Chapter 8 Pipe Classifications and Materials

8-1 Introduction
WSDOT uses several types of pipe for highway construction activities. To simplify contract
plan and specification preparation, pipes have been grouped into five primary categories:
• Drain pipe
• Underdrain pipe
• Culvert pipe
• Storm sewer pipe
• Sanitary sewer pipe
Each category is intended to serve specific purposes and is described further in Section 8-2.
Within each pipe classification there are several types of pipe materials, each with unique
characteristics used in different conditions. Pipe material selection includes hydraulic
characteristics, site conditions, geologic conditions, corrosion resistance, safety
considerations, and cost. Section 8-3 provides a detailed discussion of the different pipe
materials that are generally used in WSDOT design.
The type of material that is appropriate for a project is dependent on several factors
including pipe strength and corrosion and abrasion potential (Sections 8-4, 8-5, and 8-6); fill
height (Section 8-12); the required pipe size, debris passage, and necessary end treatments
(Chapter 3); and ease of fish passage (Chapter 7). Except for sizing the pipe, end treatments,
and fish passage, each of these issues is further discussed in this chapter along with
guidelines to assist the PEO in selecting the appropriate pipe material for a project site and
application (Section 8-4).
This chapter also provides additional information about joining pipe materials (Section 8-7),
use of pipe anchors (Section 8-8), acceptable forms of pipe rehabilitation (Section 8-9),
design and installation techniques for pipe (Section 8-10), and abandoned pipe guidelines
(Section 8-11).
Pipe producers follow specifications (ASTM, AASHTO, American Water Works Association
[AWWA]) covering the manufacture of pipes and parameters such as cell class, material
strength, internal diameter, loadings, and wall thickness. When these standards are
referenced, the current-year standards shall apply.

Pipe materials and installation methods shall conform with WSDOT’s Standard Specifications
and Standard Plans whenever possible. Other specifications may be used when the Standard
Specifications and Standard Plans are not applicable.

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8-2 Pipe Classifications

This section examines the five primary categories of pipes used in WSDOT projects: drain
pipe, underdrain pipe, culvert pipe, storm sewer pipe, and sanitary sewer pipe.

8-2.1 Drain Pipe

Drain pipe is small-diameter pipe (usually less than 24-inch diameter) used to convey
roadway runoff or groundwater away from the roadway profile. Drain pipe is not allowed to
cross under the roadway profile and is intended for use in easily accessible locations should
it become necessary to maintain or replace the pipe. The minimum design life expectancy is
25 years and no protective treatment is required.
Drain pipe applications include simple slope drains and small-diameter “tight lines” used to
connect underdrain pipe to storm sewers. Slope drains generally consist of one or two inlets
with a pipe conveying roadway runoff down a fill slope. These drain pipes are relatively easy
to install and are often replaced when roadway widening or embankment slope grading
occurs. Slope drains are most critical during the first few years after installation, until the
slope embankment and vegetation have had a chance to stabilize.
Drain pipe smaller than 12 inches in diameter can withstand fill heights of 30 feet or more
without experiencing structural failure. All of the materials listed in WSDOT’s Standard
Specifications are adequate under these conditions. For drain pipe applications using pipe
diameters 12 inches or larger, or with fill heights greater than 30 feet, the PEO shall specify
only those materials listed in both the Standard Specifications and the fill height tables in
Section 8-12.

8-2.2 Underdrain Pipe

Underdrain pipe is small-diameter perforated pipe intended to intercept groundwater and
convey it away from areas such as roadbeds or retaining walls. Underdrain applications use
6- to 8-inch-diameter pipe, but larger diameters can be specified. The minimum design life
expectancy is 25 years, and no protective treatment is required. The Standard Specifications
list applicable materials for underdrain pipe.

Underdrain pipe is generally used in conjunction with well-draining backfill material and a
construction geotextile. Details regarding the various applications of underdrain pipe are
described in WSDOT’s Design Manual, the WSDOT Plan Sheet Library, and the Standard
Plans. The hydraulic design of underdrain pipe is discussed in Chapter 6.

