reached.
l. Is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence; thus rejecting revelation and
dogma as method of establishing knowledge.

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 m. Demands accurate observation and description. To achieve this, the researchers devise or
select valid data gathering instruments and psychometric devices to refine observations,
description and data analysis.

Scientific Method and Social Science Research

As we know that science is any systematic field of study or knowledge gained from it, it is
needless to say that it primarily belongs to the world of natural science where testing and
laboratory experiments are basics for finding and establishing a reliable conclusion.

While science is characterized by tenets like collective and public knowledge, objectivity,
empiricism, systematic and cumulative, predictivity, universality etc., scientific method of
enquiry is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or
correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

Scientific method can also be defined as the principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit
of knowledge involving the recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data
through observation and experiment, the formulation and testing of hypothesis.

Steps of Scientific Enquiry, Method or Process

Having established a connection between science, research and scientific method, it is suffice to
admit that they are intricately interwoven. This is the reason why the term scientific method and
research are mostly used interchangeably. Although steps of scientific method do vary from
discipline to discipline, and to some extent from researcher to researcher the following steps are
usually part of the most formal scientific research as informed by various research traditions;

1. Identification of the problem

2. Define the research problem
3. Formulate hypothesis
4. Review literature (previous studies)
5. Research design (Methodology)
6. Collection of data (Execution)
7. Analyse the data (Test of hypothesis/research question)
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 8. Interpret and report
9. Conclusion
10. Recommendation
Classification and Types of Research
A mere reference to types of research opens a floodgate of confusion. An attempt was made in to
tidy-up the unending list of types of research by classifying them into five groups. Research
according to;

1. Discipline: eg. Medical, behavioural, sciences, humanity and social research

2. Setting: eg. Laboratory, field, internet and library research

3. Purpose: eg. Pure or basic, applied and action research

4. Method: eg. Historical, descriptive, ex-post-facto, philosophical and experimental

research

5. Place: eg. Geographical and space research

Problems of Research in Nigeria

The facilities available to the researcher to assist him or her in carrying out the study successfully
are very limited and expensive. The researchers have to look for funds from different sources to
finance their researches. Soyibo in Anao and Liche (2002) felt that the competition for the
meager resources available from donor agencies imposes very high standards of evaluating the
resulting research proposal.

Apart from funds, other major limitations to research studies in Nigeria include limited
infrastructural resources such as power supply, good roads to facilitate movement, means of
transportation, accessibility to internet facilities for gathering information (which is quite
expensive to maintain). Most researches conducted have some elements of doubt bordering on
inaccurate and incomplete data. A political implication is another problem of research studies in
Nigeria. This manifests by the information made available in the last population census.
Population census is useful to all the tiers of government and private sector for economic growth
and survival.
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For these reasons, tertiary institutions have given their support and assistance towards students
embarking on research in order to expand the frontier of knowledge in relevant disciplines. An
example is the provision of electronic libraries in higher institutions of learning at subsidized
rates and also donation of resource materials to school libraries for students to access information
in various study areas, which may not necessarily be their course of choice.

Although, there are donors who are willing to fund unsolicited research, it is important for the
researcher to identify them. These donors have priorities, largely influenced by macro-political
and economic considerations. The need to identify the preferences and priorities of potential
donors, who might be willing to fund a research project, which can be seen to be of utmost
importance, cannot be over emphasized. Aside from finance and funding of research projects, the
research materials and sources of data available to researchers in the libraries and organizations
as well as private or public institutions go a long way in assisting them.

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 MODULE TWO
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Introduction
A person who has a vision for the future will always seek improvement for self or for a study of
any kind. Thus, the need arises to identify problems from current trend of events in life
development. The individual or researcher senses that something is not right and that the
situation in question needs clarification and explanation. Thus, the need arises for certain search
to be conducted so as to reach logical clarification about the issue in question.

Stating Research Problems

The hint on the individual or researcher's mind may begin to generate some ideas that would be
in conflict with accepted theories or beliefs. The researcher may detect inconsistencies between
his observation and other investigators' observations or probably observes events which he
cannot provide explanation. At this point, the researcher may begin to identify certain facts that
will help solve his problems, which of course, he must have been familiar with to an extent.

These problems, which result from some puzzling and disturbing acts or thoughts, cross his mind
and bother him until he is able to unfold the puzzle. That is, some sort of solution. When this sets
in, he is ready to state a goal or long-term objective. Questions such as, what could be the reason
for this? Does this have any relationship with other fields? What is the influence on the affected
group? and why is the situation this way or that? are raised.

Research, is conducted to find solutions to problems, using scientific procedures. This makes it
impossible for a researcher to carry out any investigation without stating in clear terms what the
problem(s) is or are. Problem identification is an important step in the process of conducting a
research; the researcher must learn to recognize and define a problem. When a problem is
identified and questions relating to the problem are asked, then the solution is at hand. Problems
lead to the generation of questions that might be difficult to investigate. But when a series of
ideas have been gathered together, which aim at providing solutions to such problems, then the
problem is on its way to being solved. For instance, what relationship exists between price of a
commodity and the demand for that commodity? Does the price of a commodity affect the
demand? The answers to these questions can be sought through research study by stating what is
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called hypotheses. There are variables contained in the questions above, these are; price and
demand. This implies that the questions state a scientific problem, which needs to be
investigated. If on the other hand, a question such as that which influences human attitude is
asked, such as, how do we know that the act of terrorism has stopped in Nigeria? Then this
question meets the definition of a problem, which is, the act of terrorism in Nigeria, but it cannot
be easily tested. This is because we do not have concrete fact about the attitude of the citizens of
Nigeria who might want to instigate the act. Thus, it might not follow the scientific procedure
when solving such problem.

Criteria for Selecting a Good Research Problem

A good research problem must fulfill the following conditions:
a) The variables should express a relationship.
b) The problem should be clearly stated.
c) The problem and its statement should indicate the possibilities of empirical testing. It
should distinguish researchable problems from non-researchable problems.
d) The problem must be underscored by ethical consideration such that it impacts positively
on people and society.
e) The problem must be within the scope of competence of the investigator given his current
level of reasoning, skills, availability of materials to be used, the time at his disposal for
research execution and constraint imposed by other environmental contingencies.
f) The problem must not be trivial as to make it insignificant or so broad as to make it
unaccomplishable.
g) The problem should be exciting and interesting; in order to derive satisfaction from one's
effort.
h) The problem must have relevance or value to the area which it is investigating: It must be
worthwhile to life's development both theoretically and practically.

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Sources of Research Problem
Research problem may be instigated by any of the following:
(a) Experience: Daily contacts made with particular situation or from discussion, which brings
about the need for improvement with time. The researcher is more often than not curious about
the present situation and wonders, why they are that way', and 'what better way can there be?'
These kinds of reaction to events can lead to problem identification.

(b) Literature: These include articles from journals, newspapers, reports of researches
conducted for professional studies and texts. Reading literature may stimulate the reader 's
imagination or interest in a topic or it may specify the need for further investigation in some
areas, which may be of interest to the researcher. More so, reading literature helps in language
development, particularly in the area of stating research problems.

(c) Theoretical Sources: Theories are ideas formulated as a result of observed phenomena.
These ideas are subjected to rigorous scientific investigations after which a generalized principle
is made. For instance, if a researcher, while reading through some theories in management
development, suddenly discovers a gap in the knowledge, such theory is passed on for further
investigation. If also an inconsistent statement is discovered, a researcher may find the need to
conduct a designed experiment to prove such inconsistency or bridge such gap.

(d) Contemporary Issues: These constitute current events or happenings within the society.
Technological changes and other forms of innovations may generate problems, thus creating a
need for new ideas, which have to be studied or investigated. For instance, currently, more
graduates are taking the examination of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, even
though they are not graduates of accountancy- why is this so? Another is the recent shift of the
Nigerian government attention to oil and gas sector- why is this so? What effect does this have
on the other sectors? These are contemporary issues that may generate problems, which need to
be studied.
(e) Consultation with Subject Experts: Experts such as professors, doctors of philosophy and
other erudite scholars, whose theses or dissertations had been published, may form sources for
generating research problems. Areas, which are not covered in their studies, may require

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investigation. Also, attending inaugural lectures, seminars, workshops and so on may provide
clues needed for solving a given problem.

Process of Identifying Research Problems

The following steps may assist in the identification and selection of researchable problems:
a) Identify a general problem area: For instance, Revenue Allocation or The Nigeria
Financial Status, these are some general areas of study in accounting that could be
sourced for ideas.
b) Review existing literature: Reviewing literature in these areas so as to determine where
gaps exist in the body of research.
c) Break up the identified area: For instance, the above example can have sub-topics such
as; Federal Revenue Allocation, State Revenue Allocation or Local Government Revenue
Allocation. Any of these can be selected as a research study area if problems are
identified in connection with them. The method of revenue allocation, period of
sustenance and the likes can be further selected for research study.

d) The Internet also serves as good resource centers for searching for problems. It is
fast and enables the researchers to view different perspectives to the intended area of
study.
Determining the Aims and Objectives of Study
When stating a research problem, the researcher must have a reason in mind as to why he wants
to conduct the study. This reason will help him from his aims and objectives, thus, the purpose of
the research is established as soon as the problem is identified. The aim and objectives take
cognizance of the totality of what the investigation is all about, this is recognized as the sole
purpose of the study. For instance, if a researcher wants to study, Influence of Privatization
Policy on the Nigerian Economy. The main purpose or aim is to determine the extent to which
the privatization of some government industries has affected the Nigerian economy. Based on
this aim, further studies such as the following could be developed if:
(a) It has affected the standard of living of the people;
(b) It has improved company performance;
(c) There is regularity in the supply of commodity; and

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 (d) It has lessened or increased the burden of responsibilities on governments’ commitment
thus enabling the government to either focus on other issues affecting the economy or to
monitor the private establishment.

Formulating Research Questions

These are logically derived from the problem statement and the objectives. They affect the nature
of investigation as they cover the entire objectives and more. For instance, using privatization
example, research questions can be generated for a much more refined topic such as; Pre and
Post Privatization in Nigeria; The Effect on the Citizens' Standard of Living and the Economy as
a whole. Research questions such as the following can be generated for the study.
(i) What is the difference in the level of standard of living of the citizens before and after
privatization?
(ii) What is the difference in the supply or distribution of the relevant goods or services
before and after privatization?
(iii) What is the difference- in terms of job-satisfaction between the privatized
establishment and government establishment?
(iv) What is the difference in the level of government's commitment to other sectors of the
economy before and after privatization?

Characteristics of a Good Research Question

i. It must be feasible
ii. Interesting
iii. Novel
iv. Ethical
v. Relevant

Formulating Research Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a statement of logical guess, which reflects the possibility in the occurrence of
an event under investigation. It offers solutions to the research questions; it also tries to establish
a relationship or difference between the variables involved in the investigation. A hypothesis is
subjected to statistical test so as to prove if it will be accepted or rejected. This is based on the
fact that it is in conformity with common occurrence or the form of knowledge in view, at a
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given point in time, using data or information gathered, which are related to the study in view.
The hypothesis tells the researcher exactly what he needs to find out in his study.

Characteristics of a Good Research Hypothesis

A good hypothesis must fulfill the following conditions:
(a) It must have direct bearing on the problems stated.
(b) It should state the relationship or difference between two or more variables.
(c) It should be clearly and unambiguously stated.
(d) It should be testable such that their implications can be deduced.
(e) A guessed solution in a hypothesis should be reasonable such that it does not form an
open conflict with studies that have been confirmed, validated and established.

