1

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
●​ Viviparous (gives birth to live young instead of laying eggs)
●​ Involves:
1.​ Gametogenesis
2.​ Insemination
3.​ Fertilisation
4.​ Zygote → Morula → Blastocyst → Implantation → Foetus → Parturition
(childbirth)

[The secondary oocyte becomes a zygote, then morula, then blastocyst and reaches
the uterus after 4-5 days. The change of a secondary oocyte to a morula takes place
in the fallopian tube and blastocyst is formed in the uterus.]

SEX ORGANS:

1.​ Primary sex organs: Those organs that produce gametes and sex hormones. (E.g.
testes in male and ovum in female)
2.​ Secondary sex organs: Those organs that do not produce gametes or sex hormones
but are essential for sexual reproduction (E.g. epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
vesicles etc. in male and uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina etc.)
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HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

1.​ Scrotum: It is a pouch of deeply pigmented skin divided into two sacks. Each sac
contains one testis. Scrotal sacks keep the testes at a temperature of 2 to 2.5-degree
Celsius, lower than the internal body temperature, which is essential for the
formation of sperms.​
(If the testes fail to descend into the scrotal sacs, sperms forming tissues are killed
inside the abdomen due to high temperature. Hence, failure of testes to descend
into the scrotum produces sterility.)
2.​ Testis: In adults, each testis is oval in shape with a length of about 4-5 cm and a
width of about 2-3 cm. The testis is covered by a dense covering (Tunica vaginalis,
Tunica albuginea and Tunica vasculosa). Each testis has about 250 compartments
called the testicular lobules.

2. THE TESTES:

1.​ Seminiferous tubules: Each lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous
tubules in which sperms are produced. Each seminiferous tubule is lined by two
types of cells- germ cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells (which provides nutrition
to the germ cells.). The male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions leading to sperm
formation.
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2.​ Leydig cells (Interstitial cells): In the interstitial spaces, there are present, small
vessels and groups of rounded interstitials or Leydig's cells. They secrete
androgens (E.g. testosterone)
3.​ Rete testis: The seminiferous tubules from different areas of a testis converge to
form a network of interconnected tubes called the rete testis.
4.​ Vasa efferentia: They are fine ciliated ductules that arise from the rete testis. They
vary from 15-20 in number and carry sperm from the Rete Testis to the Epididymis.
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#Functions of the Testis:

●​ Production of sperms
●​ Secretion of male sex hormones. e.g. testosterone.

ACCESSORY DUCT SYSTEM:

3.​ EPIDIDYMIS:

It is a long narrow, highly coiled tube present along the posterior surface of each testis.

#Functions:

-​ epididymis is involved in the storage of sperms. (for 18 hours)

-​ provides nutrition to the sperms.
-​ makes the sperms motile.

PARTS OF THE EPIDIDYMIS:

-​ Caput epididymis
-​ Corpus epididymis
-​ Cauda epididymis

Q. What is epididymis?
Ans: Epididymis is a long narrow and highly coiled tube present in the posterior surface of
each testis.

Q. Where are the sperms stored in man?

Ans: The sperms are stored in the epididymis which is present in the posterior surface of
each testis.

Q. Sperms of an ejaculate are non-motile in a human male. Which part of the male
reproductive system is likely to be in defect?
Ans: The epididymis is likely to be in defect if the sperms of an ejaculate in a human male is
found to be non-motile.

4. VASA DEFERENTIA:

A Vas deferens emerges from the Cauda epididymis on each side and leaves the scrotal sac,
where it is joined by the duct from the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct.
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#Functions: They carry sperms from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.

5. EJACULATORY DUCT: (One pair)

They are two short tubes each formed by the union of the duct from a seminal vesicle and a
vas deferens.

#Functions: They carry sperms and secretion of seminal vesicles.

​ 6. URETHRA:

It originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its external
opening called urethral meatus. It joins the ejaculatory duct to form the urinogenital canal.
Note: The urethra is known as the urinogenital canal because it carries both urine and
gametes i.e. the sperms.

#Functions: Conduction of sperms, secretion of accessory reproductive glands (secretion

of the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and the bulbourethral gland or the cowper’s gland)
and urine.

[Link]:

It is the male external genitalia. It is made up of a special tissue that helps in erection of the
penis to facilitate insemination.

The enlarged end of the penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called
the foreskin.

Note: the glans penis is highly sensitive and is homologous to the clitoris in females.

MALE ACCESSORY GLANDS:

There are three types:

1.​ Seminal vesicles:
These are a pair of glands situated in the pelvis between the bladder and the rectum.
The ducts of the seminal glands join the vas deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.