8-2.3 Culvert Pipe

A culvert is a conduit under a roadway or embankment used to maintain flow from a natural
channel or drainage ditch. Culverts are generally more difficult to replace than drain pipe,
especially when located under high fills or major highways. Because of this, a minimum
design life expectancy of 50 years is required for all culverts. Metal culvert pipes require a
protective coating at some locations. Details are described in Section 8-5.3.1.

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The maximum and minimum fill heights over a pipe material are provided in Section 8-12.
For materials or sizes not provided in Section 8-12, contact the State Hydraulics Office or
review the Standard Specifications.
The hydraulic design of culverts is discussed in Chapter 3. In addition to the hydraulic
constraints of a location, the final decision regarding the appropriate culvert size may be
governed by fish passage requirements, as discussed in Chapter 7.

Culvert shapes, sizes, and applications can vary substantially from one location to another.
Listed below is a discussion of the various types of culverts that may appear on a contract.

8-2.3.1 Circular and Schedule Culvert Pipe

Circular culvert pipe measuring 12 to 48 inches in diameter is designated as “schedule pipe”
and shall be selected unless a pipe material is excluded for engineering reasons. The pipe
schedule table listed in Section 7-02 of the Standard Specifications includes the structurally
suitable pipe alternatives available for a given culvert diameter and fill height. Additionally,
Figure 8-8, Figure 8-10, and Figure 8-12 provide the PEO with a list of pipe alternatives and
protective treatment depending on the corrosion zone. All schedule pipe shall be installed in
accordance with Section 8-10.4.
Schedule culvert pipe shall be specified as “Schedule Culv. Pipe in Diam.” On the
contract plan sheets. Schedule pipe must be treated with the same protective coatings as
other culvert pipe.
The type of material for circular culvert pipe measuring 54 to 120 inches in diameter shall be
designated on the plan sheets. The structure notes sheet shall include any acceptable
alternative material for that particular installation. A schedule table for these large sizes has
not been developed because of their limited use. Also, structural, hydraulic, or aesthetic
issues may control the type of material to be used at a site, and a specific design for each
type of material available is necessary.
8-2.3.2 Pipe Arches
Pipe arches, sometimes referred to as “squash pipe,” are circular culverts that have been
reshaped into a structure with a circular top and a flat, wide bottom. For a given vertical
dimension, pipe arches provide a larger hydraulic opening than a circular pipe. This can be
useful in situations with minimal vertical clearances. Pipe arches also tend to be more
effective than circular pipe in low flow conditions (such as fish passage flows) because pipe
arches provide most of their hydraulic opening near the bottom of the structure, resulting in
lower velocities and more of the main channel being spanned.
The primary disadvantage to using pipe arches is that the fill height range is somewhat
limited. Because of the shape of the structure, significant corner pressures are developed in
the haunch area as shown in Figure 8-1. The ability of the backfill to withstand the corner
pressure near the haunches tends to be the limiting factor in pipe arch design and is
demonstrated in the fill height tables shown in Section 8-12.

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Figure 8-1 Typical Soil Pressure Surrounding a Pipe Arch

8-2.3.3 Structural Plate Culverts

Structural plate culverts are steel or aluminum structures delivered to the project site as
unassembled plates of material and bolted together. Structural plate culverts are large
diameter—from 10 to 40 feet or more—and are available in several different shapes
including circular, pipe arch, elliptical, and bottomless arch with footings. These structures
are designed to span the main channel of a stream and are a viable option when fish passage
is a concern.
The material requirements for structural plate culverts are described in the Standard
Specifications. Aluminum structural plate culverts can be used anywhere in the state,
regardless of the corrosion zone. Steel structure plate culverts are not permitted in salt
water or Corrosion Zone III, as described in Section 8-4. The protective coatings described
in Section 8-5.3.1 shall not be specified for use on these types of culverts because the
coatings interfere with the bolted seam process.