Types of Hypotheses
Hypotheses are classified according to how they are stated.
i. Directional
ii. Non-directional

The directional research hypothesis on the other hand, shows the nature of the relationship or
difference that exists. For instance, 'The level of standard of living of the citizens improved
after privatization.

The non-directional shows that a relationship or difference exists. For instance, using our
example on privatization, the hypothesis can be stated as: There is no significant difference in
the level of standard Of living of the citizens after privatization. The non-directional
hypotheses are tested with two-tailed test of significance, while the directional-hypotheses are
tested with one-tailed test of significance.

These research hypotheses are stated in declarative form or null or no effect or negative form and
alternate form.

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Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is the part of research that reveals the relevance of the study to the
field in question, (in this case, the relevance of the study to the chosen accounting field of study)
and its relevance to stakeholders within the field as it is meant to provide resource or point of
reference to the study embarked upon by such stakeholders in the industry. It indicates major
challenges that are being studied and identified in such field and tend to proffer solution to the
challenges. This aspect of research study also provides information about undiscovered but
relevant information as related to a study area. It fills the gap of hidden knowledge, which may
not be known to others, but is exposed to the researcher by virtue of the constant involvement in
research studies for the development of knowledge and also to find solution to pending quests
within the industry. In this part, the study indicates how its mission intends to improve the field,
not just proffering knowledge-based study, but also evidence showing that the study can yield
positive results. The following shows the context to be included in the significance of study:
(a) Describe how the study will advance the chosen field.
(b) Point out how the study will fill knowledge gap; show that there are opportunities (of
which you are aware) that will bridge such gaps.
(c) The study should indicate how it will meet other missions as indicated in the field, not
just moving the field forward through knowledge-based study but providing likely
evidence that the study will yield practical results.
(d) Highlight the successes of related grants.

The Scope of Research

Scope is the entire area to be covered when carrying out investigation. This includes the
problems of the study and the population to be sampled. The general problem may be purely
intellectual, that is, it may be based on the desire to know or understand the situation of the
study. The problem can be of applied principles. This is based on the researcher's desire to
understand the problem and solutions so that it can be applied to the field where it is needed. The
problem of sampling from population of study may also be encountered; this can be due to
inadequate finance, areas to be covered, how to reach the population and even the sincerity in
response to the information required.

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 MODULE THREE
RESEARCH VARIABLES
Introduction

The term variables are concept unto which the researcher has ascribed value. It can be a word or
more. Variables are also phenomena or events, concepts or constructs that can be measured and
that can change values e.g. age, gender, marital status.

These are the qualities of events or situations measured during the course of testing a research
hypothesis. The values of one variable can affect or change the values of another variable that
are being compared during an investigation. The qualities of events or situations can either be
quantitative or qualitative. For instance, time, demand, supply, price, income earned and others
such as these, can be referred to as quantitative values, because they are objective or truly
numeric in level of measurement. While social class, productivity, occupational mobility, ego,
strength, attitude, stress, self-esteem, verbal fluency and task orientation are non-numeric
qualitative values, which are subjective in the level of their measurement during the course of an
investigation, they are, nonetheless, based on the individual's opinion of the elements or subjects
involved in the study.

In research, the relationships between the variables are identified using the set hypotheses while
statistical tools of measurement are used to test the relationship of differences between the
variables. For instance, a manufacturer who is interested in increasing productivity of specific
goods will need to produce and supply more of that good while maintaining its quality or even
improving it. This will consequently increase the demand in the market and as such lead to
greater profit.

Types of Variable

There are two major types of variables which are measured in a research study; these are,
dependent variable and independent variable. Other adjoining variables, which are considered
but may or may not be measured in a research study are: control variables, intervening variables
and extraneous variables.

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(a) Independent Variables
These are values that are changed or manipulated in anyway so as to determine their
effect on another variable. For instance, in testing the quality of a brand of product, the
researcher may decide to introduce a particular ingredient in one brand, so as to cause a
change in it, thereby determining its effect on another brand. A typical example is this: if
a researcher decides to test the value of a particular X-ordinary, product in the market, he
may decide to introduce a new ingredient to that product, thus making it now X-extra, but
still retaining the former product. His aim could be to test the effect of the no,' on the
former product, which is X- ordinary. The variable in which the new ingredient is added
is the independent variable.
(b) Dependent Variables
These are values or attributes which are expected to be changed. They form the major
concern of the research, as they are the variables that are being measured and observed
for variation. The change effected in the independent variable is used to
determine the effect-tested on the dependent variable. For instance, in the example above,
the researcher is probably interested in improving the quality of X-ordinary or just
interested in introducing variety into the product. Thus, leading to the manipulated
product- X-extra, so as to determine the level of its acceptability in the market and
thereby checking up the original product to see if the demand for it will be affected or not
and also to improve its quality further.
(c) Control Variable
This is commonly used in experimental research as a neutralizer. It is used to ensure that
the independent variables are not polluted. They, however, moderate the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables. In the example above, the control
variable could be cost of improving production, availability of infra-structural amenities,
such as electric power, water, raw materials and or even the attitude of workers to
change.
(d) Intervening Variables
These are values or attributes that are not part of the study in any way, but which the
researcher is faced with at a certain point. They influence the relationship between the

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 measured variables that is the dependent and independent variables. For instance, in the
example above, the intervening variables could be personal motivation of workers, the re-
occurring labour strike actions or personality clashes.

The variable types mentioned above are often encountered in any given research study.
However, there are other types of variables, which may or may not be manipulated during the
course of study. These sets of values appear in their natural characteristics and the subjects
involved in the study carry them into the study. These variables are; active, attributive,
continuous and categorical variables (extraneous variables).

For active and attributive variables, manipulation is very difficult or even impossible to attain. In
the former (active), the researcher determines the level of independent variable, which each
subject will receive while for the latter (attributive), the level is already determined for each
subject, which thus makes manipulation for attributive values difficult. In a situation where the
researcher is free to select and compare subjects that differ in characteristics of interest,
manipulation can be achieved for attributive values. Thus, attributive variables are the inherent
characteristics of the research subjects.

Continuous variables are capable of taking an ordered set of values within a certain range. These
sets of values are fractional in nature and they assume figures such as 0.00 - [Link]. Categorical
(discrete) variables are nominal in nature and they exist as whole numbers. For instance; sex,
religion, occupation and so on. While sex has two values, male and female, it is referred to as
dichotomous. Religion has more than two values; Christianity, Islam and others. It is referred to
as polyatomic. Other examples of values in this class of variables are; height, weight, anxiety
level, intelligence level, aggression or hostility, beauty and others.

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 MODULE THREE
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Literature review is an aspect of research that is usually set out in the second chapter of a
research report. It, among other things, sets out the theoretical framework of the study. It
provides the current findings and learning in the proposed study which calls for the review of all
the relevant work of renowned authors. The review of related literature should, therefore, be in
an organized and systematic form with appropriate headings and sub-headings, which indicate
the areas (topics), covered for discussion.

This chapter covers the discussion on the historical background of the study, model(s) and/or
theories relevant to the research questions and hypotheses, current literature in relevant variables
and a summary. The introductory part should make a general statement about the status of
research in this area. For instance, it might be an attempt to explain the interest of researchers in
this field as evidenced by recent writings, or an account of the main focus in current research.
Furthermore, the introduction should state how the chapter is organized.

The historical background reveals the meanings, origin and scope of the study or topic of
discussion. It provides background information on the area of research. This part could be
lengthy with sub-parts or divisions being covered.

The theoretical part of the review is based on group of assumptions proposed by various writers,
whereas the empirical part focuses on the research proper, whilst includes the fundamental
principles that are the designed methodology, as well as the major findings and conclusions
made. In this case, the theories and models propounded by various authors are provided and
clearly explained. At the end of the review is a summary of the major findings in the field,
followed by a number of hypotheses derived from the review, where these are necessary and
stated in the preceding chapter.

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Definitions
Literature review can be defined as the critical evaluation of past but relevant works to the
research under study, with a view to identifying areas of convergence and divergence in such
past work (Fagbohungbe, 1993:23).
According to Hassan (1995:43), literature review is an essential step in research activities. It is a
process involving the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing
information relevant to the research problem areas of interest. To do this effectively, some steps
which have proved useful in carrying out a purposeful literature review have to be known. These,
he stated involve, knowing the purpose of the review of literature, kinds and sources of reference
information, for instance, educational index for educational periodicals, dissertation / abstracts,
encyclopedia, journals and books; locating reference materials, making an outline of the theme
and sub- theme. Identifying materials for the review, searching for relevant title and abstract,
locating important primary source documents, abstracting, analyzing each reference material,
taking all the references identified for a sub-heading and analyzing them in terms of their
relationship with one another. Reviewing the reference materials that are general in nature first
and specific ones last.
In conclusion, one should give a brief explanation of the whole review.

Items Dealt With In Literature Review

The following is a checklist to guide the researcher in dealing with literature review:
a) All investigations should call for evidence of reading;
b) The review should include only relevant items;
c) The library should be located and consulted to obtain necessary information;
d) The Researcher should decide exactly what is needed before the literature search is
embarked upon;
e) The Researcher has to select the topic;
f) The terminology should be defined;
g) The parameters are also defined;
h) Sources of information selected should be stated, for instance: library catalogues,
bibliographies, abstracts, indexes and soon;
i) Appropriate materials are located; and
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 j) Do a write-up as the work progresses.
In every research study, literature review plays a prominent role. There is, therefore, the need for
researchers to review relevant and related materials on the subject or topic of investigation. The
review of literature extends the context of the problems by providing additional discussion,
definition and notes on methods. Three basic questions should be answered in this section, as
follows:
 What do we already know or do?
 How does the new research question relate to what we already know or do?
 Why do we wish to select this particular method of investigation?
Before embarking on a study, it is important for the researcher to find out how much he or she
knows about the subject, the amount or extent of work that had been done on it in the past, and
whether it will actually contribute to expand the frontier of knowledge.

The Purpose, Division and Sequence of Literature Review

Purpose: The purpose of literature review is to:
a) Determine what has already been carried out in the past that relates to the problem of the
study.
b) Enable researcher to critically study the findings of other research work.
c) Make it possible to determine the meaning and relationship between variables.
d) Enable researcher to clarify underlying processes.
e) Facilitate interpretations of research findings.
f) Achieve the purpose of replication.
g) Point out research strategies and specific procedures and measuring instruments, which
have or have not been found to be productive in investigating the problem.
h) Help the researchers delimit and define the problem.
i) Find out whether a discovery in one area of social, academic, political or economic life
can be found or generalized in another area.
j) Permit meaningful syntheses of existing work, thus leading one to gain better perspective
of the current study.
k) Find out whether the methodology used in the study or the techniques developed from the
study of one problem may be applied to the investigation of another problem.
20
 l) Help the researchers to identify variables that are important or less important in a given
field of study.

