Unit-2

Types of reactors and classification. Considerations in

selection and properties of common materials used as
fuels, their physical and chemical properties; canning
materials; coolants; control rods; reflectors and shielding
materials.
 Six types of reactor (Magnox, AGR, PWR, BWR, CANDU and
RBMK) have emerged as the designs used to produce commercial
electricity around the world.
Gas Cooled, Graphite Moderated
two (Magnox and AGR) owe much to the very earliest
reactor designs in that they are graphite moderated and
gas cooled.

The Magnox reactor is named after the magnesium

alloy used to encase the fuel, which is natural uranium
metal.

The whole assembly is cooled by blowing carbon

dioxide gas past the fuel cans, which are specially
designed to enhance heat transfer. The hot gas then
converts water to steam in a steam generator.

Unfortunately, magnox is increasingly reactive with increasing temperature, and the use of this
material limited the operational gas temperatures to 360 °C
In order to improve the cost effectiveness of this type of reactor, it was necessary to go
to higher temperatures to achieve higher thermal efficiencies and higher power
densities to reduce capital costs. This entailed increases in cooling gas pressure and
changing from Magnox to stainless steel cladding and from uranium metal to uranium
dioxide fuel.

The CO2 coolant circulates in the core,

which reaches a temperature of 640 °C
and a pressure of about 40 bar. Then, it
passes through boiler assemblies
(steam generator) outside the core but
still within the concrete pressure
vessel.
Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated
The only design of heavy water moderated reactor in commercial use is the CANDU, designed in
Canada and subsequently exported to several countries.

In the CANDU reactor, (see Fig 1.2)

unenriched uranium dioxide is held in
zirconium alloy cans loaded into horizontal
zirconium alloy tubes
The fuel is cooled by pumping heavy
water through the tubes (under high
pressure to prevent boiling)

The necessary additional moderation is

achieved by immersing the zirconium
alloy tubes in an unpressurised
container (called a callandria)
containing more heavy water.
Control is effected by inserting or
withdrawing cadmium rods from the
callandria.
Water Cooled and Moderated
By moving to greater levels of enrichment of U235, it is possible to tolerate a greater level of neutron absorption in the
core (that is, absorption by non-fissile, non-fertile materials) and thus use ordinary water as both a moderator and a
coolant.

The most widely used reactor type in the world is the Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) which uses
enriched (about 3.2% U235) uranium dioxide as a fuel in zirconium alloy cans.

The fuel, which is arranged in arrays of

fuel "pins" and interspersed with the
movable control rods, is held in a steel
vessel through which water at high pressure
(to suppress boiling) is pumped to
act as both a coolant and a moderator. The
high-pressure water is then passed
through a steam generator, which raises
steam in the usual way.
The second type of water cooled and
moderated reactor does away with the steam
generator and, by allowing the water within the
reactor circuit to boil, it raises steam directly for
electrical power generation. This, however,
leads to some radioactive contamination of the
steam circuit and turbine, which then requires
shielding of these components in addition to
that surrounding the reactor.
Water Cooled, Graphite Moderated
At about the same time as the British gas cooled, graphite moderated Magnox design was being
commissioned at Calder Hall in 1956, the Russians were testing a water cooled, graphite moderated plant
at Obninsk. The design, known as the RBMK Reactor

The layout consists of a large graphite core

containing some 1700 vertical channels, each
containing enriched uranium dioxide fuel (1.8%
U235). Heat is removed from the fuel by
pumping water under pressure up through the
channels where it is allowed to boil, to steam
drums, thence driving electrical turbo-
generators
PBMR - Pebble Bed Modular Reactor

The reactor is a helium-cooled graphite moderated unit of 100MWe

Fuel elements are spherical 'pebbles' 60mm in diameter of

graphite containing tiny spheres of uranium dioxide coated
with carbon and silicon carbide. This coating retains the
gaseous and volatile fission products generated in operation.