To compensate for the lack of protective treatment, structural plate furnished in galvanized
steel shall be specified with 1.5 ounces per square foot (oz/ft2) of galvanized coating on
each plate surface (galvanized culvert pipe is manufactured with 1 oz/ft2 of galvanized
coating on each pipe surface). The design of structural plate culverts may also add extra
plate thickness to the bottom plates to compensate for corrosion and abrasion in high-risk
areas. Increasing the gage thickness in this manner can provide a service life of 50 years or
more for a small cost increase.
Longitudinal or circumferential stiffeners may be added to prevent excessive deflection due
to dead and/or live loads on larger structural plate culverts. Circumferential stiffeners are
usually metal ribs bolted to the outside of the culvert. Longitudinal stiffeners may be metal
or reinforced concrete thrust beams, as shown in Figure 8-2. The thrust beams are added to
the structure prior to backfill. Concrete thrust beams provide circumferential and
longitudinal stiffening and a solid vertical surface for soil pressures to act on; the solid
surface also facilitates backfilling.

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Figure 8-2 Concrete Thrust Beams Used as Longitudinal Stiffeners

Another method for diminishing loads placed on large-span culverts is to construct a

reinforced concrete distribution slab over the top of the backfill above the culvert. The
distribution slab is used in low-cover applications and distributes live loads into the soil
column adjacent to the culvert. The State Hydraulics Office shall be consulted to assist in
the design of this type of structure.
8-2.3.4 Private Road Approach and Driveway Culverts
The requirements for culverts placed under private road approaches and driveways are less
stringent than the requirements for culverts placed under roadways.
For the purpose of this chapter the terms “access,” “approach,” and “driveway” are referred
as “driveway” to remain consistent with the WSDOT Design Manual.

8-[Link] Applicable Criteria

The requirements in this section apply to a drainage pipe constructed within an existing
WSDOT drainage ditch to accommodate and maintain stormwater drainage underneath a
driveway. Driveway culverts are off the main line of the highway, so minimal hazard is
presented to the traveling public if a failure occurs. The requirements for culverts placed
under driveways are less stringent than the requirements for culverts placed under
roadways except those identified as fish barriers by WDFW. Fish barrier private road
approach and driveway culverts need to follow WDFW water crossing design guidelines.
Culverts that cross bioswales are treated in a different manner. See Section 8-[Link].

8-[Link] Culvert Replacement

At a minimum, the replacement culvert shall have the same size, slope, and material type as
the existing culvert. If the culvert is replaced because of the failure of the existing culvert, an
appropriate hydraulic evaluation shall be done to prevent future problems.

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8-[Link] Construction Material

Within the WSDOT ROW, driveway culverts shall be constructed from material selection
guidance as described in Section 8-3.

8-[Link] Minimum Size

Private road approach and driveway culverts shall be sized to pass the 10-year ditch flow
capacity without overtopping the driveway. The minimum size for driveway culverts shall be
12 inches in diameter for round pipe or an equivalent cross-sectional area for arch or
elliptical shapes.

8-[Link] Maximum Length

The length of a culvert will vary depending on the connection width, side slopes, and ditch
depth. Use the minimum length of pipe necessary to span a driveway plus allow for
appropriate end walls because a longer pipe may get clogged more easily, which frequently
creates maintenance problems.

8-[Link] Minimum Cover

Driveway culverts shall be provided with the minimum cover recommended by the pipe
structural design requirements, or 1 foot, whichever is greater. It is difficult to provide a
minimum 2-foot cover over the top of these culverts. Therefore, private road approach and
driveway culverts can be specified without the protective treatments described in Section
8-5.3.1, and the minimum fill heights listed in Section 8-12 can be reduced to 1 foot (0.3 m).
If live loads approaching AASHTO HS-25 loading will consistently be traveling over the
culvert and if the fill height is less than 2 feet, only pipes meeting the minimum fill height
described in Section 8-12 shall be specified.

8-[Link] Culvert End Treatments

All driveway culverts shall be provided with end treatments on the upstream and
downstream ends of the culvert to protect and help maintain the integrity of the culvert
opening. Headwalls and/or wingwalls and flared end sections are acceptable end
treatments.