Division: Literature review is usually divided into sections that serve as the researcher's
justification for understanding the study. The order which the review of the relevant quantitative
materials should follow is:
(a) Conceptual definition of the variables or issues of interest.
(b) Problems with identifying, observing or measuring variables or issues.
(c) Explanation of the importance or usefulness of the variables or issues.
(d) Underlying theories that explain the important role or functions of the variables or issues.
(e) The invitation to current or future research.
For qualitative articles and papers, the review of literature includes the following topics:
a) Definition of any key concept presumed in the article.
b) Explanation of underlying theoretical foundation that underlies the methods used to
approach communication and any adaptations the author believes should be made in
applying these systems.
c) Identification and justification for examining the communication domain chosen,
including discussion of the potential value of such a study and other invitations to current
or future research in the area.
d) Background for the communication pattern to be studied, including historical or social
information.

At the end of the literature review, it can be very helpful to provide summaries in the form of
conclusions and priorities for future inquiry especially when researchers have reviewed a fairly
large body of research and thinking related to a subject. The hypotheses can only be stated where
the researcher is clear about the accuracy of the related literature. There must be links between
the literature review and hypotheses.

Strategies: From the above discussion, literature review attempts to tell the reader the essential
things he or she should know about the subject and how far the knowledge is, about the matter.
The strategies for organizing the review are:

21
 a) An introduction that justifies the study of the topic in the field and previews the rest of
the paper.
b) The context of the problem that isolates the role of the concepts in communication
studies. By such methods is meant, quoting authoritative sources that refer to past
research work that calls for new work or arguing directly for a need for this work.
c) The background definition of terms which provide the meanings to technical words,
including problems that researchers have faced when measuring or observing the concept
or variable.
d) The relevant theories reviewed to explain how and why the variable or concept works.
e) The research survey usually is the longest part of the study.
f) A list of the opportunities for future research that gives the significant merit of the
research.
g) A conclusion that summarizes the main points and state a bottom-line conclusion
(Reinard, 1994).

Sequence of Literature Review

Reviewing relevant or related literature is vital to a good research report, which must be done
and written in such a way that both published and unpublished materials that are germane to the
study are adequately covered. Thus, books are to be consulted first, followed by a review of the
journals' newsletters/bulletins/dailies, etc and materials submitted for publications or papers
presented at different for a as well as previous research work.

Basic Steps to Literature Review

The steps involved in the process of carrying out the literature review
a) Defining the Research Problem
The researcher has to identify the research problem by defining it in a clear, exact and
definite manner.
b) Giving an outline of the theme(s) and sub-themes
The researcher has to break the problem into manageable units or he needs to convert the
problem statements into key words or terms that can easily be identified in the subjects
made or preliminary sources. The hypotheses to be tested may be used in this case to

22
 enable the researcher focus on the main variables that constitute the problems. For
instance, there might be need to search for and read secondary sources of information that
relate to the research problem in the library subject catalogue.
Reading the topics relating to the research in the secondary source will enable the
researcher have a swift overview of the materials relating to the research.

The researcher will also take a look at the related topics on the previous work done in the
area so as to provide him with an in- depth knowledge or proper understanding of the
study.
c) Identifying materials for review
Having identified the themes or key words as the topics, the researcher has to seek for the
materials that are relevant to the problem. These will guide him in categorizing the items
under where he can classify the identified references using the variables of the study. The
information from the preliminary sources can be searched for manually as first-hand
investigation. It can also be obtained from the internet by making use of the computer
Information Communication Technology (ICT) e.g. the goggle for browsing. While
reading the materials, the researcher should prepare a bibliography card for each book or
article containing materials relevant to the research.
d) Searching for relevant titles and Abstract
As earlier mentioned, a thorough search for sources of information should comprise three
major categories of documents, namely:
(i) Published articles;
(ii) Unpublished articles; and
(iii) Research Projects.

The specific topics and Abstracts of these previous works that are relevant to one's study
will serve as useful reference materials. Hence, the researcher can obtain these by merely
reading through the index of all titles written between them.
e) Reading and locating primary source documents
The researcher should read primary sources that are related to the research problem. Such
pieces of relevant information that have been read should be outlined as note cards. A

23
 note-card usually contains such information as name of author, title, place
and date of publication of the research. It also contains the statement of the problem,
procedure, findings, conclusion(s) and comments.
As Titles and Abstracts do not provide adequate information on past work, primary
source documents as journals and dissertations will do so, although, such a review may
be time- consuming and costly. Hence, the researcher must choose the most relevant
Articles for further examination. Articles in the journals must therefore be located from
where they appeared and when this is done, the articles should be photocopied so as to
provide ready accessibility to the document. Undoubtedly, journal articles are very rich in
terms of quality conciseness and technicality in any area of interest either for publication
or research work.
f) Abstracting and writing the Report
There is need to provide an Abstract once the researcher has identified the primary source
of references related to the study, using the appropriate indexes, or review(ing) ,
summarizing and classifying one's references into appropriate categories. The process of
abstracting starts by looking for articles or materials that are most recent in an area which
must have gained momentum from past research work that one is yet to identify.
In Hassan (1995) as suggested by Gay (1976) stated as follows:
(i) Read through the summary or abstract of the article to determine the relevance of
the material to your study.
(ii) Skim through the entire article for the main points.
(iii) Use index card to document what you want to attract from the material.
(iv) Your index card or abstract note-sheet should be headed by the full reference of
the material exactly the way it will appear in your final reference list.
(v) Put only one reference on each index card.
(vi) Classify and code the article according to some system of filing (i.e. keeping of
records) such as storing in computer and place the code on the same index card in
a conspicuous place at the upper right of the document.

24
 (vii) On the same index card (immediately after the full bibliographical reference)
write the abstract or the essential points or summary of the reference material or
article as neatly as you can.
(viii) Indicate, on the index card, any thoughts that come to your mind.
(ix) Indicate on the index card any statements that are direct quotations or personal
reactions. If you do not put quotation marks around direct quotations on your
index cards, you may forget that they are direct statements and it may amount to
plagiarism.
However, it must be noted that the report is written on the basis of information
contained in the note or index cards. When writing the report, one should
endeavour to emphasize the studies that contribute most to achieving research
objectives.
Additional guidelines on literature review. The researcher should:
(i) Provide an Analysis of each reference material, based on the researchers outline
and the topic/ sub-themes. This will mean sorting out the references into the
correct piles and categories of the variables.
(ii) Take all the references being identified for a given sub-heading and analyze them
in terms of their relationship with one another and the differences that exist
among them.
(iii) Ensure that the review is done in a manner that the reference materials that are of
general nature are discussed first, whereas the most specifically related ones to the
problem under study are discussed last.
(iv) Make the Review to conclude with brief Summary of the literature and its
implications.
(v) Know the depth of the literature to be reviewed in a study.
(vi) Re-read the entire write-up so as to ascertain that the important points or salient
facts are not omitted.

Checklist for Reviewing the Literature

This may be summarized as follows:

25
 (a) Note that all investigations or research require evidence of reading. From this reading one
may get some ideas about methods of data collection and analysis.
(b) Make a critical review of the literature if need be, but where the review is produced, it
should include only relevant items.
(c) Locate the nearest library and negotiate access.
(d) Decide exactly what you ought to know prior to the search for the literature.
(e) Select an appropriate topic or theme/sub-themes.
(f) Define the correct terminology by choosing or selecting the synonyms for some difficult
words.
(g) Define the parameters in setting the range and types of materials to use. For instance, to
consider the research work done from the year 2007 to date and of foreign authors only.
(h) Select Sources, Library Catalogues, Bibliographies, BNB (i.e. British National
Bibliography), BEI (i.e. British Educational Index), BIP (i.e. Books in Print), Abstracts,
Indexes, etc.
(i) Locate appropriate materials.
(j) Write up as work progresses, but you must note methods of investigation and
classification of data and items of certain information for the research.

Special Hints on Review of Related Literature

Some special hints on a good review of related literature will be of immense benefit to
researchers, who intend to conduct meaningful studies. As discussed in Odiagbe (l988:28-30),
these hints are:
(a) A researcher should start to gather and preview relevant literature before serious research
work begins. A record file of press cuttings and for jottings germane to the study may be
kept for this purpose.
(b) As literature review is imperative, the researcher should survey existing written materials
such as textbooks, journals, magazines, newspapers, reports, projects, recordings, maps
and so on, that have direct and indirect bearing with his research.
(c) The aspect of the relevant literature to be reviewed should be properly sectionalized and
appropriately headed or sub-titled. Such review should be concise, business-like,

26
 relevant, meaningful and inter-connected. There must be link between one section and
another.
(d) The language used and the referencing style adopted must conform to the house-style or
the approved institutional style. Thus, the old style of using reference marks (figures and
signs) and footnotes when making references to relevant works is no longer popular. The
modern style of referencing authors is; Sannie (2001:109), Segilola (2004:241) as
publications of Sannie and Segilola of 2001-page 109 and 2004-page 241, respectively.
(e) There should be full details of the books reflected in the bibliography.
(f) The ideas of the authors should, as much as possible, be paraphrased but given the
source. Where the actual words of an author are used, they should be quoted if the words
are not more than Faro consecutive lines. When quoted words run into more than three
lines, they should be rendered inset style and in single line spacing without the insertion
of quotation marks.
(g) When quoting an author in the review of related literature, the name of the book journal
does not have to be mentioned. The bibliography will take care of that. Similarly, the
initials or first names and titles of the authors quoted need not be written. (See
referencing and bibliography).

It is important to stress that in the modern age of computer, the referencing can be better done for
the purpose of clarity. For instance, computer can be used to make the characters bold or
italicized; words such as, headings, titles of books, names of journals, publications and articles,
which are normally underscored or quoted. Also, there is no doubt that all investigations require
evidence of readings. Thus a critical review of the literature may not be necessary, especially for
small research projects. If a review is produced, however, it should include only the relevant
items. One should locate the nearest library and obtain permission for the usage. Decide exactly
what one needs to know before beginning the literature, search, select the topic, determine the
terminology, define the parameters, select the sources, locate appropriate materials and write-ups
as one goes along, by jotting down notes or points. At this stage, one is preparing for the review.

Basically, literature review may be discussed under three major headings: conceptual, theoretical
and empirical review. Obilade (1987:76) is of the opinion that function refers to the use of

27
literature review in research. Structure is to how the section on literature review should be
organized and the source is to how and where to obtain relevant literature to review.

28
 MODULE FOUR

METHODOLOGY

Introduction
Before a researcher proceeds with his study, he needs to structure his plan of investigation. This
includes the different criteria such as determining the type of investigation, the population that
will be involved in the study and how to determine the samples that will take part in the
investigation. He also needs to determine the type of relationship that exists between or among
the variables that he intends to study. If these are determined, then he can construct the questions
or items that will be used to gather information for the study. This information can then be
analyzed so as to obtain the desired result.

An Overview of Research Design

Different types of research require different designs that are suitable for the study that is to be
conducted. Thus, a researcher chooses his design depending on the level of his mastery of the
study. He must however, bear in mind the fact that the design must measure appropriately the
phenomenon that is of interest and obtain data that will lead to a useful conclusion. A research
design is a blueprint or scheme that is used by the researcher for specific structure and strategy in
investigating the relationships that exist among variables of the study so as to enable him collect
the data, to be used for the study. Apart from determining the relationships among variables,
research design is needed for writing the proposal and report for reference purposes. This is
important for a study since the method will be unique to the study alone and as such the data
generated would be referred to as primary data.