#Functions: They produce an alkaline secretion that forms about 60 to 70% of the
volume of semen.
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Note: The alkaline secretion of the seminal vesicle contains-

-​ Fructose: which provides energy to the sperm.
-​ Prostaglandin (a protein that acts like a hormone): stimulates
uterine contraction that helps sperm to propel towards the oviduct.
-​ Clotting protein
-​ Calcium ions.

2.​ Prostate Gland:

It is a large, spongy organ which surrounds the proximal part of the urethra. It pours
its alkaline secretion into the urethra by 20 to 30 openings.

#Functions: It produces a milky fluid constituting 20-30% of the volume of semen.

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3.​ Bulbourethral gland (Cowper’s gland):

These are a pair of small yellow colour glands present at the base of the penis.

#Functions: They secrete a mucus like substance that lubricates the penis for
frictionless movement of the penis during copulation (sexual intercourse).

INTERSTITIAL SPACE: (the space between the seminiferous tubules)

​
Interstitial space (between the seminiferous tubules) contains:
-​ Leydig’s cells
-​ Small blood vessels
-​ Immunologically competent cells
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ONSET OF PUBERTY:

Puberty is the period where sex organs start functioning. In human male, it is characterised
by the onset of spermatogenesis in testes.

Period: attained between 13 to 16 years.

Control: In male, it is controlled by testosterone.

#Characters of puberty:
-​ Rapid growth
-​ Growth of facial hair, axillary hair, pubic hair etc.
-​ Hoarseness of the voice.

HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

It consists of:
-​ A pair of ovaries
-​ A pair of fallopian tubes (oviducts)
-​ Uterus
-​ Vagina
-​ External genitalia

1.​ OVARIES:

They are the primary sex organs that produce the female gamete (ovum) and several steroid
hormones (Ovarian hormones). The ovaries are located one on each side of the lower
abdomen. Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected to the pelvic wall and
uterus by ligaments.

Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma. The stroma
is divided into two zones - a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.

#Functions of the ovary:

-​ Production of the ova
-​ Secretion of sex hormones - Estrogens and progesterone (maintains pregnancy)
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FEMALE ACCESSORY DUCTS:

-​ Oviducts (fallopian tubes)
-​ Uterus
-​ Vagina

2.​ FALLOPIAN TUBES (OVIDUCTS):

Each fallopian tube is about 10-15 cm long and extends from the periphery of each ovary to
the uterus.

It is divided into three parts:

-​ Infundibulum → It is a funnel shaped part of the oviduct which is closer to the
ovary. The edges of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called the
fimbriae, which helps in the collection of ovum from the ovary.

(There is a hole called the Ostium between the fimbriae through which the sperm
enters the oviduct. The Ostium is in the palm of the hand if the fingers of the hand
are represented by the fimbriae. Ostium is a fimbriated aperture.)
-​ Ampulla → The infundibulum leads to the wider part of the oviduct called the
ampulla.
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-​ Isthmus → The last part of the oviduct, isthmus has a narrow lumen and it joins the
uterus.

#Functions of the fallopian tube:

-​ It is the site of fertilisation

-​ Conduction of ovum or zygote towards uterus by ciliary action and peristalsis.

NOTE: The viability of the ovum is 24 hours i.e. ovum has to fuse with a sperm during this
period. The ovum takes 4-5 days to reach the uterus. So, fertilisation cannot take place in
the uterus.

Q. Where does fertilisation take place in the human?

Ans: The fertilisation takes place in the Ampulla-Isthmus junction of the fallopian tube in
the human female.

3.​ UTERUS (WOMB):

-​ The uterus is single.

-​ The shape of the uterus is like an inverted pear.
-​ It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall.
-​ The uterus opens into the vagina through a narrow cervix.
-​ The cavity of the cervix is called the cervical canal which along with vagina forms
the birth canal.

#Walls of the uterus:

The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue:

-​ Perimetrium: The external thin membranous protective layer.

-​ Myometrium: It is the middle thick layer of smooth muscles.
-​ Endometrium: It is the inner glandular layer that lines the uterine cavity.
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[NOTE: The uterus is highly flexible. However, the perimetrium itself is not flexible in the way
myometrium layer is. Its main function is to reduce friction between the uterus and nearby
organs, provide a smooth outer surface and offer some protection, not movement.

However, even though the perimetrium itself is not actively flexible, it goes along the ride when
myometrium and the uterus expands.

The perimetrium is not flexible on its own, but stretchable enough to accommodate the
movement and growth of the uterus beneath it.

The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during the menstrual cycle while myometrium
exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the baby.]

