8.

6 Surface tension
The properties of liquids, like solids, are a result of the forces between the atoms or molecules
that make up the liquid. The molecules in a liquid attract one another, otherwise a liquid
would not have a definite volume. However at distances less than the normal separation of the
molecules, the force between the molecules is repulsive (which results in liquids being difficult
to compress).
For a liquid at rest, the net force on the molecules
b
inside the liquid is zero since each molecule is surrounded
by other molecules that provide opposing forces that keep
it in balance. For a molecule at the surface of a liquid
however, the only neighbouring molecules are inside the b

liquid, thus the net attractive force on molecules at the

surface of a liquid is directed inward. This net inward force
makes the surface of the liquid act in some ways like a
membrane under tension.
The surface tension of a liquid is responsible for the Figure 21: The forces on a
dew that collects on a spider’s web. It also enables some molecule in a liquid.
insects to walk on the surface of a pond, while it can be a trap for other insects if they get
their wings stuck to a wet surface. Small objects like a pin or razor blade, with a density much
greater than water, are able to ‘float’ on the surface of water due to the surface tension.
Surface tension also results in a drop of liquid being nearly spherical. A sphere has a minimum
surface area for a given volume — it is the tension of the surface that tries to minimise the
area of the drop.
Surface tension
The surface tension (γ) of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length acting perpendicular
to any line in the surface and acting in, or tangentially to, the surface.
Thus
F
surface tension = γ = . (67)
ℓ

The surface tension is measured in N m−1 and depends on the temperature of the liquid.
An alternative way of thinking about surface tension is as the energy per unit area of
the surface. That this is reasonable can be seen if we consider the units of surface tension:
1 N/m = 1 N m/m2 = 1 J/m2 (see also Fluids at rest Problem 21). A surface of a liquid
will always tend to a configuration with the lowest possible energy, which corresponds to a
minimum surface area.

Example 43: Force due to surface tension on a microscope slide.

A microscope slide of length 6.0 cm and thickness 2.0 mm is hung vertically with its lower edge
in water. (a) Calculate the total force due to surface tension acting on the slide (γ for water
is 7.3 × 10−2 N m−1 ). (b) In what direction does the force act?
Solution:
(a) The total length of the line of contact (L) is the perimeter of the slide. Thus

L = (2 × 6.0 + 2 × 0.2)cm = 12.4 cm = 0.124 m.

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 From Equation (67), the force on the slide is

F = γ × L = 7.3 × 10−2 × 0.124 = 9.1 × 10−3 N.

(b) This force acts vertically downwards on the slide.

8.6.1 Surface tension of a thin film of liquid

Consider a wire frame as shown in Figure 22. The wire BC is free to slide along the frame.
The force F applied to BC balances the force due to the surface tension of the liquid acting
on BC. Since a liquid film has two surfaces, it follows from Equation (67) that F = 2y γ .

y F

Figure 22: Wire frame with liquid film.

The arrangement in Figure 22 provides a method for the direct measurement of the surface
tension of a liquid. The arrangement also highlights an important difference between the
analogy of surface tension and the tension due to a stretched membrane. If the apparatus in
Figure 22 is in equilibrium, and the wire BC is moved to a different position, it is in equilibrium
for each position of BC. When the film is stretched, molecules from inside the liquid move to
the surface, maintaining the balance. The tension of a stretched membrane on the other hand
would increase under similar conditions.

8.6.2 Capillary action

The forces between the molecules of a liquid are called cohesive forces. When a liquid comes
into contact with another material, there are also forces of attraction between the liquid and
the material. These forces are known as adhesive forces. If the adhesive forces between a
liquid and a material are greater than the cohesive forces within the liquid, the liquid will tend
to cling to the material. For example water in a glass container will rise slightly up the sides of
the container. The adhesive forces between mercury and glass on the other hand are less than
the cohesive forces between the mercury atoms, thus mercury tries to avoid contact with the
glass surface.
The contact angle between a liquid and solid is the angle (measured within the liquid)
between the solid surface and the tangent plane to the liquid surface at the point of contact.

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 glass glass

θ θ
water mercury

θ ≃ 0° for water on clean glass. Water is θ ≃ 135° for mercury on glass.

said to ‘wet’ the glass.
Note that the action of a liquid on the material with which it is in contact is an example
of Newton’s third law: the water pulls down on the glass and the glass pulls up on the water.
Similarly, the mercury pushes up on the glass and the glass pushes down on the mercury.
The contact angle that a liquid makes with a material determines how high the liquid will
rise in a capillary tube.

F F

Figure 23: Liquid in a capillary tube.

Figure 23 shows a liquid of density ρ that has risen a height h in a capillary tube of radius
r . The contact angle of the liquid with the capillary tube is θ (< 90°). The net vertical force is
the vertical component of the surface tension times the length of the liquid surface in contact
with the tube (the circumference of the tube). When the system is in equilibrium, the force
due to the surface tension is balanced by the weight of the raised column of liquid in the tube
. Thus

force due to surface tension = (2πr )γ cos θ

and

force due to weight of liquid = (πr 2 h)ρg .

The left hand sides of the above equations are equal. Solving for h, we find
2πr γ cos θ 2γ cos θ
h= 2
= . (68)
πr ρg r ρg

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 From Equation (68) we see that h is proportional to the inverse of r . Thus the thinner
the tube, the higher the capillary rise. Also since cos θ is negative when θ > 90°, h will be
negative when the contact angle is greater than 90°.

Example 44: Contact angle between glass and water.

Water rises to a height of 14.5 cm in a slightly greasy capillary tube of radius 0.10 mm dipped
vertically in water. What is the angle of contact between this glass and water? (For water
γ = 7.3 × 10−2 N m−1 and ρ = 1000 kg m−3 .)
Solution:
For the capillary rise of a liquid in a narrow tube (Equation (68)):
2γ cos θ
h= .
r ρg
Hence
hρr g 14.5 × 10−2 × 103 × 10−4 × 9.8
cos θ = = = 0.973
2γ 2 × 7.3 × 10−2
which gives θ = 13°.

D B
F F

θ θ

C A

ℓ
h

Figure 24: Liquid rise between two parallel plates.

In Figure 24 a liquid of density ρ rises between two parallel plates due to surface tension.
The force along AB is equal to the force along CD which is the surface tension of the liquid
times the length of the plates. The net vertical force is the vertical component of the surface
tension times the length of the liquid in contact with the plates (2ℓ). When the system is in
equilibrium, the force due to the surface tension is balanced by the weight of the volume of
liquid raised between the plates. Thus

force due to surface tension = (2ℓ)γ cos θ

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and

force due to weight of liquid = (hdℓ)ρg .

The left hand sides of the above equations are equal. Solving for h we find,
2γ cos θ
h= . (69)
dρg
It should be noted that Equations (68) and (69) only hold when the curvature of the
meniscus is spherical, which will only be the case for narrow tubes or plates with a small
separation.

Detergents
A detergent is a substance which reduces the surface tension of a liquid. This is useful as
far as washing clothes is concerned because the water is better able to penetrate the fabric.
However, if disposed of carelessly, it can cause a pollution problem. (consider the effect of
dumping detergent in a river on the water insects.)

Gardening
During dry weather the small amount of moisture in the soil can be conserved by breaking
up the top-soil. A hard surface soil has fine spaces or tubes between the grains of soil, and
these allow capillary action to take place, so the moisture rises to the surface and evaporates.
Breaking up the surface soil destroys the fine capillary tubes and only leaves wide ones, up
which moisture cannot travel.

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