Types of Research Designs

Research designs are of three main types; survey design, experimental design and ex-post-facto
design.
Survey Design: This is sub-divided into two - cross-sectional and longitudinal. The major
characteristic of this design is its lack of control. The researcher is interested in observing what is
happening to the sample subjects without manipulating them. All the methods here use a one-
time-only observation method (that is, observation is made only once at a particular point in
time) but involve as many variables that are necessary for the study. Time is a prominent
29
variable measured here. It is neither controlled nor manipulated. It affects designs in the
behaviour of other variables or subjects used in the study.
(a) Cross-sectional
Observations are made at one or more points in time. A measuring scale called rating
scale or checklist is used to record the observations made. It can be used in other research
types such as descriptive, explanatory and exploratory study.
(b) Longitudinal
Observations are made at different points in time. The types of study that can be made
include motivation of workers, productivity of employees or profitability level.
A checklist or rating scale is also used to record the observations made. It can be useful
for other research studies such as a panel that is used to study the changes in the opinion
of respondents on one variable over a period of time (at different points in time from the
same sample). The cohort design uses samples, which are specific to the study in question
and observation is made over a period of time. The trend directs its observation at
different samples at different points in time (A model checklist is provided in the
appendix).

Experimental Design: This is a plan of the processes that enables the researcher to test his
hypotheses by reaching a valid conclusion about the relationship between the variables that are
being tested. The selection of this design is based on the purpose of the experiment, types of
variables to be manipulated and the conditions or limiting factors under which it is conducted.
This is because the design varies greatly and as such the conditions above should be taken into
consideration. This design deals with problems such as how to assign subject to experimental or
control group (through randomization), ways of manipulating and controlling variables, ways of
controlling intervening or extraneous variables, how observations are made and the type of
statistical analysis to use for interpretation of data.

The level of the experimental design eliminates or minimizes threats to its validity and judges the
adequacy of this design. There are three (3) categories of experimental designs. These are:
(a) Pre-experimental Design: This is less effective because it does not provide ways of
equating the groups that are used.

30
 (b) True experimental Design: This is most effective, because, it uses randomization means
to equate the groups being sampled and it provides control as well as exposes groups to
equal treatment.
(c) Quasi-experimental Design: This design is the least effective of the experimental designs
because it provides less satisfactory degree of control. However, where randomization is
not feasible it may resort to the use of control.
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
A good research design ensures the appropriate use of the following areas in a research study.
(a) The variance control, that is, the measure of variability, which is used to answer research
questions and test hypotheses.
(b) The production of data that will be used to answer research questions and test hypotheses.
(c) The control of intervening or extraneous variables.
(d) The maintenance of both internal and external validity that is, it should measure what it is
supposed to measure.
(e) The appropriate order of the procedure of observation.

Validity of Experimental Design

This is the extent to which the substances and subjects or elements that are involved in an
experimental design vary. It includes all aspects of the design ranging from the stated problem
to the questions, hypotheses formulation, selection of population and sample size, instruments
and the type of statistical tools used for analysis. Thus, in order to make a significant
contribution to the development of knowledge, an experiment must be valid. Experimental
design validity results from factors which come from within (internal) and outside (external) the
whole procedures.

Internal Validity: These are the factors that deal with the extent to which the quantifiable
indicators (variables) affect one another; in order words, if the factors that have been
manipulated (independent variables) actually have genuine effect on the observed consequences
(dependent variables). It also involves the performance of the observer as well as the type of
instruments used in conducting the study. For instance, for a questionnaire or test drafted, experts
must subject the items to evaluation, while the graduated measurements must be in place for the

31
equipment. More so, the right set of population and samples must be selected for the study.
Internal validity asks questions such as; 'did the experimental treatment make a difference in the
experiment that is carried out?'

External validity: This is the extent to which the variable relationships among the variables can
be generalized to other settings, other treatment variables, other measurements and other
population (Best and Kahn, 1989:118). It asks the questions of generalization such as; 'to what
population settings, treatment variables, measurement variables and others can the effect be
generalized? This design assumes the single case design of the quasi-experimental design since it
is not an experimental research. An existing case is observed for some time or over a period of
time or at interval so as to study or evaluate it.

Factors Affecting Internal Validity

In an experimental study, some numbers of extraneous variables are present during the procedure
of the study. These variables cannot be easily eliminated but they can be observed and
precautions can be taken to guide their effects on the result of the study. Campbell and Stanley
(1966) identified the factors that affect experimental validity. A review of this is conducted by
Best and Kahn (1989:118) and it is stated as follows:
Testing: The effect of pre-test produces a sort of experience gathered by the subjects on a second
testing post-test, which can be seen in their performance. In most experimental studies, the
subjects are aware of what is happening and as such tend to practice more for the next test. The
difference in their mean scores may appear too great and as such create threat to the result.
Maturation: This is similar to the above factor, but it is usually not as a result of the
experimental events. With time, the respondents or subjects acquire more experience which
result in change. For instance, where there is an increase or decrease in moral, socio-economic
status or emotional status of the respondent. These changes, when effected and brought into an
experimental study, may be confused with the effect of the independent variables. The
respondents or subjects are influenced by the incidental experiences that they encountered
through normal maturation. In order to control this threat, respondents are randomly assigned
into both experimental and control groups, where the difference between the groups would be
taken to be due to treatments instead.

32
History: This may include some events that the respondent might have experienced during the
process of data administration. Such changes caused by events can affect the result of variables
being measured. Some examples of such events include emotional stress, pain or hurt resulting
from past arguments, anxiety or a catastrophic event in the community. The threats experienced
here are better controlled when the experiment is carried out in the laboratory, where subjects or
respondents are under supervision.
Instrumentation: This can vary the findings in an experimental study if the measuring
instruments or a particular technique used to describe and measure some kind of behaviour are
unreliable. These include inaccurate measuring equipment, inappropriate methods or /techniques
and inexperienced or untrained observer.
Bias in selection: This is represented by the non-equivalence of the groups under study, that is,
experimental control. An un-organized study manager may decide to select some inexperienced
set of respondents or subjects for their study. He may administer a set of questionnaires to his
best friend or close friend, who may not be in the appropriate population setting for such
investigation. Such a person may in turn respond due to favouritism, thereby causing a threat to
the result.
Statistical Regression: This occurs when respondents or subjects are selected on the basis of
extremely high or low pre-test scores; if the measuring device is not totally reliable. Best and
Kahn, (1989:119) refer to this as a phenomenon whereby a set of respondents, who score higher
marks on a pre-test will most likely score lower marks on subsequent testing and vice versa.
Thus, they are of the opinion that this occurs when the respondents are selected as a group due to
their extreme scores and the regression is for the group as a whole and not for individuals. For
individual selection, the post-test score may go in the opposite direction as indicated by research
study. In order to control regression to the mean, the researcher would randomly assign the
samples to the two groups.
Experimental Mortality: It occurs in experiments that take longer period of time to attain. It
occurs with time that is if one or more of the respondents from within the group is lost due to
illness, sickness or even death. The experiment becomes invalid when the statistical sample size
is distorted, as a result of such loss; those who started the investigation are not those who will
end it. Since death, illness or sickness is not predictable, it is essential for the researcher, when

33
conducting his sample selection exercise, to indicate a clause of plus or minus sample size. This
helps to control the effect of mortality on experimental result.
Experimental Bias: This has to do with the researcher having a sort of previous knowledge
about the subjects or respondents involved in an investigation. This knowledge of subject status
may affect the objectivity of the result and as such a preconditioned judgment is made. In order
to control this effect, it is essential for the researcher to have someone else administer the
treatment and record them.
Interaction of Selection and Maturation: This occurs when the subjects or respondents are
able to select the type of treatment they want to receive. This, according to Best and Kahn
(1989:120) is due to the level of motivation of the respondents. This difference in subjects'
motivational level might be confused with the effect of experimental variables.

Factors Affecting External Validity

In most experimental research designs, the practical use of the findings is of most importance
and as such the investigation is carried out in real-life setting. This presents opportunities for
greater generalization of the result obtained after the investigation. Notwithstanding, some
factors may still be made obvious such that would reduce the generalization potentials of the
research study to other settings, persons, variables and measuring instruments. These factors
include:
The Extent of Treatment Verification: This is the method or procedure taken by the researcher
to ensure that the treatment or otherwise is properly administered or carried out. In cases, for
instance, where a researcher is guarding against experimental bias and uses someone who is not
directly involved in the research to administer the treatment, this can cause a threat to external
validity, meaning that he did not administer the treatment as it was intended to. The researcher
should have a way of verifying the methods used by other administrators such as videotaping or
directly observing the procedures.
Interaction effect of Testing: This is quite different from the testing in internal validity in that it
evokes interaction among subjects. The use of pretest sensitizes the individuals involved in the
study (subjects) by making them more aware of the hidden purposes of the study. This can see as
a stimulus and as such affects changes in responses. This may alert the experimental group to
some aspects of intervention that are not present for the control group. This threat can be
34
controlled by group randomization and of course removal of pre-test. Solomon Four design is
also used to control the threat.
Interaction of Selection and Treatment: In most cases, researchers find it difficult to randomly
select samples from the wide population or randomly assign the samples to groups. Thus,
generalization from sample to population is not reliable at this state.
The artificiality of the Experimental Setting: In an attempt to control extraneous variables, the
researcher may introduce artificial atmosphere about a situation and this cannot be generalized.
Thus, this experimental process is a constant threat.

Research Population, Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

Population
In conducting a research study, it is hardly possible to include all members of a given population
in the investigation. This is because the population members may be too large to be reached at a
particular point in time due to geographical coverage. If a researcher attempts to cover all the
population needed in his investigation, he will discover that he might spend more time, money or
effort. Thus, he should try to select a reasonable sample of the population for his investigation.
The more representative the sample, the more the results from it can be generalized to other
members of the population and it will be free from bias. A researcher must, however, have a
well-defined population so as to avoid inclusion of elements or subjects that do not actually
belong to the population of interest when conducting the study.

Definition
A population is made up of specific conceivable traits, events, elements, people, subjects or
observation, which relate to the situation of interest in the study to be conducted.
The researcher decides on the population, which he wants to include in his study by using
probability method of sampling. He defines his population by choosing an actual framework
whereby he makes use of working population; that is, those used for the study as against the non-
theoretical population, those who are not used for the study. The researcher should have a clear
picture of what his sample type will be. He should ask himself questions such as; what sample
design to use- probability or non-probability? How large will the sample size be and what will be
the cost of obtaining the sample? For instance, if a researcher wishes to clarify his population, he

35
may have every Lagosian as a subject in the population of Lagos State and every company in
Lagos as a subject in all companies in Lagos State, or every consumer of fish as a member of the
population described as, fish consumers in Lagos State. Thus, for a research study on this, a
confined and well-defined population will be, The population of Fish Consumers in Lagos State
or The textile manufacturing companies in Lagos State.
Types of Population
There are two main types of population in research studies; these are finite and infinite.
(a) Finite Population: Finite population is population that is of estimable and conceivable
size or extent. For instance, 'all textile manufacturing companies in Nigeria'. The
population of the companies can thus be counted.
(b) Infinite Population: Infinite population is a population that is of an inestimable size.
For instance, all fish consumers in Nigeria- simple as this may look when talking
about its estimation, it is difficult to estimate, much as a researcher may wish to cover
the entire population size, it may not be attainable. This may be due to some factors
such as logistics.