#Parts of the uterus:

-​ Fundus
-​ Body
-​ cervix

#DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENDOMETRIUM AND MYOMETRIUM:

ENDOMETRIUM MYOMETRIUM

It is the inner glandular layer of the wall of It is the thick muscular middle layer of the
the uterus. wall of the uterus.

It undergoes cyclic changes during It is involved in uterus movement.

menstrual cycle and implantation of
blastocyst takes on endometrium.

#Functions of the uterus:

-​ It is the site of implantation and foetal growth during pregnancy.

-​ It also takes place in placenta formation and expelling of the baby during
parturition (childbirth).

FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA):

It includes - mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and clitoris.
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1.​ Mons pubis: It is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
2.​ Labia majora: It is the fleshy folds of tissue which extends down from the mons
pubis and surrounds the vaginal opening.
3.​ Labia minora: They are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora.

The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction of the two labia
minora above the urethral opening.

Note:
-​ The labia minora fuses at the bottom to form the frenulum.
-​ The zygote takes 4-5 days to reach the uterus after fertilisation.

The opening of the vagina is often covered by a membrane called the hymen (perforated
during menstrual cycle) . The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse).
However, it can be broken by sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon, active
participation in some sports like horseback riding, cycling etc. In some women, hymen
persists even after coitus. In fact, the presence or absence of the hymen is not a reliable
indicator of virginity or sexual experience.

MAMMARY GLAND (BREAST):

-​ A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all the female mammals. They are
paired structures that contain glandular tissues and variable amounts of fat.
-​ The glandular tissues of each breast are divided into 15 to 20 mammary lobes
containing clusters of cells called alveoli.
-​ The cells of alveoli secrete milk which is stored in the cavities of the alveoli
(lumen).
-​ The alveoli opens into the mammary tubules.
-​ The tubules of each lobe join to form the mammary duct.
-​ Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connected
to lactiferous duct, through which milk is sucked out.
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Notes:
-​ The anterior lobe of the pituitary secretes the hormone prolactin which
stimulates the alveoli to secrete milk.
-​ The secreted milk is stored in the alveolar cavity.
Alveoli → Alveolar cavity → Mammary tubule → Mammary duct → Mammary Ampulla
→ Lactiferous duct.

ONSET OF PUBERTY IN HUMAN FEMALE:

-​ In females, puberty is characterised by the beginning of ovulation and menstrual

cycle.
-​ Puberty in females comes between 10 to 14 years.

Control: Puberty in females is initiated by estrogen hormones.

2012: COUNCIL
Q. When does a woman attain puberty?
Ans:​ A woman attains puberty when she begins ovulating and experiences her first
menstrual cycle, meaning she is now biologically capable of reproducing.
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Puberty in women is characterised by:

-​ Breast enlargement
-​ Accumulation of fats beneath the skin in the face, neck, buttock etc.
-​ Growth of axillary hairs, pubic hair etc.
Note: Growth in females, stops after attaining puberty.

GAMETOGENESIS: (It is the process of formation and differentiation of gametes

(haploid) from diploid germ cells.)

In male → (Spermatogenesis) In female → (Oogenesis)

Occurs in seminiferous tubules. Occurs in the ovary.

At puberty → till death Menstrual cycle (Menarche) → till

Menopause (50 ± 5 yrs)

SPERMATOGENESIS:

-​ It is the process of formation of haploid spermatozoa

(sperms) from diploid spermatogonia inside testes of
male.

-​ It occurs in the seminiferous tubules of testes.

-​ It begins during puberty and continues uninterrupted

throughout the life of an adult, though it declines in later
life.

-​ At sexual maturity, the male germ cells (spermatogonia)

present on the inside wall of seminiferous tubules
multiply by mitotic divisions and increase in numbers.
Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 (44 + XY)
chromosomes.

-​ Some of the spermatogonia called primary

spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis. A primary spermatocyte completes
meiosis-I (reduction division) leading to the formation of two equal haploid cells
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called secondary spermatocytes, which have only 23 chromosomes each (22 + X)

and (22 + Y).

-​ The secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis-II (second meiotic division) to

produce four equal haploid spermatids.

-​ The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called
spermiogenesis (differentiation phase).

NOTE:
-​ From a single spermatogonium to millions of spermatogonia → multiplication phase.
-​ From the spermatogonia to primary spermatocyte → growth phase. After undergoing
multiple mitotic divisions, the spermatogonia increases in size and transforms into primary
spermatocytes.
-​ The transformation of the primary spermatocyte to the spermatids → Maturation phase.
Maturation phase begins when meiosis-II starts.
-​ In human male, the formation of sperms begins in the seminiferous tubules and ends in the
seminiferous tubules.