When fully loaded the core contains 310,000 fuel

spheres; re-fuelling is done on-line with irradiated
spheres being withdrawn at the base of the
reactor and fresh fuel elements being added at
the top.
TRISO stands for TRi-structural ISOtropic particle fuel. Each TRISO particle is made up
of a uranium, carbon and oxygen fuel kernel. The kernel is encapsulated by three layers of
carbon- and ceramic-based materials that prevent the release of radioactive fission
products.
Fast Reactors
All of today's commercially successful reactor systems are "thermal" reactors, using slow or thermal neutrons to
maintain the fission chain reaction in the U235 fuel. Even with the enrichment levels used in the fuel for such
reactors, however, by far the largest numbers of atoms present are U238, which are not fissile.
design a reactor which overall produces more fissile material in the form of Plutonium than it
consumes. This is the fast reactor in which the neutrons are unmoderated, hence the term "fast".
they have the potential to increase the energy
available from a given quantity of uranium by a
factor of fifty or more, and can utilise the
existing stocks of depleted uranium, which
would otherwise have no value.
Sodium circulated through the core heats
a secondary loop of sodium coolant,
which then heats water in a steam
generator to raise steam.

The core is either immersed in a pool of coolant, or

coolant is pumped through the core and thence to
a heat exchanger.
Reactor Type Moderator Coolant Fuel Key Features Advantages Challenges
Gas-Cooled High operating temps, High efficiency, fuel High costs, material
Natural/Enrich
Reactors Graphite CO₂ or He graphite moderator, gas flexibility, low water degradation, limited
ed Uranium
(GCRs) coolant. usage. deployment.
No enrichment
Heavy Water Heavy Uses heavy water for Heavy water is expensive,
Heavy Water Natural needed, high neutron
Reactors Water moderation and cooling, complex design, lower
(D₂O) Uranium economy, fuel
(CANDU) (D₂O) online refueling. power density.
flexibility.
Water-Cooled Light Most common design, Proven technology, Requires enriched
Light Water Enriched
& Moderated Water uses light water for high power density, uranium, high water usage,
(H₂O) Uranium
(PWR/BWR) (H₂O) moderation and cooling. reliable. corrosion risks.
Water-Cooled Safety concerns (positive
Light Graphite moderator,
Graphite- Enriched Online refueling, high void coefficient), graphite
Graphite Water water coolant, channel-
Moderated Uranium power output. degradation, complex
(H₂O) type design.
(RBMK) design.

Pebble Bed Pebble-shaped fuel,

TRISO fuel Inherent safety, high High initial costs, helium
Modular Helium high-temperature
Graphite (Uranium/Thor efficiency, fuel leakage, limited
Reactor (He) operation, modular
ium) flexibility, low waste. operational experience.
(PBMR) design.

High costs, coolant

Uses fast neutrons, High fuel efficiency,
None (Fast Liquid Uranium-238, handling challenges,
Fast Reactors breeds fissile material, waste reduction,
Neutrons) Metal/Gas Plutonium-239 limited commercial
burns nuclear waste. breeding capability.
experience.
Unit-2

Types of reactors and classification. Considerations in

selection and properties of common materials used as
fuels, their physical and chemical properties; canning
materials; coolants; control rods; reflectors and shielding
materials.
Thorium (Th-232) is not itself fissile and so is not directly usable in a thermal neutron reactor.
However, it is ‘fertile’ and upon absorbing a neutron will transmute to uranium-233 (U-233), which
is an excellent fissile fuel material. In this regard it is similar to uranium-238 (which transmutes to
plutonium-239).

The breeding of uranium-233 from thorium is more efficient than the breeding of plutonium from
uranium-238, because less of various nonfissile isotopes is created along the way.

There are some other pluses as well. For example, thorium dioxide, the form of thorium used for
nuclear power, is a highly stable compound—more so than the uranium dioxide typically employed in
today's fuel. So there is less concern that the fuel pellets could react chemically with the metal cladding
around them or with the cooling water should there be a breach in the protective cladding.
a gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactor called
Peach Bottom Unit One, located in southeastern
Pennsylvania, used a combination of thorium and
highly enriched uranium in the mid-1960s.

And between 1977 and 1982, more complicated

combinations of thorium and either uranium-235
or uranium-233 were also employed in a water-
cooled reactor at Shippingport, Pennsylvania, in an
experimental program seeking to develop a fuel
that produces more fissile material than it
consumes.
UO2 is the most widely used fuel material in a nuclear power reactor. The unique properties of UO2 are (1) high
melting point (2800°C), (2) chemical stability, (3) compatibility with cladding, (4) excellent irradiation stability and
(5) ease of fabrication.