Research Sample
This is a reasonable number of selected traits, events, subjects or members taken from the
population as a representative of that population, which are used for investigation or study.
Samples are selected by using statistical means, so as to ensure an even selection of the subject
involved and thus avoid bias in selection. Representativeness is essential because the result of the
study, which is derived from the sample selection made, will be used ultimately to generalize its
effect on the entire population. Thus, the more the samples involved in the study, the more the
power of generalization on the entire population of interest and the less the level of bias
sustained.

Reason for Sampling

One major reason for sampling is to reduce the data to a manageable proportion and as such
reduce its cost and time spent. Other reasons are;
(i) It gives room for a thorough study by affording a better supervision than a complete
coverage from all population.

36
 (ii) It enables the researcher to obtain a quicker result.
(iii) It provides accurate measurement of the similarities among the elements of such
sample.

Process of Sample Selection

The researcher should ensure that the following steps are taken in order to select a sample:
i. Identify the population by defining it to a specific situation.
ii. Determine the required sample size.
iii. Select samples using definite techniques.

Sample Size
This is the determination of the proportion of subjects, elements or members drawn from a
population through quantitative means. This is because it involves critical and careful numerical
activities that are used to determine this. In order for a researcher to know the number of units,
subjects or members to use for his study, he needs to consider the following factors:
(a) The distribution of traits (sex, race, religion and so on) among the population;
(b) The nature of decision to be made with the result;
(c) The amount of sampling error that he is ready to accommodate; Tuckman (1994)
identifies that in order to establish that the sample is representative of the population, a
critical parameter of an acceptable confidence level is set at either 95%,
which refers to a 0.05 level that is a chance that the sample is evenly distributed or a 5%
chance of committing any error or a confidence level. This, according to him, implies that
there is only a 0.01 level or a 1% chance of committing any error.

These confidence levels are obtained, based on statistical and psychological

measurement. An ideal sample is large enough to serve as an adequate representation of
the population about which the researcher wishes to generalize and small enough to be
selected economically in terms of subject availability, opens in terms of time and money
and the complexity of data analysis. The determination of sample size should be as a
result of careful reflection on the researcher's part, taking the following into
consideration, the limit of error allowed in sampling and if a larger sample size is used,
the less error is experienced and vice versa.
37
 (d) the level of confidence or probability of error that is desired; and
(e) an estimate of dispersion or standard deviation of the population from which the sample
is selected.

Judging from the parameters above, sample size can be determined non-statistically by using
a face value evaluation. This implies that a smaller percentage is set for larger population and
a larger percentage is set for smaller population. For instance, for a population of about 3000
units, a 10% selection represents about 300-sample size, can be used for the investigation.
While for that of say 500 units 20% selection which turns to about 100-sample size, will give
a more realistic value for the purpose of generalization and a low level of bias or error in
judgment (Yomere & Agbinifor l991).

Features of a Good Sample Size

In order to ensure a widely covered sample, the researcher should bear the following information
in mind:
(a) A larger sample size attracts less sampling error and vice versa.
(b) A smaller or less-covered sample size, gives a result that may not be generalized to the
population.
(c) In as much as the determination of sample size does not attract a fixed percentage, the
researcher should base his decision on the fact that for smaller population, a greater sample
proportion may be drawn than for larger population.
(d) The nature and characteristic of research type should be considered before determining the
sample size. For instance, the experimental research with tight control should attract a less
sample size (All other factors being taken into consideration) than a descriptive or ex-post-
facto study's sample size. This is to give room for effective and convenient analysis of result,
which could be easily completed in both cases.
(e) The degree of variability of population situation or phenomena. Nwana (1981) posits that a
higher sample size should be drawn for a population that varies greatly in nature and vice
versa, For instance, in order to determine the degree of variability in consumers of egg, the
researcher takes two groups of consumers, children of ages 6 months to 18 years and adult of
ages lg years 35 years. There is a higher variability in those who consume egg in the latter

38
 case than in the former. Thus, according to Nwana (1981), a higher sample size should be
drawn from among ages 1 years- 35 years than from 6 months - 18 years. This is because the
egg consumers, who are between 6 months- 18 years are regular consumers and it is certain
that at least 7 eggs are consumed by each of them in a week unlike the l - 35 years, where
their consumption pattern is occasional, that is, probably between 2 - 5 eggs are consumed in
a week. Thus, the degree of consuming egg varies greatly here and as such a larger sample
size is drawn.
In all these considerations, the researcher should bear in mind that a sample size which will be
effectively and conveniently analyzed, should be drawn. More so, the result generated should be
truthfully generalized to the other population subjects or events.

Sampling procedure and Methods

The procedure adopted for obtaining a sample from the population is categorized into two as we
said earlier: These are probability or randomized and non-probability or non- randomized
sampling methods. These two categories have their sub-divisions, where each division has its
specific steps for arriving at the desired selection. However, a general procedure to be followed
by a researcher before going into sample selection is stated as follows:
Step 1- The identification of the population.
Step 2 - The determination of the required sample size.
Step 3 -The selection of the sample.
Steps one and two had been discussed earlier. In this section, we shall consider step three.

Types of Sampling Methods

Asika, (1999) gives a simplified tabular model of the different methods involved in sample
design as follows:

39
PROBABILITY / RANDOM SAMPLING
Random sampling
It adopts the principle of randomization, that is, every subject or unit in the population has an
equal chance of being selected in the sample and all combinations must be equally probable. It is
the most basic of all other random sampling methods except that the system, which does not
require replacement, is called the simple random sampling. On each successive draw, the
probability of being selected increases due to the fact that fewer individuals are left unselected
from the population. Thus, if a sample size N is selected from the population, every possible
sample of size N drawn has equal chance of being selected.
There are different ways of achieving simple random sampling. These include:
(a) Ballot, where an assignment of subject is written on pieces of paper, which are squeezed
and later each subject from the population picks one of the squeezed paper. For instance
if YES or NO or if 1 or 2 is written, then, whatever the subject or individual picks either
qualifies or disqualifies him or her.
(b) Shuffling cards; this is done by writing the names or the numbers of subjects or units on a
card. After which the cards are shuffled, the top card is taken by its owner and the
process of shuffling continues until the desired sample size is achieved.
(c) The table of random numbers is another method of achieving simple random sampling. It
is the most accurate of achieving minimum bias. It is similar to the shuffling of cards
method, only this time around, the numbers corresponding to the labels of selected units
in the sample frame are selected from the table, where the numbers are arranged in a
purely random order. Thus, any of the numbers; has a chance of appearing in the
selection.

Note: A Sample frame is a complete list of all the units or individuals in a population.
For instance, the table of random numbers can be applied as follows: if a researcher requires a
sample size of 200 units from a finite population of 4000, since the population number is of four-
digits number, then numbers above 4000 cannot be a part of the population neither can numbers,
whose number of digits is more than four be a part of the sample. The following procedure is
employed in choosing 200 units:
i. All units in the population are listed serially from 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9...4000.
40
 ii. Using random selection, circle any one to four digit values on the table less than 4000.
iii. The numbers represented on the table are selected from the serially numbered units to the
required sample size of 200

Systematic Random Sampling

This method makes use of the selection of an Xth subject or unit from the serially listed
population, where X is determined by dividing the number of sample population by the sample
size. For instance, if 'N' is the population sample and 'n' is the sample size, which is determined
by the researcher, then Xth N/' n. After this is determined, the selection is made by randomly
selecting the xth item or unit from the serially listed population, while subsequent units are
chosen by adding, (Xth + s) to the next unit. (s is the first unit chosen by the researcher). This is
done until the sample size required is completed. For instance, a researcher has a population of
3500 and he needs a size of 500, the procedure for selection is as follows:

Stratified Random Sampling

This method employs a process which puts the subjects with similar characteristics in a group
called 'stratum'. It is an applied random sampling method because the subjects from each stratum
are represented in the same proportion. The steps in achieving the procedure are:
(a) Identify and define population for instance 3000 subjects.
(b) Determine the sample size, using 10% mark gives 300 subjects.
(c) Identify the strata that are variables and sub-group for which you want an appropriate
representation.
(d) Classify all members of the population as members of a stratum.
(e) Select randomly (using the table of random numbers) the appropriate number of subjects
from each stratum.
This method is unique in the sense that it enables the researcher to identify some of the
characteristics that are being studied in the research which he uses as a basis for grouping his
strata. Each member of a stratum consequently has an equal chance of being selected as one of
the samples, as a result of randomization technique that is used to determine this.

41
Cluster / Area Sampling
This type of sampling allows the units or subjects of the population to exist in their natural state.
It is used when population is large and widely spread. These units are in clusters within their
habitation or place of abode. Unlike the stratified, where the units are grouped into their various
traits of similar characteristics, the clusters in this population are left to be in their natural but
different states where the needed samples are collected through random sampling and used for
the investigation.
(a) Serial arrangement of all units; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3500;
(b) Determination of Nth subject, thus 3500 divided by 500, which gives 7th;
(c) Random selection of the first unit s- subject; say 4th
(d) Addition of .xth to s and then subsequently until the required sample size is attained. The
serial will include; 4th, 11th, 18th, 25th, 32nd, 39th. Until the last Xth population is
selected up till 500 samples.

The following steps are taken in order to use this sampling method:
i. Identify the population to be sampled.
ii. Identify the characteristics that will enhance representativeness.
iii. Locate the area where units or subjects with the characteristics cluster and know the
representative size.
iv. Use random selection to select the needed sample from the cluster (The number of units
selected from each cluster must be proportional to the clusters of the total population). For
example, researcher of a manufacturing company in Nigeria wishes to sample the opinion of
its products' consumers on the quality of their product. Cluster sampling is used to draw the
sample needed, first by dividing the population into regions (south, north, east and west), if
the entire population under investigation is say 95 million. Then 23.75 million population
units will be sampled naturally from each region (cluster) using the steps above.

NON-PROBABILITY (NON-RANDOM) SAMPLING

Quota Sampling: This sampling method, although involves non-randomization, takes on a
feature of the stratified random sampling and it makes use of larger population as the cluster
sampling. It is used to distinguish the characteristics that need to be investigated in a study. It

42
enables the researcher to have a good representation of the sampling units. Unlike the methods
used in stratified and cluster distributions and sampling selection, the determination of sample
estimation is based on the researcher's opinion. It is used in eliciting the people's opinions, that
is, survey type of research.

Judgment Sampling: This sampling type makes use of typical cases among the population to be
studied, which the researcher considers will provide him with the data needed. The units are
selected based on the researcher's opinion of those members that proceed from the sample
population which he wants to study. A knowledgeable researcher, who knows exactly what he
desires, does not need to work with too large a sample size, since he already knows the set of
samples, which he needs to approach for the attributes he intends to study.

This makes the method less expensive and less time consuming. For instance, in a study carried
out in Eti-Osa Local Government Area of Lagos State in Nigeria, to elicit the opinion of
kerosene users on the recent price increase, the researcher will not go to those living in high-
class estates, but to those living in medium and low class estates that happen to be the main users
of the product, to select his samples. That is where he will get the right set of people, to give him
the required information. He does not need too many sample sizes.

Accidental / Convenience Sampling: The peculiar characteristics of this method are that the
units in the sample are not previously thought about, they are run into unexpectedly and the
opinion needed is generated. This makes the method accidental. Also it is convenient since it
does not involve previous arrangement of any material. All it requires is for the researcher to be
present when the information is to be collected. Thus, it is cheap and simple to use. For instance,
suppose a researcher wishes to seek the opinion of members of the public on government's initial
refusal to revert the pump price of petroleum products to the old price regime. Here there are no
specific targets; every member of the public (whether he is working or not) is affected. Thus any
person, whom he runs into, will be used as his sample for data collection. This method is widely
used by media men or pressmen.