Q. What would be the number of chromosomes in spermatids?

Ans: 23 (haploid).

Q. When and where does spermatogenesis in a human male begin to take place?
Ans: Spermatogenesis begins in the seminiferous tubules of the testes in human male.

Q. A spermatogonial cell has 30 chromosomes. How many chromosomes will be formed

in –
i) primary spermatocyte
ii) spermatid derived from this cell.

Ans: i) A primary spermatocyte is diploid, so it has 30 chromosomes.

30
ii) A spermatid is haploid, so it has 2
= 15 chromosomes.
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CELL Chromosome No. of cell Cell division Phase

Spermatogonium Diploid 1 Mitosis Multiplication

(2n=44+XY) phase

Primary Diploid 1 Mitosis Growth phase

spermatocyte (2n=44+XY)

Secondary Haploid 2 After Meiosis-I Maturation

spermatocyte (n=22+X) and phase
(n=22+Y)

Spermatid Haploid 4 After Meiosis-II Maturation

(n=22+X) and phase
(n=22+Y)

Sperms Haploid 4 Differentiation

(spermatozoa) (n=22+X) and phase
(n=22+Y)

#DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPERMATOGENESIS AND SPERMIOGENESIS:

SPERMATOGENESIS SPERMIOGENESIS

It is the process of formation of It is the process of differentiation of

spermatozoa from germinal cells. spermatozoa from spermatid.

It involves conversion of a diploid structure It changes a haploid structure into another

into a haploid structure. haploid structure.

A spermatogonium forms four spermatozoa A spermatid forms a single spermatozoan.

It involves multiplication phase, growth It consists of only the differentiation phase.

phase, maturation phase and
differentiation phase

SPERMIATION:

After spermatogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the sertoli cells and are finally
released from the seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation.

Q. Write a difference between spermiation and spermiogenesis.

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Ans: Spermiation is the process by which the sperm is released from the seminiferous
tubules and spermiogenesis is the process of differentiation of spermatozoa from a
spermatid.

HORMONAL CONTROL OF SPERMATOGENESIS:

-​ GnRH secreted by the hypothalamus acts on the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
and stimulates the secretion of two gonadotropins. FSH and LH. (GnRH =
gonadotropin releasing hormones.)
-​ LH acts on the Leydig’s cells to stimulate the secretion of androgen (E.g.
Testosterone).
-​ Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of spermatogenesis.
-​ FSH acts on the sertoli cells and stimulates the secretion of some factors (ADP),
which helps in the process of spermiogenesis.
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HUMAN SPERMATOZOA:

-​ It is a microscopic uniflagellate and motile male

gamete.
-​ A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of the
sperm.

NOTE:
-​ The Mitochondria spiral (Nebenkern) provides energy for sperm movement.
-​ There is a ring centriole at the end part of the middle piece.
-​ There are two centrioles in the neck → the proximal centriole, from which spindle
fibers are formed after fertilisation in the zygote and the distal centriole, from
which the axial filament is formed.
-​ Enzymes are present in the acrosome, which helps dissolve the membrane in the
ovum, helping in fertilisation.

Q. Draw a neat labelled diagram of a mammalian spermatozoon depicting proximal

1 1
centriole and mitochondrial spiral. (1+ 2
+ 2
= 2m)
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Sperm:
(4 parts)

SEMEN: The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen.

Note: It is controlled by testosterone.

OOGENESIS:

The process of formation of mature female gamete (ovum) is called [Link]

occurs in the ovaries.

Oogenesis is initiated during the early embryonic stage when a couple of million egg
mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each foetal ovary. No more oogonia are formed or
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added after birth. These Oogonia start division and enter Prophase-I, they get arrested
temporarily at this stage, and are called primary Oocytes.

Each primary Oocyte, then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells. This structure is
called the primary follicle. (A large number of primary follicles degenerate during the phase
from birth to puberty. Therefore , at puberty, only 60,000 to 80,000 primary follicles are
left in each ovary.)

The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca and
are called secondary follicles. (The theca layer forms outside the granulosa cells and is a
protective and hormone-secreting layer.)

The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterised by a
fluid filled cavity called the antrum.

The primary Oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size and completes meiosis-I
(reductional division), resulting in the formation of a large haploid secondary Oocyte and a
tiny 1st polar body. The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle (Graafian
follicle). The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the
ovary by the process called the ovulation.
(In human females, ovulation occurs at the secondary Oocyte stage in which meiosis-I has
been completed and the 1st polar body has been released. Meiosis-II is completed in the
mother’s oviduct usually after the sperm has entered the secondary oocyte for fertilisation.
So, in Oogenesis, a diploid Oogonium forms one ovum and two or three polar bodies.)
The oogonium forms two to three polar bodies as the first polar body can also undergo
meiosis-II to divide or it may not divide at all.
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Q. What is follicular atresia?