8-[Link] Minimum Slope

A minimum slope shall be provided to achieve the minimum velocities outlined in Section 3-
3.5.

8-[Link] Design Documentation of Driveway Culverts

Additional information must be included in the drainage report and on the construction
drawings for new developments, where the use of roadside ditches and driveway culverts is
proposed. Driveway culverts shall be designed and documented in the development’s

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drainage report, based on the tributary area at the downstream lot line. The construction
drawings shall include information regarding sizes, materials, locations, lengths, grades, and
end treatments for all driveway culverts. Typical driveway crossing/culvert details shall be
included in the construction drawings. The construction drawings must address the roadside
ditch section in detail to ensure that adequate depth is provided to accommodate the
driveway culverts, including the minimum cover, and considering overtopping of the
driveway when the culvert capacity is exceeded.
If driveways or approach roads cross a bioswale, the culvert shall be checked to establish
that the backwater elevation would not exceed the banks of the swale. See Section 3-4.7
for energy dissipation requirements.

8-[Link] Culvert Extension

Culvert extension shall be as per guidance outlined in Section 3-3.1.6.

8-2.3.5 Concrete Box Culverts

Concrete box culverts are generally constructed of precast reinforced concrete, though
some older ones may be cast-in-place. They have two configurations—monolithic (one-piece
box) and split box. These structures are available in various spans and rises and can be used
with varying cover, including no cover. Skew angles can be incorporated into the design and
precast wing walls, headwalls, and aprons are available.
All precast box culverts shall be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Design and submittal requirements are listed in the Standard
Specifications. For extending or new construction of cast-in-place box culverts, contact the
State Hydraulics Office.
The dimensions and reinforcement requirements for precast box culverts are described by
AASHTO. AASHTO M 259 describes precast box culverts with fill heights ranging from 2 to
less than 20 feet. Refer to Section 8-12.2 for additional guidance on the use of concrete
structures in shallow cover applications. If a precast box culvert is specified on a contract,
the appropriate AASHTO specification shall be referenced, along with a statement requiring
the contractor to submit engineering calculations demonstrating that the box culvert meets
the particular requirements of the AASHTO specification.
8-2.3.6 Three-Sided Concrete Box Culverts
Three-sided structures shall meet the design criteria as specified in the Bridge Design Manual
and the Standard Specifications. In addition to the hydraulic opening required, a location
must be evaluated for suitability of the foundation material, footing type and size, and scour
potential. A scour analysis is required for designs of all three-sided structures.

8-2.4 Storm Sewer Pipe

A storm sewer is defined as one or more inlet structures, connected by pipe for the purpose
of collecting pavement drainage. Storm sewers are usually placed under pavement in
urbanized areas and, for this reason, are costly to replace. The minimum design life of a
storm sewer pipe is 50 years.

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The pipe schedule table in the Standard Specifications lists all of the structurally suitable pipe
alternatives available for a given culvert diameter and fill height. Additionally, Figure 8-8,
Figure 8-10, and Figure 8-12 provide the PEO with a list of pipe alternatives and protective
treatments depending on the corrosion zone. All schedule pipe shall be installed in
accordance with Section 8-10.4.
All storm sewer pipes must be pressure tested. Pressure testing indicates the presence of
leaking seams or joints or other structural deficiencies that may have occurred during the
manufacturing or installation of the pipe. The Standard Specifications describe the types of
pressure tests that are available.
Metal storm sewer pipe requires the same protective coating to resist corrosion as culvert
pipe. In addition, ungasketed helical-seam metal pipes may require coatings to enable the
pipe to pass one of the pressure tests described above. Gasketed helical-lock seams and
welded and remetallized seams are tight enough to pass the pressure test without a coating
but may still require a coating for corrosion purposes in some areas of the state. Pipe used
for storm sewers must be compatible with the structural fill height tables for maximum and
minimum amounts of cover shown in Section 8-12.