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 MODULE FIVE
DATA COLLECTION, QUESTIONNAIRE AND MEASUREMENT SCALES
Introduction
In research study, data collection exercise is essential in the sense that it helps the researcher
gather first hand (primary) information about the study under investigation. Thus, it is important
for the researcher to choose the appropriate research instrument as well as construct direct and
clear questions that the respondents can answer easily. This will help him arrive at a close to
accurate, if not accurate, data during analysis.

Nature and Definition of Data

As it was earlier identified, the research instrument designed by a researcher for a specific
research design could form a kind of primary source of information, if it is uniquely designed
and it may be used for other study. This is so because the instrument that is developed is unique
to the type of design and it is based on original information. Thus, it must have been subjected to
rigorous test, such as validity or reliability. More so, the variables are directly observed,
controlled or manipulated so as to generate data for the study. When the study is completed, this
design still serves as a guide for other research studies. These are pieces of raw facts gathered to
become information which are processed to be used for making decisions.

Sources of Data
There are two main classifications of source of data. These are; primary and secondary sources.
The Primary sources of data: These are supplied by an actual eyewitness or a participant. They
are obtained from representative samples by means of direct observation of events, manipulation
of variables, resourceful planning of research situation and also performing experiments as well
as responses to questionnaires. Examples of primary sources of data are; original documents
drafted from Constitutions, Edicts or Acts, reports of meetings, communiqué from outcome of
conferences or seminars, minutes, legislative sets (laws), certificates, wills, letters, court
judgements and other historical objects such as photographs, buildings, equipment and so on.
The Secondary sources of data: These include all the types of information from the primary
sources but this time, they are recorded, reported or supplied by someone else, who is not
directly present at the actual place of occurrence. Thus, when a primary piece of data is refined

44
after it is generated by classification, publication or analysis, it creates a secondary piece of data.
These can be obtained from Research, Statistics and Planning Units of the Ministries. Companies
and Industries, Central Bank of Nigeria and Federal as well as States or Local Offices of
Statistics.

Validating or Testing Data

Data collected should be tested or validated to check if they are authentic. Thus, they are
subjected to internal and external criticisms or purpose.
(a) Internal Criticism
It determines the worth, value or credibility of the data collected. Questions such as, 'Are
the data in agreement with known facts?', 'Was the author biased?' or 'Does he have any
handicap that threatens the credibility of the data, such that might lead to
misinterpretation of historical fact?' are asked, in order to validate such data through this
means.
(b) External Criticism
It adjudges if the documents are authentic or forged. It answers questions such as; 'was
the report prepared by the actual person who was meant to prepare it?' This form of test
validation, demands that the researcher MUST be credible, honest and of very high
integrity. He cannot afford to jeopardize historical truth because of his self-
centeredness. He must realize that whatever information given will be constantly referred
to for the purposes of other research studies. The information or data is subjected to
various statistical testing before it is used for decision-making.

Research Instruments
The most commonly used research instruments made for the various designs are:
(a) Interviews
(b) Questionnaires
(c) Observations
(d) Tests
(e) Opinion polls
(f) Coding Guide

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Methods of Data Collection
There are four main instruments, which are generally used for collecting data or information.
These are: interviews, questionnaire, observation opinion poll and test.
Interviews: This is used mostly in market research and social survey. The researcher relates
(dialogues) with the subject(s) so as to extract the needed information from them. It can be
conducted through the telephone or electronic medium. The method of conversation may be oral
or it may be written (questionnaire). It may be recorded on an audio, video or computer disk.
Interviews are conducted generally by Media Houses or employers besides the researcher.
Advantages
i. A high response rate particularly when the issue is sensitive, that is relating to life
or self-development issue.
ii. Skillful interviewers make uninterested respondent willing to answer the
questions, since it can be conducted face to face, the interviewer can easily
explain his questions tactfully to the respondent.
iii. The interviewer, who has a psychological attitude or background, is able to
deduce when information is faulty or not true.
iv. It gives room for more information to be collected. This is based on the
interviewer's self-disposition or aura.
Disadvantages:
i. Information collected is not quantifiable, thus making analysis a bit difficult.
ii. Some degree of bias could be unknowingly introduced when judgement is being
made by the interviewer. This may be attributed to the respondent's appearance or
status.
iii. Some respondents may not reveal confidential information.
iv. The method is quite expensive. Greater expenditure is incurred in training and
remunerating interviewers, in conducting telephone conversation and so on.
Questionnaire: This method of collecting data is widely used by most researchers in virtually all
fields of study. It includes the collection of validated questions put together by the researcher so
as to measure or test hypothesis. It is administered to the respondent - the person, who answers
the questions and its format is in sections. Its characteristics lie in the clarity, simplicity and

46
easily understandable questions, which are drawn. The researcher should, however, note that
when designing the questionnaire, the following errors should be avoided:
(a) The statements, questions or expected answers should not be too lengthy.
(b) Items or questions should be simple and accurately worded and where possible followed
by suggested responses from which the respondents may choose.
(c) Items or questions should not address trivial issues; issues must be straight to the point.
(d) Avoid double-barrel questions.
Observation: This is widely used by researchers in the business and commercial fields. It is an
act of noting or recognizing the desired information from the subject of study. The researcher
carefully watches the situation by paying special attention to a specific detail that is needed. The
features measured in this method are usually the time of occurrence of the event and the nature
of the event under investigation. Observation can be guided, that is, planned and directed for a
specific purpose. It can be at clinical level, which is often prolonged in terms of its observation
and with controlled conditions. Most frequently used type is the casual information type, which
is a daily, unstructured and unplanned observation. This type provides a casual impression of the
sample being observed.
The results obtained from observation cannot be quantified easily except with a typical designed
scale, which is rated for this purpose. These scales are called, rating scale and checklist. (See the
format in appendix Ill).
Advantages
i. It records the actual events rather than people's opinions.
ii. An articulated researcher will not usually inform his observed group so as to
avoid bias through the creation of an artificial situation.
iii. It is easy and less expensive unlike the interview.
Disadvantages
i. Highly skilled and psychologically inclined observer is needed.
ii. Observation is based on current events or happenings. It does not reveal the past
except from secondary sources.

47
 iii. Most times, observations made may not be valid due to human indifference,
attitude to issues at times or even due to pretence from the subjects involved in
the study, particularly when they are aware of the fact that they are being studied.
Test: This is commonly used in experimental research where the researcher subjects the
respondent to a test condition by answering some technically drafted and tasking questions,
which have been validly constructed. It tests the respondent's performance on a situation or
determines the level of achievement.

Coding Guide: It is a form of tables designed to capture information from the media content
genres like newspaper, radio, television etc. is being analyzed. The information so collected are
latter turned to data. Remember data is coded information. Media content are media products;
adverts, news, editorials, opinions, news analysis etc. There are usually general content/counting
guide, and particular content guide.

Questionnaire Design, Aims and Objectives

The questionnaire is designed as a form to gather data and elicit responses or information from
respondents on a particular study. It is of different types and kinds. For instance, there are
Schedule Questionnaire and Mail Questionnaire. The use of either of these two depends on the
purpose it has to serve. However, researchers should realize that questionnaires are not
constructed without an aim. They must have a purpose and bearing or objectives to be achieved.
To construct a meaningful and relevant questionnaire, Asika, (1991:75) suggested that the
following must be borne in mind:
(a) Every question in the questionnaire must be related to the research questions and / or the
hypotheses formulated for the study.
(b) In preparing the questions for the questionnaire, the rules of sealing must be observed
(to avoid unambiguity)
The questionnaires are, therefore, designed purposely to gather information or data for answering
the research questions and testing the research hypotheses. Thus, the questions must be directly
related to the research question and hypotheses if postulated. A questionnaire represents a form
of carefully selected and ordered questions and statements presented to obtain information or
data required to test hypotheses relevant to provide answers to the questions raised in the

48
research problem. In a questionnaire, each question or item is included to solve a specific
purpose. Standardization of observation and responses are ensured. It is used to collect data from
a large number of people at the same time.

When questionnaire is administered directly to the respondents, it provides an added advantage

to the interviewer, as he would be able to ask questions and also clarify issues. The respondents,
on the other hand, can be motivated or aided in order to be able to provide honest and objective
answers to such questions.

Qualities of a Good Questionnaire

(a) Reliability
(b) Simplicity
(c) Clarity of expression
(d) Unambiguity
(e) Cost effectiveness

TYPES OF QUESTIONS: OPEN-ENDED AND CLOSE-ENDED

(a) Open-ended Questions: These are questions, which give the respondents the
opportunity to express themselves freely or without having to choose from alternate
responses. Thus, it is a method, which provides a respondent ample opportunity to
answer questions as freely as he or she wishes to. For example: 'What' do you think are
the reasons for the Government to embark on the present economic reform program?
This questionnaire type is 'unstructured', as it allows the respondent to express his or her
own opinion freely.
(b) Close-ended Questions: These are specific questions, which are prepared with a choice
of possible answers or options. This is the structured type of questionnaire. In this case,
there is the usual introduction and instructions on what to do. For instance,
lease tick ) the correct answer(s) from the options provided below-as this marks 'the
instruction' of the questionnaire. It is then followed by the questions asked on the
questionnaire, also followed by the available choice of answers or options.

49
Variables SA A U D SD
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Staff Productivity level is high in the organization
A good leadership quality required of a functional manager
The organization employs graduates with high level of
education
Good reward system is in place
I consider high morale as the employer’s satisfaction
Where:

SA means Strongly Agreed

A means Agree with the statement
U means Undecided about the statement or neutral
D means Disagree with the statement
SD means Strongly Disagree with the statement
Alternatively, the above may be in the form of Dichotomy Questions or Responses such as in
Guttman’s Scalogram Analysis

Variable Yes No uncertain

(3) (2) (1)
Staff Productivity level is high in the organization
A good leadership quality required of a functional manager
The organization employs graduates with high level of education
Good reward system is in place
I consider high morale as the employer’s satisfaction

In a situation where the researcher is embarking on a study relating to problems in accounting,

the information will be based on the following items:

(a) SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS:

This will contain the following information;
i. Name(s) of Persons/ Organization Type
ii. Status and Designation
iii. Age Distribution (Where necessary)
iv. Gender
v. Marital Status (Where necessary)
vi. Income Level

50
 vii. Profession and Occupation
viii. Qualifications Obtained
ix. Cognate Working Experience
x. Nationality.

(b) SECTION B: SOCIO-ECONOMIC DATA

i. Kind or Class(es) of Accounting, Product Port-folio
ii. Customers and Clients Profiles
iii. Market share ratio
iv. Budgeting and Financial Information/ positions
v. Profitability Level
vi. Sales Growth and SWOT-Analysis
vii. Pricing and Monetary Policies
viii. Level Restrictions and Government Regulations
ix. Promotional Strategies and Competitive Activities
x. Auditing and Taxation.

(c) SECTION C: GENERAL INFORMATION

i. Employers' Job Satisfaction and Motivation
ii. Communication Method / Structure
iii. Management Functions and Leadership Styles
iv. Education and Training
v. Suggestions for Improvement.