Ans: It is the self degeneration and breakdown of ovarian follicles that do not mature or do
not get ovulated.

SIGNIFICANCE OF OOGENESIS:

1.​ One Oogonium produces one ovum and two or three polar bodies.
2.​ During Meiosis-I, crossing over takes place, which brings about variation.
3.​ Polar bodies have small amounts of cytoplasm. It helps to retain a sufficient amount
of cytoplasm in the ovum which is essential for the development of early embryos.
Formation of polar bodies maintains the half number of chromosomes in the ovum.

OVULATION: The process of release of Ovum (at secondary Oocyte stage) from the ovary
is called ovulation. In humans, ovulation generally occurs on the 14th day before the onset
of next menstruation. It is induced by LH.

Q. What is ovulation? When will ovulation occur? Which hormone induces it?
Ans: Ovulation is the process of release of ovum from the ovary. It generally occurs on the
14th day before the onset of next menstruation. It is induced by LH.

#DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS:

SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS

It occurs in the seminiferous tubule. It occurs in the ovaries

Spermatogonia changes to primary Oogonia changes to primary Oocytes.

spermatocyte.

A primary spermatocyte divides to form A primary oocyte divides to form a

two secondary spermatocytes. secondary oocyte and one polar body.

A secondary spermatocyte divides to form A secondary oocyte divides to form one

two spermatids. ootid or ovum and one polar body.

No polar body is formed. Polar bodies are formed.

A spermatogonium forms four An oogonium forms one ovum.

spermatozoa.

It is generally completed in the testes and It is generally completed in the mother’s

mature sperms are released from the oviduct, usually after the sperm enters the
testes. secondary oocyte for fertilisation.
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CELL CHROMOSOME LOCATION CELL DIVISION STAGE MENSTRUAL

CYCLE

Oogonium Diploid Ovary Mitotic division During Not started

(migrated from (44+XX) foetal life
the yolk sac to
the ovary)

Primary Oocyte Diploid Ovary Meiosis-I starts Completed Menstrual phase

(44+XX) (Prophase-I) during foetal (when puberty
life. And starts)
stays till
puberty
starts.

From primary follicle to Graafian follicle → Follicular phase / Proliferative phase. (during puberty)

Secondary Haploid Ovary and Meiosis-I Puberty Follicular phase

Oocyte (22+X) Fallopian completed (ovulation occurs)
And tube And luteal phase
1st polar body

Ovum and 2nd Haploid Fallopian Meiosis-II Puberty till No menstruation

polar body (22+X) tube menopause.
(ampullary
region)

Corpus luteum absent Ovary absent Puberty Luteal phase

Q. At what stage of life is Oogenesis initiated in a human female? When does the Oocyte
complete Oogenesis?
Ans: Oogenesis is initiated in the early embryonic stage /early foetal life. The oocyte
completes Oogenesis after a sperm has entered the Oocyte.

Q. What are the changes in the Oogonia during the transition of a primary follicle to a
Graafian follicle?
Ans:​ Changes in the Oogonia during the transition of a primary follicle to a Graafian
follicle:
The transition of a primary follicle to a Graffian follicle is called the follicular phase
in the menstrual cycle. During this phase, each primary oocyte gets surrounded by a layer
of granulosa cells. This structure is called the primary follicle.
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The primary follicle gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new
theca and is called a secondary follicle. The secondary follicle soon transforms into a
tertiary follicle, which is characterised by a fluid filled cavity called the antrum.
The primary Oocyte inside the tertiary follicle grows in size and completes
Meiosis-I, resulting in the formation of a secondary Oocyte and a tiny 1st polar body. The
primary follicle changes into the mature follicle or the Graafian follicle.

HUMAN OVUM:
-​ Round
-​ Non-cleidoic (no shell)
-​ Non-yolky / microlecithal (=alecithal)

Q. Why do birds have yolk in their yolk sac and human females don’t?
Ans: In birds, embryonic growth takes place outside the mother and takes nutrients from
the yolk present from the yolk sac, while in human females, the embryonic growth takes
inside the mother’s uterus, and takes nutrients from the uterine wall. Hence, Birds have
yolk but human females don’t.