8-2.5 Sanitary Sewer Pipe

Sanitary sewers and side sewers consist of pipes and manholes intended to carry either
domestic or industrial sanitary wastewater. Any sanitary sewer work on WSDOT projects
will likely consist of replacement or relocation of existing sanitary sewers for a municipal
sewer system. Therefore, the pipe materials will be in accordance with the requirements of
the local health department, sewer district, and the Standard Specifications.

8-3 Pipe Materials

Various types of pipe material are available for each classification described in Section 8-2.
Each type of material has unique properties for structural design, corrosion/abrasion
resistance, and hydraulic characteristics, which are further discussed in this section to assist
the PEO in selecting the appropriate pipe materials.
Several pipe materials are acceptable to WSDOT, depending on the pipe classification (see
the Standard Specifications). WSDOT’s policy is to allow and encourage all schedule pipe
alternatives that will function properly at a reasonable cost.
If one or more of the schedule pipe alternatives at any location are not satisfactory, or if the
project has been designed for a specific pipe material, the schedule alternate or alternates
shall be so stated on the plans, usually on the structure note sheet. Pipe materials shall
conform to the Hydraulics Manual, the Standard Specifications, and the Standard Plans.
Justification for not providing a pipe material, as limited by the allowable fill heights,
corrosion zones, soil resistivity, and limitations of pH for steel and aluminum pipe shall be
justified in the hydraulic report (Chapter 1) and within the PS&E. Cost will not normally be a
sufficient reason except in large structures such as box culverts or structural plate pipes.

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Frequently, structural requirements may have more control over acceptable material than
hydraulic requirements.
When drain, culvert, or sewer pipe is being constructed for the benefit of cities or counties
as part of the reconstruction of their facilities and they request a certain type of pipe, the
PEO may specify a particular type without alternatives; however, the city or county must
submit a letter stating its justification. Existing culverts shall be extended with the same pipe
material and no alternatives are required.

8-3.1 Concrete Pipe

This section presents design criteria for concrete pipe, including drain pipe; underdrain pipe;
and culvert, storm, and sanitary sewer pipe.
8-3.1.1 Concrete Drain Pipe
Concrete drain pipe is non-reinforced. The strength requirements for concrete drain pipe
are less than the strength requirements for other types of concrete pipe. Also, concrete
drain pipe can be installed without the use of O-ring gaskets or mortar, which tends to
permit water movement into and out of joints.

8-3.1.2 Concrete Underdrain Pipe

Concrete underdrain pipe is no longer used. Additional guidance will be provided in future
revisions to the Hydraulics Manual.

8-3.1.3 Concrete Culvert, Storm, and Sanitary Sewer Pipe

Concrete culvert, storm, and sanitary sewer pipe can be either plain or reinforced. Plain
concrete pipe does not include steel reinforcing. Reinforced concrete pipe is available in
Classes I through V. The amount of reinforcement in the pipe increases as the class
designation increases. Correspondingly, the structural capacity of the pipe also increases.
Because of its lack of strength, Class I reinforced concrete pipe is rarely used and is not
listed in the fill height tables of Section 8-12.

The reinforcement placed in concrete pipe can be either circular or elliptical. Elliptically
designed reinforcing steel is positioned for tensile loading near the inside of the barrel at the
crown and invert, and at the outside of the barrel at the springline. As shown in Figure 8-15,
a vertical line drawn through the crown and invert is referred to as the minor axis of
reinforcement. The minor axis of reinforcement will be clearly marked by the manufacturer;
the pipe must be handled and installed with the axis placed in the vertical position.
Concrete joints use rubber O-ring gaskets, allowing the pipe to meet the pressure-testing
requirements for storm sewer applications. The joints, however, do not have any tensile
strength and in some cases can pull apart, as discussed in Section 8-7. For this reason,
concrete pipe shall not be used on grades over 10 percent without the use of pipe anchors,
as discussed in Section 8-8.
Concrete pipe is permitted anywhere in the state, regardless of corrosion zone, pH, or
resistivity. It has a smooth interior surface, which gives it a relatively low Manning’s
roughness coefficient (Table 4-1). The maximum fill height for concrete pipe is limited to
about 30 feet or less. However, concrete pipe is structurally superior for carrying wheel