The major disadvantages of oxide fuel are its low uranium density and poor thermal conductivity. The low density
of uranium atoms in UO2 requires a larger core for a given amount of fissile species than if a fuel of higher
uranium density were used.

The fluorite crystal structure of UO2. Uranium ions shown in blue and oxygen ions shown in red
Property UO2 PuO2 MOX Fuel ThO2

Density (g/cm³) 10.97 11.5 10.5 10

Melting Point (°C) 2800 2700 ~2750 3300

Thermal
Conductivity Low (2-3) Low (2-3) Moderate High (4-5)
(W/m·K)
Corrosion
High High Moderate Very High
Resistance

Fissile Component 235U 239Pu 235U+239Pu 233U (bred from 232Th)

Neutron Economy Moderate Poor Moderate High

Fuel cladding is the outer layer of the fuel rods, standing
between the reactor coolant and the nuclear fuel (i.e., fuel
pellets). It is a corrosion-resistant material with a low absorption
cross section for thermal neutrons (~ 0.18 × 10–24 cm2),
usually zirconium alloy.

Cladding prevents radioactive fission products from escaping

the fuel matrix into the reactor coolant and contaminating it.
Cladding constitutes one of the barriers in the ‘defense-in-depth
‘approach. Therefore its coolability is one of the key safety
aspects.
Cladding prevents radioactive fission products from escaping the fuel matrix
into the
reactor coolant and contaminating it. The emergence of a leak in that cladding
results in:

• the transport of specific chemical elements (fission products) that are

stable and radioactive (iodine, xenon, krypton…) into the reactor’s
primary circuit
• deposits of long-lived isotopes (cesium, strontium, technetium…), or even,
in exceptional circumstances, of alpha emitters onto the piping of the
primary circuit or ancillary circuits
• an increase in the overall level of irradiation for that circuit from the level
already due to activation products (corrosion products, e.g., cobalt,
chromium, iron in particular)
Zirconium Alloy
The early development of zirconium metallurgy was essentially due to the nuclear
power generating industry, and where zirconium alloys are now regarded as the
proven structural material for nuclear fuel cladding in light water reactors. This is
primarily because of the alloy’s unique combination of good corrosion resistance in
the water chemistry at 300oC and low capture cross-section for thermal neutrons.
Low neutron absorption is vital to any structural material used in a nuclear reactor
because large numbers of neutrons produced by the reaction must be free to
interact simultaneously with all the nuclear fuel confined inside hundreds of fuel
rods. This interaction sustains the necessary chain reaction throughout the reactor's
core.

The improvement brought about by the additive niobium probably involves a

different mechanism. The high corrosion resistance of niobium alloyed metals in
water and steam at temperatures of 400–550°C is caused by their ability to
passivation with the formation of protective films.
In the event of a loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) in a pressurized water reactor, depressurization of
the primary circuit may cause the Zircaloy fuel cladding to balloon as a result of internal pressure in
the fuel rods

If clad ballooning were to continue without rupturing, the flow of emergency core cooling water would be
restricted because of excessive interaction between adjacent fuel rods, causing blockage of sub-channels.
With the increasing of hydrogen concentration, the volume fraction of newly nucleated voids in
the cladding increases significantly due to precipitated hydrogen, which could result in a higher
risk of cladding brittle failure at a relatively low temperature.
Chromium-coated Fuel Cladding

Accident tolerant fuels (ATF) are a series of new nuclear fuel concepts researched to improve fuel
performance during normal operation, transient conditions, and accident scenarios, such as loss-of-coolant
accidents (LOCA) or reactivity-initiated accidents (RIA).
Chromium is one of the possible coating elements for accident-tolerant fuel. Cr-coated zirconium cladding and other
metallic-coated claddings significantly reduce the high-temperature oxidation rates. The coating thickness is usually
between 20 and 30 mm. All investigated coating materials (Cr, FeCrAl, Cr-Al, CrN) are harder than zirconium alloys, so
if the coating is sufficiently thick (>30μ), then mechanical properties will be modified with increased strength and
reduced ductility. The increased hardness of the coating materials has the benefit of potentially protecting the
cladding against fretting and wear. Therefore Cr-coating may significantly reduce the risk of cladding damages due to
debris or grid-to-rod fretting.