Fig. Secondary Oocyte (in section)

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#DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPERM AND OVUM:

SPERM OVUM

It is the male gamete It is the female gamete

It is motile It is non-motile

It has very small amount of cytoplasm It has a large amount of cytoplasm (ooplasm)

Mitochondria forms a spiral in the middle piece Mitochondria are scattered in the Ooplasm

Note: The mitochondria in the offspring is from the mother.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

The cyclic changes that take place in the female reproductive system for gamete
formation in primates (E.g. monkeys, apes and human beings) is called the menstrual cycle.

The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called the menarche.

In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29

days. One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual cycle. It is
absent during pregnancy and permanently stopped during menopause.

Note:

Situation Corpus Progesterone? Real Endometrial Still

Luteum? ovulation? shedding? Menstruation?

Regular cycle Yes✅ Yes ✅ Yes✅ Yes ✅ Yes✅

❌ No ❌ Yes ✅ Yes ✅
no❌
Menarche Usually Little or none
cycle (from
estrogen
drop)
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The menstrual cycle consist of 4 phases:

1.​ Menstrual phase:

The cycle starts with the menstrual phase, when menstrual flow occurs and it lasts for 3 to
5 days. The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus
and its blood vessels, which forms a liquid that comes out through the vagina.

NOTE: Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is not fertilised. Lack of
menstruation maybe indicative of pregnancy. However, it may also be caused due to
some other underlying causes like stress, poor health etc.

2.​ Follicular phase (Proliferative phase):

The menstrual phase is followed by the follicular phase. During this phase, the primary
follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature Graafian follicle and simultaneously the
endometrium of the uterus regenerates through proliferation.

The changes in the ovary and the uterus are induced by the changes in the levels of
pituitary hormones (FSH and LH) and ovarian hormones (estrogens).

The secretion of gonadotropins (FSH and LH) increases gradually during the follicular
phase and stimulates the follicular development as well as the secretion of estrogens by the
growing follicles.

3.​ Ovulatory phase:

Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle of a cycle (about 14th day). Rapid
secretion of LH, leading to its maximum level during the mid cycle called the LH surge
induces the rupture of the Graafian follicle and thereby the release of the ovum (at
secondary oocyte stage). This is called ovulation. In fact, LH causes ovulation.

4.​ Luteal phase (Secretory phase):

The ovulatory phase is followed by the luteal phase, during which the remaining parts of
the Graafian follicle transform as corpus luteum and secrete a large amount of
progesterone, which is essential for the maintenance of endometrium. Such an
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endometrium is necessary for the implantation of the fertilised ovum and other events of
pregnancy.

Note: During pregnancy, all events of the menstrual cycle stops and there is no
menstruation.

In absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes disintegration of

endometrium leading to menstruation marking a new cycle.

Q. Why is there no menstruation during pregnancy?

Ans: During pregnancy, the placenta which forms from the endometrium secretes a
hormone called hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin). The corpus luteum is kept alive by
hCG, and it continues to secrete progesterone which makes the endometrium thick and
rich in blood vessels. It also suppresses further ovulation during pregnancy. Hence, there is
no menstruation during pregnancy.
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Note:
-​ The Zona Pellucida is a non-cellular layer (cannot divide or increase in size).
-​ During implantation of the fertilised cell, the Zona Pellucida layer breaks when the
zygote multiplies through cell division.
-​ Progesterone gives negative feedback to the hypothalamus, suppressing further
ovulation during pregnancy.
-​ Progesterone also stimulates the glandular cells to secrete nutrients, which helps
in nourishing the fertilised egg.

Fig. Diagrammatic presentation of various events during a menstrual cycle

2022
Q. Trace the various phases of the menstrual cycle emphasizing the role of hormones in
human females. → 5m
 28

MENSTRUAL HYGIENE:

#DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROLIFERATIVE PHASE AND SECRETORY PHASE:

PROLIFERATIVE PHASE/FOLLICULAR SECRETORY PHASE/LUTEAL PHASE

PHASE

During this phase, one primary follicle It converts an empty Graafian follicle into
changes into the Graafian follicle. Corpus Luteum.

Estrogens are secreted Progesterone is secreted.

Endometrium is repaired and becomes 2 to Endometrium grows further to become 5 to

3 mm thick. 6 mm thick.

It extends from day 6th to 13th day in a 28 It extends from 15th day to 28th day in a 28
day cycle. day cycle.

Q. Differentiate between follicular phase and luteal phase based on the changes in ovary.

GRAAFIAN FOLLICLE CORPUS LUTEUM

The follicle contains one ovum (secondary An ovum is lacking.

Oocyte).

It has a cavity, antrum. It contains a central blood clot.

The granulosa cells secrete estrogens. It secretes Progesterone with a little

estrogen.