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loads with shallow cover. For installations with less than 2 feet of cover, concrete pipe is an
acceptable alternative. Table 8-3 lists the class of pipe that shall be specified under these
conditions.
Concrete is classified as a rigid pipe, which means that applied loads are resisted primarily by
the strength of the pipe material, with some additional support given by the strength of the
surrounding bedding and backfill. Additional information regarding the structural behavior of
rigid pipes is provided in Section 8-10.3. During the installation process, pipe shall be
uniformly supported to prevent point load concentrations from occurring along the barrel or
at the joints.
Potential difficulties during installation include the weight of concrete pipe and, for sanitary
sewer applications, hydrogen sulfide buildup. The PEO shall follow the recommendations of
the local sewer district or municipality when deciding if concrete pipe is an acceptable
alternate at a given location.

8-3.2 Metal Pipe: General

Metal pipe is available in galvanized steel, aluminized steel, or aluminum alloy. All three
types of material can be produced with helical corrugations, annular corrugations, or as
spiral rib pipe.
Metal pipe is classified as a flexible pipe, which means that applied loads are resisted
primarily by the strength of the bedding and backfill surrounding the pipe, with some
additional support given by the pipe material itself. Because of the dependence upon
bedding strength and backfill material, it is critical that metal pipe be installed in accordance
with the requirements of Section 8-10.4 to ensure proper performance.
Metal pipe is available in a wide range of sizes and shapes and, depending on the type of
material corrugation configuration, can be used with fill heights up to 100 feet or more.
Metal pipe is susceptible to both corrosion and abrasion; methods for limiting these issues
are covered in Sections 8-5.3 and 8-6.
8-3.2.1 Helical Corrugations
Most metal pipe produced today is helically wound, where the corrugations are spiraled
along the flow line. The seam for this type of pipe is continuous, and also runs helically along
the pipe. The seam can be either an ungasketed lock seam (not pressure testable) or it could
be gasketed lock seams (pressure-testable seams). If ungasketed lock seam pipe is used in
storm sewer applications, it is generally necessary to coat the pipe with Treatment 1
(Section 8-5.3.1) for the pipe to pass the pressure testing requirements.
Helically wound corrugations are available in several standard sizes, including 2⅔-inch pitch
by ½-inch depth, 3-inch by 1-inch, and 5-inch by 1-inch. Corrugation sizes are available in
several gage thicknesses, depending on the pipe diameter and fill height. Larger corrugation
sizes are used as the pipe diameter exceeds about 60 inches. A typical corrugation section is
shown in Figure 8-3.

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Figure 8-3 Typical Corrugation Section

As a result of the helical manufacturing process, the Manning’s roughness coefficient for
smaller-diameter—24 inches or less—metal pipe approaches the Manning’s roughness
coefficient for smooth wall pipe materials, such as concrete and thermoplastic pipe. This
similarity will generally allow metal pipe to be specified as an alternative to smooth wall pipe
without increasing the diameter. However, in situations where small changes in the
headwater or head loss through a system are critical, or where the pipe diameter is greater
than 24 inches, the PEO shall use the Manning’s roughness coefficient specified in Table 4-1
to determine if a larger-diameter metal pipe alternative is required.