These upgrades include:

• specially designed additives to standard fuel pellets intended to improve various properties and performance
• robust coatings applied to the outside of standard claddings intended to reduce corrosion, increase wear
resistance, and reduce the production of hydrogen under high-temperature (accident) conditions
• development of completely new fuel designs with ceramic cladding and different fuel materials

the corrosion of Cr-coated zirconium alloys is reduced to close to zero, thus also decreasing the hydrogen uptake
by the cladding. The cladding will, therefore, not exhibit hydrogen embrittlement, leading to increased operating
margins and potentially longer fuel rod irradiations.
Advanced Steels

FeCrAl alloys consist mainly of iron, chromium (20–30%), and aluminium (4–7.5 %). These alloys
are known under the trademark Kanthal, a family of iron-chromium-aluminium (FeCrAl) alloys used
in a wide range of resistance and high-temperature applications. FeCrAl is highly corrosion
resistant due to forming a thin aluminum-rich oxide, Al2O3.

The concept’s key advantage over Zircaloy is its substantially slower oxidation kinetics up to 1773 K (1500°C).
FeCrAl alloys have mechanical strength similar or superior to that of Zircaloy, with plastic yielding (ballooning) and
perforation characteristics similar or better than zirconium alloys.

• There are two main disadvantages of FeCrAl-based fuel clads:

• Increased parasitic neutron absorption. Due to increased neutron absorption cross-section of iron.
• Tritium releases. There is a potential increase in tritium release into the reactor coolant. Tritium is produced as a
fission product (FP). FeCrAl does not react with hydrogen to form stable hydrides like a zirconium-based alloy,
resulting in higher permeability of tritium through cladding to the reactor coolant.
Refractory Metals for Fuel Cladding

Refractory metals and alloys are well known for their extraordinary resistance to heat and wear.
The most common refractory metals include five elements: niobium and molybdenum of the fifth period and
tantalum, tungsten, and rhenium of the sixth period. They share some properties, including a melting point above
2000 °C and high hardness at room temperature.
Poor low-temperature fabricability and extreme oxidability at high temperatures are the main disadvantages of
most refractory metals. The application of these metals requires a protective atmosphere or coating.
Research project with conceptual designs of coated molybdenum alloy as an ATF cladding to achieve accident
resistance to a temperature range of 1,200–1,500°C.

Mo and its alloys are known to be susceptible to forming volatile MoO3 in oxidizing environments at
temperatures > 600°C. Therefore, this research program uses a composite design in which the Mo alloy cladding
is covered with an outer protective coating of either a Zr-alloy or an Al-containing alloy.

Molybdenum is highly resistant to oxidation in high-purity or reducing steam. Therefore, the lined molybdenum
cladding is anticipated to maintain good integrity in the event of steam ingress into a failed fuel rod and under a
design-basis LOCA.
SiC and SiC/SiC-composite claddings
Silicon carbide is an exceedingly hard, synthetically produced crystalline compound of silicon and carbon, and its
chemical formula is SiC. Silicon carbide has a Mohs hardness rating of 9, approaching that of a diamond.

In addition to hardness, silicon carbide crystals have fracture characteristics that make them extremely useful in
grinding wheels. Its high thermal conductivity, high-temperature strength, low thermal expansion, and resistance
to a chemical reaction make silicon carbide valuable in the manufacture of high-temperature applications and
other refractories.

SiC cladding is intended to provide groundbreaking safety margin improvements. SiC cladding reacts many orders of
magnitude slower with water and steam than zirconium at critical temperatures (above 800°C), resulting in the
minimal generation of heat and hydrogen in beyond-design-basis accident scenarios.

the SiC/SiC composites are anticipated to provide additional benefits over the Zr-alloys, such as a
reduced neutron absorption cross-section enabling a smaller uranium enrichment.