Constructing a Questionnaire
A questionnaire can be constructed, bearing in mind all the items raised above, which should
provide the signpost for the types and kinds or styles of questions and answers to be included
therein. For instance, in open-ended questions, the answers expected would be unstructured types
in which the respondent is free to express his or her opinions. In the case of close-ended
questions, the structured answers are in the form of options from which the respondents will

51
choose, such as dichotomy - YES or NO answers or Likert Summating rating scales, Strongly
Agreed, Agreed, Undecided, Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed.

The questionnaire must be accompanied by a covering letter titled; 'Letter of Introduction’ which
has to be well planned and duly signed. The questionnaire must also be presented in a manner to
provoke response and should be error- free.

Treatment of Sensitive Questions

Construct a Likert Summated Rating Scale for measuring the listed variables:
(a) Productivity
(b) Leadership Quality
(c) Level of Education
(d) Reward System
(e) Employee Satisfaction.
Electronic Interview
Electronic interviews are a way of collecting information from respondent using an electronic
device. This device includes the internet and the intranet (including those kinds of interviews
taken offline). It can be done by asynchronous and synchronous forms of communication
depending on the researcher. To use this device, electronic software is used. The software
automatically records the data as they are typed in, thus, removing problems that are associated
with audio-recording and other problems represented by logics such as cost, accuracy and
participants' apprehension. An example of electronic software that can be used for both classes of
e-interview is the web conferencing software. It can be used as synchronous face to face
interviews or telephone chat and the asynchronous as one-on -one and group interviews. In order
for this to be accomplished, the participants will be required to load the software on their
Personal Computers. There are four basic ways of conducting interview using electronic means,
these consist of e-mail, internet forum, chat rooms and telephone.
(a) E-mail: This consists of a series of mails, which contains some information that are
grouped. For instance; personal information, business profile and academic profile. It
requires the participant to own a personal e- mail, which can be created online as;
hotmail, gmail, rocket mail, yahoo mail or as personalized or business mails. For

52
 instance, info@[Link].ry20@[Link]. e-mail interviews may take
weeks to achieve since the questions are sent in batches. The participants need to
respond to the first batch, which may lead to raising further question or clarification.
Thus, it gives room for the interviewer and the interviewee to reflect on the questions
and respond before a final consideration is made on the response.
(b) Internet Forum: This is referred to as discussion groups and it is an interview
conducted among multiple respondents. It is also called web forum, message board,
discussion board, discussion forum group and bulletin board. It takes one topic at a time,
the questions are asked and the respondents are allowed to respond. It does not create
room for the respondents to edit one another 's message because there is a web
moderator or forum administrator who is responsible for etiquette (that is effecting the
rule of correcting or initiating polite behaviour among the respondents). The web
administrator has the ability to edit and modify the content of the forum.
(c) Chat room: This is an online forum operating in synchronous mode. The most common
type being instant messaging for instance MSN message. Here, conversations are
restricted to only registered user list, which may not despite true randomization.
(d) Telephone: This form of interview is a non-standardized interview but it is convenient
in the sense that it offers easy access, speed and cost effectiveness. This method of
interview is referred to as non- standardized because of the defects associated with it.
The interviewer's ability to control the pace of a telephone interview and to record the
given information may become difficult. Taking notes is extremely strenuous as it may
disorganise the interviewer's co-ordination. Also, he may lose the opportunity to witness
the non-verbal reactions of the participants and this may affect his interpretation. For
these reasons seeking to conduct quality phone interview may lead to the case of
reduced reliability.

In as much as online/e-interview may be easy and convenient, participants are unlikely

to achieve the same high level of interactivity, rich and spontaneous communication as
can be obtained with face to face interview. This, according to Mann and Stewart (2002)
is due to a relatively narrow bandwidth of the electronic media, thus it aired before

53
 transmit few social cues (restricted form of rapport) that is made visible in the face- to-
face interview due to closeness of the interviewer and the interviewee:
Advantages of e-interview
(a) It allows questions to be properly cleared before accepting response.
(b) It facilitates open and more honest response. It is fast, accessible and cost effective,
particularly for distant respondents.
Disadvantages of e-interview
(a) It requires participants' Personal Computers to be compatible with the software, which
could be costly.
(b) It requires participants to learn how to use the software and take time.
It may not depict a true interview, because conversation is sometimes restricted, as users' list is
sometimes restricted to registered users only.

CONTENT ANALYSIS
According to Kerlinger (2000). Content analysis is a method of studying and analyzing
communication in a systematic, objective and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring
variables. It has to do with the study of recorded human communication that exist in different
forms such as books, magazines, webpages, newspapers, speeches, films etc. Content analysis is
very popular with mass media researches because it as an efficient way of investigating as well
as measuring the content of the media. It is used to investigate which issues and at what
frequency the media do report them. Media coverage or reportage is the term that describes
media content analysis by researchers.
Procedure of Content Analysis
Content analysis involves some rules that are consistently supplied. This shows that the
process of conducting a research using content analysis is in several discrete stages and steps.
According to Wimmer ad Dominick (2011:160), the following are the summary of the steps;

a. Identification and definition of problem

b. Formulate the research question or hypotheses
c. Define the universe in question
d. Selecting an appropriate sample from the population
e. Construct the categories of content to be analyzed
54
 f. Establish a quantification system
g. Train coders and conduct a pilot study
h. Code the content according to established and predetermined definitions
i. Analyze the data collected
PRINT MEDIA Newspaper, Magazines, Books, Catalogues
Web pages, advertisements, billboards, posters and graffiti
OTHER WRITINGS
BROADCAST MEDIA Radio programms, news items, TV programs
OTHER RECORDINGS Photos, drawings, Videos, music and films
LIVE EVENTS Speeches, interviews, plays and concerts
OBSERVATIONS Gestures, rooms, products in shops and open markets
NEW MEDIA Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Watsapp etc.

j. Draw conclusions and report the indications.

Areas of Content in Content Analysis

of newspaper from which the researcher wants to generalize from. Unit of analysis consists of
those variables that the researcher would actually look at in the course of the analysis. In a
written content, the unit of analysis might be a single word or symbol, a theme or an entire article
or study. They also includes news story, feature story, advertisements, advertorials, letters,
announcements, photographs etc.

KEY PROCEDURAL CONCEPTS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

There are There are certain concepts which are very important and must be understood when
conducting a content analysis. They are;
1. UNIT OF ANALYSIS: This is the most basic element of a content analysis. It refers
to the “who” or “what” subject of the study) that is being studied or examined in
issue
For TV and Films and other electronic media, unit of analysis could be the characters,
casts or programs e.g. who appears most. It could also be news broadcast,

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 documentary programmes, advertisements, obituary, soap opera etc. For example
when analyzing a newspaper, you can decide that your unit of analysis is the
headlines, editorials, the cartoons, all crime stories, all economic stories, the adverts
kidnapping stories,, money laundering reports or the pictures in the newspapers.
Others are chapters in books, topics in books, CD’s sung, literary works, artistic
works and so on.
In most studies, unit of analysis can either be episodic (news) or thematic (feature
stories).While some researchers decide to study one unit of analysis (e. g editorial) in
a newspaper, others may decide to study more than one units of analysis like news,
features and editorials combined. The decision to use either the single or combined
units of analysis in a study is mainly a function of the purpose and objectives and
focus of the study.

2. CONTENT CATEGORIES: Content categories refer to the words that capture the same
description used to classify media content into subsets under particular perspectives
through which the content can be explained. Content categories can be mutually
exhaustive and exclusive. For example,
(a) THE NATURE OF THE STORY: i.e. checking if the story on say education is
categorized as news, features, editorials, pictures or cartoons, or even columnist writing.
(b) FREQUENCY OF COVERAGE: This has to do with the number of times the stories
on an issue or subject (education) appears in a selected or select newspaper.
(c) PROMINENCE/PLACEMENT OF STORIES: That is whether the story is on the
front page, inside pages, eye traffic, special page or back page.
(d) DIRECTION: Direction as a content categories refers to the focus or slant of the
reportage. It may be seen from the angle of whom the story is targeting at. It could also
be viewed from the angle of remarkability like favourable, neutral or unfavorable. For
example, when the views expressed concerning a governor portray him as incompetent
and corrupt, the reportage direction or slant is unfavourable.
Other categories which the media content can be subjected to are; language or tone, illustration,
source etcetera.

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However, on a general note the following are major requirements of content categories:
(a) They must be mutually exhaustive so that all relevant contents are equally categorized –
all involving equally.
(b) They must be mutually exclusive such that all data/content of same descriptive features
are grouped together – Differentiation.
(c) They must be independent such that the assignment of one content/data to a category
will not affect the placement of other – Independence.
CODING SHEET
Date Types Place of Sex of Sex Nature Cost Arrests Prosecutions convictions
of occurrence suspect of of of
Crime victim crime crime

Above is an example of manual coding sheets. Along with a coding sheet comes a coding guide
which gives a set of instructions on how the coding sheet is to be used. Digitalization also aid
coding using computers and software that help to analyses data especially when performing a
content analysis of the new media like twitter, Facebook etc.
Reliability/Inter-coder Reliability
Generally in research designs, the test of the reliability of data collection instrument is
called reliability test. However in content analysis this is called inter-coder reliability. The word
coder is derived from the title of researcher and research assistants who participated in the study
to obtain data from the study samples. The coders having deployed the constructed coding guides
to obtain content data are subjected to test of reliability called inter-coder reliability. The test is a
very important part of content analysis which should be taken seriously by content researchers.
According to Lombard, Snyder-Duch and Bracken (2010), inter-coder reliability is the
widely used term in measuring the extent to which independent coders evaluate a characteristic
of a message or artefact and reach the same conclusion. Inter-coder reliability generally refers to
levels of agreement among independent coders who code the same content using the same
coding instrument. In line with Wimmer and Dominick (2011:170), a content study is reliable
when repeated measurements of the same material results in the same or similar decisions or
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conclusions. The failure to achieve the reliability among different and independent coders must
be as a result of something amiss either with the coders, the coding instructions, the definitions
of content categories, units of analysis or the combination of any or all of these.
Inter-coder reliability can be calculated in different ways through the use of different
formular. This includes the use of correlation for the two coders or analyses of variance for more
than two coders. The central aim of the calculation is to find out the area the coders agree. It is
the agreement that determines whether the coding instrument is reliable enough for the study to
progress in the right direction.
In essence therefore, Neuendorf (2002) suggests that when human beings becomes the
bases for assessment of reliability in content analysis, the term “reliability” becomes “inter-coder
reliability”, which is the level of agreement between two coders or among many coders.
In order to make sure that reliability in content analysis is acceptable, it is recommended that the
researcher genuinely do the following:
(a) Clear specification and delimitation of the boundaries of content categories
(b) Train the coders properly and thoroughly
(c) Conduct a pilot study in order to correct noticed error in the coding sheet
(d) Eliminate the incorrigible coders from the study

It is also important to have it mind that in doing reliability test in content analysis, a good
researcher should provide reliability test result for each of the content categories designed for the
study.