It grows under the influence of the FSH. It grows under the influence of LH.

It is formed during the follicular phase. It is formed during the luteal phase.
 29

#MENOPAUSE:
-​ It is the period when ovulation and menstrual cycle stop permanently in the human
female.
Period: attained between the age of 45 to 55 years. (Average = 52 years i.e. 50 ± 5)

Character:
-​ Hot flushes
-​ FSH in urine.

MENARCHE MENOPAUSE

It refers to the beginning of menstruation It refers to the stoppage of menstruation

in puberty in human females. and ovulation in human females.

It occurs at about 13 years of age. It occurs between the ages of 45 to 55

years.

It marks the beginning of the reproductive It marks the end of the reproductive phase.
phase.

E.g.
 30

Q. In which part of the human female reproductive system do the following events take
place.
1.​ Release of 1st polar body.
2.​ Release of 2nd polar body.
3.​ Fertilisation.
4.​ Implantation.

Ans:
1.​ Ovary
2.​ Fallopian tube after a sperm has entered the secondary oocyte.
3.​ Ampullary region of the Fallopian tube
4.​ Uterus

#FERTILISATION:
-​ It is the fusion of a haploid sperm with a haploid ovum to form a zygote (2n).

Site of Fertilisation: Ampullary region of the fallopian tube.

Q. “All copulations do not lead to pregnancy.” Justify.

Ans: Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and the sperms are transported
simultaneously to the ampullary region. This is the reason why not all copulation leads to
fertilization and pregnancy.

#PHYSICOCHEMICAL EVENTS OF FERTILISATION: (3m)

The secretion of acrosome (enzymes) help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the
ovum through the Zona Pellucida and the plasma membrane. This induces the completion
of Meiosis II of the secondary oocyte. During fertilisation, a sperm comes in contact with
the Zona Pellucida layer of the ovum and induces changes in the membrane that block the
entry of additional sperms. Thus, it ensures that only one sperm can fertilise an ovum.
 31

The second meiotic division is also unequal and results in the formation of a second
polar body and a haploid ovum. Soon, the haploid nucleus of the sperm and that of the
ovum fuse together to form a diploid zygote.

#SIGNIFICANCE OF FERTILISATION:
1.​ It provides stimulation for completion of Meiosis II.
2.​ The diploid chromosome number is restored.
3.​ It determines the sex of the baby depending upon the chromosome complement of
the fusing sperm.
4.​ It combines the characters of two parents.
 32

HUMAN MALE HUMAN FEMALE

Heteromorphic (having different types of Homomorphic (having similar sex

sex chromosomes) chromosomes)

Heterogametic (producing two types of Homogametic (producing only one type of

sperms) ova)

After fusion of sperm and ovum, the zygote would carry either XX or XY depending on
whether the sperm carrying X or Y fertilized the ovum. The zygote carrying XX would
develop into a female baby and XY would form a male.

Q. In our society, women are often blamed for giving birth to daughters. Can you explain
this is not correct. →(2m)
Ans: The sex of the baby is determined at the time of fertilisation. After the fusion of a
sperm and an ovum, the zygote would carry either XX or XY set of chromosomes
depending on whether the sperm carrying X or Y chromosome fertilized the ovum. The
zygote carrying XX would develop into a female baby while the zygote carrying XY would
develop into a male. Therefore, blaming women for giving birth to daughters is not correct.
 33

Fig: 23 chromosome pairs containing XX pair of chromosomes (22 autosomes + XX

chromosome pair)

Fig: 23 chromosome pairs containing XY pair of chromosome (22 autosomes + XY

chromosome pair)
 34

#POST FERTILISATION CHANGES:

a)​ Morula stage:

The mitotic division starts as the zygote

moves through the isthmus of the oviduct called
cleavage towards the uterus and forms 2,4,8,16
daughter cells called blastomeres.

The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called

a morula. The morula reaches the uterus in 4 to 6
days after fertilisation. It is surrounded by Zona
Pellucida.

b)​ Blastocyst stage:

​ The morula continues to divide and

transforms into blastocyst as it moves further into
the uterus.

​ The blastomeres of the blastocyst are

arranged into an outer layer called the trophoblast
and an inner group of cells attached to the
trophoblast called the inner cell mass. The inner cell
mass is the precursor of the embryo and hence
called the stem cell. The trophoblast does not take
part in the formation of the embryo proper and
gives rise to the extra embryonic membranes.

c)​ Implantation:

​ It is the attachment of the blastocyst to the

uterine wall. The trophoblast layer gets attached to the endometrium and the inner cell
mass gets differentiated as the embryo. After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly
and cover the blastocyst. As a result, the blastocyst becomes embedded in the
endometrium of the uterus. This is called implantation and it leads to pregnancy.
 35

MORULA BLASTOCYST/BLASTULA

It is a solid sphere of cells formed by the It is a hollow (blastocoel) sphere of cells of

cleavage of the zygote. blastomeres.