Fabrication. Tritium releases

in which the SiC matrix material is reinforced with
flexible SiC fiber in much the same way that steel rebar it emits ionizing radiation (the beta particle). This radiation
reinforces concrete. This creates an extremely hard and exposure may very slightly increase the probability that a
durable material that can withstand the harshest person will develop cancer during his or her lifetime.
reactor conditions.
reactors use coolants that remove heat from the core where the fuel is
processed and carry it to electricals generators. Coolants also serve to
maintain manageable pressures within the core.
Water

In a BWR, the water turns into steam in the reactor core and is then pumped directly to the turbines that power
electrical generators. In a PWR, the primary loop of coolant flowing through the core is at very high pressure (2250
psi) so it will remain a liquid. [2] It then transfers heat to a secondary loop of water that vaporizes and turns the
turbines.

This latter method ensures that any radioactivity activated in the coolant remains within the reactor.

Because the heat of vaporization that is required for the phase change from liquid to steam limits thermal
efficiency, there is currently research being done on a Generation IV supercritical reactor

Light water is a good coolant for thermal reactors but not for fast breeders; pressurized water also moderates (slows
down) the neutrons because hydrogen-1 (H-1), which comprises much of water, has a scattering cross section of σ =
82.03 barns, far larger than any other atom.

PWRs have an intrinsic failsafe should the reactor overheat to the point where the water in the primary loop boils;
neutrons interact less with steam and do not get thermalized, so the abundance of fast neutrons causes the rate of
fission to drop. After a few minutes, the reactor achieves passive shut-down.
heavy water coolant

The heavy water coolant is kept under pressure to avoid boiling, allowing it to reach higher temperature
(mostly) without forming steam bubbles, exactly as for a pressurized water reactor.

heavy water, or deuterium (liquid D2O), because its absorption cross section is three orders of magnitude smaller
than that of hydrogen. However, it is also prohibitively expensive: approximately $2400/L.

Molten Metal: Sodium

When it comes to fast breeder reactors, molten sodium is the coolant of choice because it causes negligible
moderation.

cheapest available metals (DuPont reactor grade Niapure™ is approximately $1.60/lb)

liquid sodium is further advantageous because it carries a high power density and is non-corrosive to stainless
steels: oxygen reacts preferentially with sodium, forming Na2O. [6] Like PWRs, the sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR)
utilizes a primary coolant loop that transfers heat via a steam generator to a separate water cycle. The sodium
becomes intensely radioactive from contact with the fuel, but it stays contained within the reactor and has a short
half-life of approximately 15 hours. [6] Like light water, liquid sodium is inherently safe in loss-of-flow scenarios; its
large heat capacity and good thermal conductivity prevent significant temperature rises
Liquid sodium has significant disadvantages as well: it ignites spontaneous upon contact with the air, and reacts
violently with water. Besides burning, sodium exposed to the air produces aerosols that are highly toxic and can
cause equipment damage to the surfaces onto which they are deposited. An operational concern is that the
opacity of the coolant makes fuel handling and monitoring more complicated.

Molten salt
The salts concerned as primary coolant, mostly lithium-beryllium fluoride and lithium fluoride, remain liquid without
pressurization from about 500°C up to about 1400°C, in marked contrast to a PWR which operates at about 315°C
under 150 atmospheres pressure.
Density is related to

volumetric heat capacity and thermal conductivity

 Heat Capacity

Compared to water heat capacities of molten salts are low

But
Volumetric heat capacities of molten salts are comparable to
water, which is desirable for coolant

Filbe 4.5 MJ/K-m3 Water 4.2 MJ/K-m3

 Light Water Heavy Water Liquid Sodium
Criteria Molten Salt CO₂ Gas Helium Gas
(H₂O) (D₂O) (Na)

Heat Capacity High High Moderate High Low Low

Thermal
Moderate Moderate High High Low Low
Conductivity

Neutron
High Very High None None None None
Moderation

Corrosion
Moderate High Moderate Low High Very High
Resistance

Highly reactive Corrosive to

Reactivity Issues None None None None
with air/water metals

Pressure
High High Low Low High Moderate
Requirement

Neutron
Moderate Low Very Low Low Low Very Low
Absorption

Radioactive
Moderate High (Tritium) Low Low Low Very Low
Activation

Cost &
Low & Abundant High & Limited Moderate High Moderate High
Availability
•Light Water (H₂O): Best for commercial reactors due to its low cost and ease of handling.

•Heavy Water (D₂O): Excellent moderator but expensive.

•Liquid Sodium (Na): Superior heat transfer but highly reactive.

•Molten Salt: Promising for future reactors due to stability and efficiency.