Strengths of Content Analysis

a. It is flexible and allows for the correction of errors while the study is on-going and after
the researcher must have left the field.
b. The researcher has little or no effect on the subject being studied, hence objectivity is
more pronounced.
c. It allows the researcher to study processes or phenomenon occurring over a long period
of time
d. It can quantify large data
e. Content analysis is an assessor of media performance
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 f. It can provide valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of text.
g. The genuineness of the findings of the studies in content analysis can be confirmed and
proven.
Weakness of Content Analysis
It is limited and restricted to only recorded forms of communication that may be oral,
written or graphic, and must be in a manner that permits analysis.
a. The problem of representativeness (sampling) is a major disadvantage in content analysis
b. Content analysis is expensive in time and finance. A trained coder will charge between 2,
500 and 3,000 per day in Lagos state, Nigeria
c. Relatively, it is intellectually tasking
d. It can also be time-consuming. Depending on the variables of study and their nature, it
will averagely take 15 hours to count and code 15 editions of a newspaper pages between
58 and 64 pages.
e. It can pose reliability and validity problems

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 MODULE SIX
WRITING RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT

Introduction
The research report “is written following a format as approved by the particular institution to
which it is to be submitted. So, there are usually some minor variations from institution to
institution: The research project report comprises of three major sections:

 The Preliminaries
 The Main Body
 The Appendix

The Preliminaries: This comprises of;

i. Title page
ii. Certification
iii. Dedication
iv. Acknowledgement
v. Table of Content
vi. List of Tables
vii. List of Figures
viii. Abstract

The title page contains the following: the title of the research project, the name and other
particulars such as qualifications and matriculation number of the researcher(s), the Department
and the institution to which report is being presented and the month and year the project is
submitted.

The approval page or certification contains the declaration of approval by the supervisor and
head of department and spaces should be provided for their signatures.

Dedication: This is the page where the researcher dedicates the work as a mark of honour to an
individual, individuals, group of individuals or deity.

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Acknowledgement: This is where the individual expresses gratitude and indebtedness to
individuals, institutions and organisations that provided assistance in the execution of the work...

Table of Contents: This shows the chapters and the constituents of the chapters as well as the
pages they appear on the report. Only the first pages of major headings quoted are indicated,

List of Tables and Figures: This shown a list of the tables and figures as well as the pages they
appear,

Abstract: This is a brief summary of the work, which gives an idea of the purpose of the work,
brief description of the methodology and the major findings of the study.

The Main Body of the Report

This section contains the actual report of the research work. This is usually arranged in chapters
as will be shown below.

1.0 Chapter I: Introduction

1.1 Background to the Study
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Research Questions
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.5 Hypothesis of the Study
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Scope of the Study
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Chapter II: Literature Review

2.1 Conceptual Review/Framework
2.2 Theoretical Review/Framework
2.3 Empirical Review

Chapter III: Research Methods

3.1 Research Design
2.2 Area of Study
3.3 Sources of Data
3.4 Population, Sample Size and Sampling Techniques
3.5 Measurement of Variables
3.6 Research Instrument (s)
3.7 Validity and Reliability of Research Instrument (s)
3.8 Method of Data Collection
3.9 Method of Data analysis

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Chapter IV: Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Results

Chapter V: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

Summary of Findings
Conclusion
Recommendation
Limitations to the Study
Suggestions for Further Studies
References (APA 7th Edition)
Appendices

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction This chapter is presented under the following subheadings:
Background to the Study: Under this sub-heading the researcher traces the conditions
circumstances” and factors necessitating the study. The researcher presents materials’ that will
help the reader understand the development of the problem under investigation.

Statement of the Problem: Having traced the development of the problem in the previous
subheading. The problem is how defined in concise and precise terms. The statement of problem
can be stated in either a declarative or an interrogative form. But it should be short and
unambiguous.

Purpose/Objective of the Study: Here the researcher presents a statement of objectives of the
study stating what will be accomplished by the study in general terms. It is further broken down
to specific statements of objectives. The objectives stated should not be too specific as to result
in a long and unmanageable list of specific objectives or too general not to sufficiently guide
action.

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses: Research questions are major questions derived from
the problem to which the researcher seeks to provide answers. While hypotheses refers to
intelligent guesses, derived from there research questions, which the researcher formulates to
guide his investigation. Some descriptive studies do not require hypotheses.

Assumptions: Here the conditions that should be fulfilled or satisfied for the results of Study to
be valid are stated. These conditions are not necessarily subjected to empirical tests, but must be
plausible enough to be considered tenable. There are studies where it is not necessary to make
assumptions, for such studies this subheading should be omitted.

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Significance of the Study: This is where the researcher presents the rationale or importance of
the study. Here, the interest is the contribution the work will make to knowledge in either theory
or practical life problems. This is where the researcher shows the value of his work.

Operational Definition of Terms: Under this subheading, terms or concepts whose meanings
are not obvious in the context of study are defined and explained. Where the meaning of
concepts is not ordinary known or concepts used in a specialized sense, should be defined under
this subheading. The definitions given are usually operational where such terms do not apply to
the study this subheading can be omitted.

CHAPTER TWO: Review of Related Literature In this chapter review of literature pertinent to
the study is presented under sub-headings. Starting with an introduction, on the various subheads
under which the review is to be carried out, then the reviews under these subheads and a
summary of the review.

CHAPTER THREE: Methodology at Study This chapter comprises of the following

subheadings:

 Research Design: here the researcher specifies the design to be adopted. It also justifies
why the design is appropriate for his study.
 Area of Study: This shows the extent of the problem the researcher is able to address in
his study, taking recognition of his competence, interest, available time and resources.
The scope brings the problem in sharp focus, by showing the area covered and not
covered in his research. The score should not be too little or too large.
 Population: Here the researcher specifies the items or persons from whom data were
collected.
 Sample and Sampling Technique: The researcher Specifies under this heading the
actual items or persons from which data were collected and describes the technique used
in collecting the data.
 Instrumentation: Under this heading the researcher describes the instrument(s) used in
collecting the data. This description includes how the instrument was developed and the
major sections of the instrument.

63
  Validity and Reliability of the Instruments: Here, the researcher describes how the
validity of the instrument was determined as well as how the reliability of the instrument
was determined, stating the coefficient obtained where applicable.
 Method of Data Collection: Here, the researcher reports the steps taken to collect the
data. Stating whether the data was collected personally or with the help of assistants, of
planning how the assistants were prepared for the task.
 Method of Data Analysis: Under this heading the researcher reports the statistical
techniques or formulae used in analysing data.

CHAPTER FOUR: Data Presentation and Discussion of Results

In this chapter the researcher presents the results or findings of the study usually in tables,
figures and charts. The details of the calculations involved in arriving at the results need not be
presented. The tables, figures and charts should each have a number and title. The numbers
should be in Arabic numeral. The number and titles should be on top while for the figure and
charts the number and titles should appear below.

 Discussion of the Results: Under this heading the researcher advances possible
interpretations and explanation for his findings and tries to relate these with the findings
of previous works.

CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusion, Implications and Recommendations; this chapter comprises of

the following. Conclusion: Here the researcher presents the major findings of his work.

 Implications of the Findings: Here the researcher relates his findings to specific uses
either theoretically or practically. That is, in what way does the work contribute to
knowledge?
 Recommendations: Here, the researcher suggests actions which would be taken in the
light of the findings to bring about solutions to problems earlier identified. Suggestion as
to further, studies based on the work are also made.
 Bibliography or References; Bibliography is a list of all the sources which were
consulted in the course of the project. While reference is a list of all sources that were
actually cited in the work.

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How to Reference with American Psychological Association (APA, 7th ed.)

This guide contains examples of common APA Style references. Section numbers indicate
where to find the examples in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (APA, 7th ed.).

In text citation

Research design is a blueprint or scheme that was used by the researcher for specific structure
and strategy in investigating the relationships that exist among variables of the study so as to
enable him collect the data that will be suitable for the study (Kothari & Garg, 2020).

According to Kelinger (1973) and Osuala (2007) defined research as a scientific process,
systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical proportions about the
perceived relationships between national phenomena.

References (Back page)

Journal Article

Lachner, A., Backfisch, I., Hoogerheide, V., van Gog, T., & Renkl, A. (2020). Timing matters!
Explaining between study phases enhances students’ learning. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 112(4), 841–853. [Link]

Online Magazine Article

Gander, K. (2020, April 29). COVID-19 vaccine being developed in Australia raises antibodies
to neutralize virus in pre-clinical tests. Newsweek. [Link]
covid-19- vaccine-neutralize-virus-1500849

Print Magazine Article

Nicholl, K. (2020, May). A royal spark. Vanity Fair, 62(5), 56–65, 100.

Online Newspaper Article

Roberts, S. (2020, April 9). Early string ties us to Neanderthals. The New York Times.
[Link]

Print Newspaper Article

Reynolds, G. (2019, April 9). Different strokes for athletic hearts. The New York Times, D4.

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Blog Post

Rutledge, P. (2019, March 11). The upside of social media. The Media Psychology Blog.
[Link]

Authored Book

Kaufman, K. A., Glass, C. R., & Pineau, T. R. (2018). Mindful sport performance
enhancement: Mental training for athletes and coaches. American Psychological
Association. [Link]

Edited Book Chapter

Zeleke, W. A., Hughes, T. L., & Drozda, N. (2020). Home–school collaboration to promote
mind–body health. In C. Maykel & M. A. Bray (Eds.), Promoting mind–body health in
schools: Interventions for mental health professionals (pp. 11–26). American
Psychological Association. [Link]

Online Dictionary Entry

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Internet addiction. In APA dictionary of

psychology. Retrieved April 24, 2020, from [Link]
addiction

Report by a Group Author

World Health Organization. (2014). Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal, infant
and young child nutrition.
[Link]
[Link]?ua=1

Report by Individual Authors

Winthrop, R., Ziegler, L., Handa, R., & Fakoya, F. (2019). How playful learning can help
leapfrog progress in education. Center for Universal Education at Brookings.
[Link] howplayfullearningcanhelp
[Link]

Press Release

American Psychological Association. (2020, March 2). APA reaffirms psychologists’ role in
combating climate change [Press release].
[Link] climate-change

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Dissertation from a Database

Horvath-Plyman, M. (2018). Social media and the college student journey: An

examination of how social media use impacts social capital and affects college
choice, access, and transition (Publication No.10937367) [Doctoral dissertation,
New York University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

Data Set

O’Donohue, W. (2017). Content analysis of undergraduate psychology textbooks (ICPSR

21600; Version V1) [Data set]. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social
Research. [Link]

Film or Video

Doctor, P., & Del Carmen, R. (Directors). (2015). Inside out [Film]. Walt Disney Pictures;
Pixar Animation Studios.

TV Series Episode

Dippold, K. (Writer), & Trim, M. (Director). (2011, April 14). Fancy party (Season 3, Episode
9) [TV series episode]. In G. Daniels, H. Klein, D. Miner, & M. Schur (Executive
Producers), Parks and recreation. Deedle-Dee Productions; Fremulon; 3 Arts
Entertainment; Universal Media Studios.

YouTube Video

Above The Noise. (2017, October 18). Can procrastination be a good thing? [Video].
YouTube. [Link]

Song or Track

Nirvana. (1991). Smells like teen spirit [Song]. On Nevermind. DGC.

Radio Broadcast

Hersher, R. (2020, March 19). Spring starts today all over America, which is weird [Radio
broadcast]. NPR. [Link]
all-overamerica-which-is-weird

Tweet

Obama, B. [@BarackObama]. (2020, April 7). It’s World Health Day, and we owe a
profound debt of gratitude to all our medical professionals. They’re still giving
[Tweet]. Twitter. [Link] BarackObama/status/1247555328365023238

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