Zona Pellucida remains intact. Zona Pellucida disintegrates.

At this stage, the embryo moves from the Implantation occurs at this stage.
fallopian tube to the uterus.

Q. What name is given to the inner cell mass that has the potential to give rise to all the
tissues and organs in a human being?
Ans: Stem cell.

Q. Draw a sectional view of a human blastocyst and label trophoblast and inner cell mass.
Mention the fact of trophoblast after implantation.
Ans:

Fig: Sectional view of a blastocyst.

​ The trophoblast develops into the extra embryonic membrane after implantation.
 36

#PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT:

After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called the

chorionic villi which are surrounded by uterine tissues and maternal blood.

The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other
and jointly form the placenta.

Q. Describe how placenta is formed in human beings?

Ans: After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called the
chorionic villi, which are surrounded by uterine tissues and maternal blood. The chorionic
villi and the uterine tissues become interdigitated with each other and jointly form the
placenta.

#PLACENTA:

A structured and functional unit between the developing embryo (foetus) and the uterine
endometrium of the mother is called the placenta.

#Functions of the placenta:

1.​ Nutrition- All the nutrient elements from the material blood pass into the foetus
through the placenta.
2.​ Respiration- Placenta helps in the exchange of respiratory gases (O2 from the
mother and CO2 from the foetus) between the foetus and mother.
3.​ Excretion- Foetus eliminates its nitrogenous and other wastes through the
placenta.
4.​ Endocrine function-
Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like
hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin), hPL (Human Placental Lactogen), estrogens,
progestogens etc.

In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called the relaxin is also secreted
by the Corpus Luteum of the ovary. hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women
only during pregnancy.
 37

#FORMATION OF THE THREE PRIMARY GERM LAYER:

Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer
layer called the ectoderm and an inner layer called the endoderm.

A mesoderm soon appears between the ectoderm and the endoderm. These three layers
give rise to all the tissues (organs) in adults.

The inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem cells which have the potency to give
rise to all the tissues and organs.
 38

#IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN THE HUMAN EMBRYO: 5m→ 2026

​ Pregnancy is primarily divided into three month periods called trimesters.

A.​ First trimester:

-​ In human beings, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo’s heart is formed.
-​ The first sign of the growing foetus maybe noticed by listening to the heart sound
carefully through the stethoscope.
-​ By the end of second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs and digits.
-​ By the end of the 12th week, most of the major organ systems are formed, e.g. the
limbs and the external genital organs.

B.​ Seconds trimester:

-​ The first movement of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually
observed during the 5th month. (starts kicking at this stage)
-​ By the end of about 24 weeks (end of the second trimester), the body is covered with
fine hair, eyelids separate and eyelashes are formed.

C.​ Third trimester:

-​ By the end of 9 months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for
delivery.

2026-COUNCIL.
Q. What are the major features of embryonic development at various months of
pregnancy? → 5m

2017-COUNCIL
Q. A woman has conceived and implantation has occurred in her uterus. Explain the
sequence of changes upto parturition which takes place within her body. → 5m
39
 40

#PARTURITION:
-​ The process of expelling the fully termed young one from the mother’s uterus.

The signals for childbirth originate from the fully mature foetus and the placenta, which
induce mile uterine contraction called the foetal ejection reflex. This triggers the release of
oxytocin from the maternal posterior pituitary.

Oxytocin acts on myometrium. It causes stronger contraction of myometrium which leads

to the expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal.
 41

Q. What do you think the doctors inject to induce delivery?

Ans: Synthetic oxytocin.

Q. From where do the signals for parturition originate and what does maternal pituitary
release for stimulating uterine contractions for childbirth?
Ans: The signals for parturition originate from the fully mature foetus and the placenta. The
maternal pituitary releases oxytocin for stimulating uterine contractions for childbirth.

#LACTATION:
-​ Production of milk in the mammary glands.

Synthesis of milk by alveolar epithelium of mammary glands and its passage through the
duct system is regulated by prolactin hormone.

Ejection of milk is stimulated by the hormone oxytocin from the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland.
 42

2024-COUNCIL
Q. Why is colostrum very much essential for newborn infants?
Ans: Colostrum contains antibodies which provide passive immunity to the newborn infant.
Hence, colostrum is very essential for newborn infants.