•Gas Coolants (CO₂, Helium): Good for high-temperature reactors but require high pressure.
[Link]
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Criteria Requirement Examples

Boron-10, Silver-Indium-Cadmium,
Neutron Absorption High absorption cross-section
Hafnium

Low activation to reduce radiation

Neutron Activation Hafnium, Cadmium
hazards

Withstands high temperatures in

Temperature Resistance Boron Carbide (B₄C), Hafnium
the reactor

No cracking, swelling, or
Mechanical Strength Stainless Steel Clad Boron Carbide
deformation

Corrosion Resistance Resists coolant effects Hafnium, Coated Boron Carbide

Fast Response Quick insertion for SCRAM Electromagnetic drive system

Long-lasting with minimal

Wear & Fatigue Resistance Silver-Indium-Cadmium alloys
degradation
0.025 eV
Silver-indium-cadmium (SIC) alloys are a common material for control rods in pressurized water
reactors (PWR). The alloys are typically made up of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.
Boron carbide (B4C)
is a synthetic material used in control rods for nuclear power generation. It is also used in shielding and
shutdown pellets.

oxidation of boron carbide control rods can generate large

amounts of heat and hydrogen under BWR accident
conditions. Tests have shown that B4C control rods can fail,
liquefy, relocate, and oxidize at temperatures around 1250 °C
Dysprosium titanate (Dy2TiO5) is a ceramic material used as a neutron absorber in control rods of
commercial nuclear reactors since 1995.

Dysprosium titanate is brittle and has low plasticity. Some of its advantages as a neutron
absorber include:
• Low swelling
• No gas release under irradiation
• Compatibility with the cladding
Material Composition Advantages Disadvantages Used In

- High neutron
absorption cross-section - Swells under radiation
PWRs, BWRs, Fast
Boron Carbide (B₄C) Boron (B) & Carbon (C) - Stable at high exposure
Reactors
temperatures - Brittle, can crack
- Lightweight

- Indium activation leads

- Good neutron
to radioactive isotopes
Silver-Indium-Cadmium 80% Silver, 15% Indium, absorption
- Limited high- PWRs, Naval Reactors
(Ag-In-Cd) 5% Cadmium - Long lifespan
temperature
- Moderate swelling
performance

- Excellent corrosion
resistance - Expensive
Naval Reactors, Research
Hafnium (Hf) Pure Hafnium - Low neutron activation - Heavier than other
Reactors
- Strong structural materials
stability

- High neutron - Becomes highly

Early Reactors, Research
Cadmium (Cd) Pure Cadmium absorption radioactive
Reactors
- Low thermal expansion - Environmental toxicity

- Low swelling
- No gas release under - Brittle
Dysprosium Titanate Dysprosium, Titanium,
irradiation - Less common than B₄C Advanced Reactors
(Dy₂TiO₅) Oxygen
- Good compatibility with or Ag-In-Cd
cladding
Unit-2

Types of reactors and classification. Considerations in

selection and properties of common materials used as
fuels, their physical and chemical properties; canning
materials; coolants; control rods; reflectors and shielding
materials.
1. Neutronic Properties 2. Thermal and Mechanical Properties

High Neutron Scattering Cross-Section High Temperature Resistance

Low Neutron Absorption Cross-Section Good Thermal Conductivity

Minimal Neutron Activation Structural Stability & Radiation Resistance

3. Chemical Stability and Compatibility 4. Economic and Practical Considerations

Reflectors smooth the neutron flux by scattering back neutrons that would otherwise escape the core,
promoting a more consistent fuel burn and more efficient operation. Light-water reactors typically use reflectors
made of graphite or beryllium.

Graphite has a value of σa and σs with a ratio of 1: 1000,

suitable to the requirement of the reflector which must have a
small value of σa and large σs.
The efficiency of a reflector is measured by the ratio of the number of neutrons reflected back into the
reactor to the number entering the reflector. This ratio is called the albedo

An infinite reflector will have the maximum albedo, but for all practical purposes a reflector will suffice if it is
about twice as thick as the average distance over which a thermal neutron diffuses.

(In water, a thickness of ~2 inches makes such a reflector.)

The best reflector is a compromise between high albedo and low spectral shift, which increases the
safety of the reactor. The measured value for thermal neutron albedo is 0.95 ± 0.03 at about 8 cm
reflector thickness.

[Link]
Essentially, for thermal reactors, a good moderator is also a good reflector because most moderators also
possess the properties mentioned above of a good reflector. Water, heavy water, beryllium, or graphite are
commonly used as reflectors.
Unit-2

Types of reactors and classification. Considerations in

selection and properties of common materials used as
fuels, their physical and chemical properties; canning
materials; coolants; control rods; reflectors and shielding
materials.
•Gamma Radiation (γ-rays): Requires high-density materials (Lead, Tungsten,
Concrete).
•Neutron Radiation: Needs hydrogen-rich materials (Water, Polyethylene, Heavy
Concrete).
•Beta Radiation (β-rays): Shielding requires low-Z materials (Plastic, Aluminum) to
avoid secondary radiation (bremsstrahlung).

High Linear Attenuation Coefficient (μ)

•A higher attenuation coefficient means the material is more effective at stopping
radiation.
•Lead (Pb), Tungsten (W), and Concrete have high γ-ray attenuation.

Moderate Neutron Moderation and Absorption

•Shield materials should efficiently slow down (moderate) neutrons without
excessive absorption.
•Hydrogenous materials (Water, Polyethylene, Borated Concrete) are good
neutron moderators.
(i) directly ionizing radiations, which interact very strongly
with shielding materials and are readily stopped (alpha, beta
, proton)

(ii) Indirectly ionizing radiations, which are penetrating and

require massive shielding (neutron, gamma rays and x rays)
The passage of neutrons and photons through the shield materials
includes the following four stages:

(i) interaction with the nuclei or electrons, to produce secondary charged particles;

(ii) the secondary charged particles have kinetic energies related to the energy of the
primary particles and the type of interactions;

(iii) the secondary charged particles lose energy through ionization and the emission of
photons called bremsstrahlung,

(iv) scattering and other processes by uncharged primary particles may produce
additional uncharged particles, which also remove part of the energy of the interaction.
 Neutron Interactions with Materials

Neutron absorption cross-sections for all nuclides are small at all energies except
thermal energies

The (n, gamma) reaction is significant only for thermal neutrons and for a few
absorption resonances for the heavy elements.

In the high energy region, the scattering of fast neutrons is predominant.

At energies above about 8MeV, reactions such as (n, 2n) and (n, n+p) can occur. In
light elements interactions such as (n, p) and (n, alpha), which produce charged
particles, are possible
Gamma Rays Interactions with Materials
For example, from 0.26 cm for iron at 100 keV to about 1.06 cm at 500 keV.
The attenuation proceeds approximately exponentially with distance.

The region of gamma photons in the range of 0.5MeV to 10MeV is the most important in
reactor technology, because it includes the penetrating radiations from fission, capture,
and inelastic scattering of neutrons, as well as from the decay of many fission products.
Other important factors include the temperatures and temperature gradients and thermal
stresses in the shield, as well as the effects of nuclear irradiation on the properties of the
shielding materials.

Thermal protection is often required for inner layers of shielding materials, so that
cooling must be provided.
 Water

Water is an excellent neutron attenuator because of its large hydrogen

content.
It is not a good gamma ray attenuator because of its low electron density.

The water molecules may be ionized, excited, or dissociated by the

reactor radiation.

In pure water the radicals H and OH combine to form water, hydrogen

peroxide and hydrogen.
Heavy water radiolysis is similar to that of light water, but it is necessary to recover
the deuterium released in order to use it to generate heavy water for further use.
Also, the reaction 2D(gamma, n) → 1H depletes the deuterium.

The irradiated heavy water has to be subjected to a scrubbing process to remove

tritium. Tritium is generated in heavy water by the reaction 2D (n, gamma)→ 3T, and
decays with the emission of beta particles of
0.018MeV energy and with a 12.3 y half-life.
 Concrete

It can be used to shield against both neutrons and gamma radiation. It is the
least expensive material and can readily be formed into complex-shaped shields
with good structural properties.

Concrete is composed of a mixture of cement (about 13%), water (about 7%), and
aggregate (about 80%).

Scrap iron of small size or iron shots may be dispersed in the concrete to obtain high
density. Ferrophosphorus ore aggregate and limonite mixtures have been used
because of their greater densities and higher water content.
Colemanite aggregate is a hydrated calcium borate with high boron and water
content. The barium sulfate ore barite is also used as an aggregate in heavy
concretes. These concretes contain boron for neutron absorption and hydrogen for
neutron attenuation. The barite ore is also a good gamma attenuator

Hydrogen in fixed water (hydrated form) and free water (in the pores) in concrete
serves as a good neutron shield. Initially the free water content is about 3% by
weight.
 Steel

Neutron irradiation of the iron in steel produces a number of gamma rays of

up to 10MeV energy, with most of them at 7.6MeV.

Neutron irradiation affects the mechanical and physical properties of steels,

depending on the composition and microstructure and on the neutron fluence
and energy spectrum.

radiation damage is manifested by hardening and embrittlement, loss of

ductility, swelling, and enhanced creep.
Ductile- brittle transition temperature (DBTT) (Unit K) Body-
centred cubic transition metals (such as ferritic steels)
are brittle below temperatures of about 0.1 Tm where Tm is the
absolute melting point.

It may range from -70 to 20°C. Irradiation increases the NDTT by as much as
several hundred degrees at high exposures.

A fluence limit based on an allowable 10% residual total elongation (RTE) is

adopted for permanent steel internal components
 Lead

Lead is the best material for gamma ray shielding next to uranium, because of its high
density and high atomic number.

Lead must be constrained in steel containers at temperatures above 250°C to prevent

creep flow and as a container if melting occurs in the event of a reactor runaway

Its corrosion resistance in water is very good.

It is used for gamma shielding when limitations on shield thickness are important.
 Cadmium

Cadmium was used as a neutron absorber in the first nuclear reactor, CP-1, in
1942. It is a very good absorber of neutrons with energies below 0.6eV.

Cadmium is less costly as an absorber of thermal neutron than boral

its neutron capture gamma radiation is much more penetrating than that
from boron, but less energetic than the principal iron radiation.
 Tungsten

Tungsten is an excellent material for shielding high energy gamma radiation at

elevated temperatures, because of its high density (19.3 gcm3) and high melting
point (3400°C)

because of its high cost it is generally used for small shield components near the
source. A layered configuration of tungsten, alternating with lithium hydride,
provides good neutron and gamma attenuation.
 Uranium

Large quantities of depleted uranium have been produced at the uranium

enrichment plants. The 238U shield is the best attenuator of gamma radiation
on a mass absorption as well as on a thickness basis.

It has a very high density (19 gcm-3) and good strength properties.

However, depleted uranium does have a residual amount of 235U (0.2%) that
should be considered in estimating activation, secondary gamma production,
and heating
alloying may be required to mitigate its large and anisotropic thermal expansion
coefficient if used at high temperatures

In the machining process protection must be provided against fire and

toxicity. Uranium oxidizes in air and moist air will corrode uranium fairly
rapidly
 Boron

Boron is used primarily to absorb thermal neutrons because of its high absorption
cross-section of 3840 barns for the 10B→(n, gamma) →7Li reaction by which the
majority of the neutron captures result.

10B →(n, t) → 2 4He, which also generates

tritium.

Boron is available in a number of forms, including elemental boron, boric oxide,

and as boron carbide.
The 0.5MeV gamma rays that are emitted are of concern in irradiated borated
water and polyethylene

the high hydrogen content slows down radiation to lower energies, such as
within the thermal energy region. The boron then absorbs the low energy
radiation. Hydrogen-rich materials can attenuate neutrons, while boron tends
to absorb thermal neutrons.

It is also employed as a sandwich material called boral, which consists of a hot-

compacted aluminum–boron carbide powder mixture clad with pure aluminum.

Boron has been added to steel shields in order to decrease secondary

gamma ray production and activation of the iron.
 Graphite

It is a good shield material for slowing down fast neutrons and when mixed
with boron carbide it is a very effective material for capturing neutrons.

Boron-impregnated graphite has a very low residual radioactivity after

irradiation. However, it is a very poor gamma-ray attenuator.

Its high temperature properties make it suitable for neutron shielding at

high temperatures and high flux densities
The most important effects of irradiation on the graphites used for
shielding are dimensional changes, reduction in thermal conductivity,
and enhancement of creep rates.