8-3.2.2 Annular Corrugations

Metal pipe can be produced with annular corrugations, where the corrugations are
perpendicular to the flow line of the pipe. The seams for this type of pipe are both
circumferential and longitudinal and are joined by rivets. The Manning’s roughness
coefficient for all annularly corrugated metal pipes is specified in Table 4-1. The fill heights
shown in Section 8-12 apply to both helical and annular corrugated metal pipe.
The typical corrugation section shown in Figure 8-3 is the same for annular corrugations,
except that annular corrugations are available only in 2⅔-inch by ½-inch and 3-inch by 1-
inch sizes.
8-3.2.3 Spiral Rib
Spiral rib pipe uses the same manufacturing process as helically wound pipe but, instead of
using a standard corrugation pitch and depth, spiral rib pipe comprises rectangular ribs
between flat wall areas. A typical spiral rib section is shown in Figure 8-4. Two profile
configurations are available: ¾-inch width by ¾-inch depth by 7½-inch pitch or 1-inch by 1-
inch by 11-inch. The seams for spiral rib pipe are either ungasketed-lock seams for non-
pressure-testable applications or gasketed-lock seam for pressure-testable applications. If
ungasketed lock seam pipe is used in storm sewer applications, it is generally necessary to
coat the pipe with protective Treatment 1 (Section 8-5.3.1) for the pipe to pass the
pressure-testing requirements.
The primary advantage of spiral rib pipe is that the rectangular rib configuration provides a
hydraulically smooth pipe surface for all diameters, with a Manning’s roughness coefficient
specified in Table 4-1.

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Figure 8-4 Typical Spiral Rib Section

8-3.2.4 Galvanized Steel

Galvanized steel consists of corrugated or spiral rib steel pipe with 1 oz/ft2 of galvanized
coating on each surface of the pipe. Plain galvanized steel pipe is the least durable pipe from
a corrosion standpoint and is not permitted when the pH is less than 5.0 or greater than 8.5
or if the soil resistivity is less than 1,000 ohm-cm. Galvanized steel pipe will, however, meet
the required 50-year life expectancy for culvert and storm sewers installed in Corrosion
Zone I, as described in Section 8-4. In more corrosive environments, such as Corrosion Zone
II or III described in Section 8-4, galvanized-steel pipe must be treated with a protective
coating for the pipe to attain the required 50-year service life.

8-3.2.5 Aluminized Steel

Aluminized steel consists of corrugated or spiral rib steel pipe with an aluminum protective
coating applied both inside and out. The aluminized coating is more resistant to corrosion
than galvanized-steel pipe and is considered to meet the 50-year life expectancy in both
Corrosion Zones I and II without the use of protective coatings. Aluminized steel is not
permitted when the pH is less than 5.0 or greater than 8.5 or if the soil resistivity is less than
1,000 ohm-cm.

8-3.2.6 Aluminum Alloy

Aluminum alloy (aluminum) consists of corrugated or spiral rib pipe and has been shown to
be more resistant to corrosion than either galvanized or aluminized steel. When aluminum is
exposed to water and air, an oxide layer forms on the metal surface, creating a barrier
between the corrosive environment and the pipe surface. As long as this barrier is allowed
to form, and is not disturbed once it forms, aluminum pipe will function well.
Aluminum meets the 50-year life expectancy for both Corrosion Zones I and II. It can also be
used in Corrosion Zone III, provided that the pH is between 4 and 9; the resistivity is 500
ohm-cm or greater; and the pipe is backfilled with clean, well-draining, granular material.
The backfill specified in Section 8-10.4 will meet this requirement.
Aluminum shall not be used when backfill material has a high clay content, because the
backfill material can prevent oxygen from getting to the pipe surface and consequently, the
protective oxide layer will not form. For the same reason, aluminum pipe generally shall not
be coated with the protective treatments discussed in Section 8-5.3.1.

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8-3.2.7 Ductile-Iron Pipe

Ductile-iron pipe is an extremely strong, durable pipe designed primarily for use in high-
pressure water distribution and sanitary sewer systems. Ductile-iron pipe is acceptable for
culvert and storm sewers use; it is more expensive but is useful for shallow cover and deep
installations. Ductile-iron pipe is acceptable with as little as 0.5 foot of cover in most
installations. Deep fill heights are available from manufacturers and concurrence with the
State Hydraulics Office. Joint systems for ductile-iron pipe include push-on, mechanical, or
flanged. Depending on the type of joint, the pipe may be plain end, grooved, or flanged.

8-3.3 Thermoplastic Pipe: General

Thermoplastic is a term used to describe several types of pipes including corrugated

polyethylene, solid-wall high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These pipes are allowed for use in drain, underdrain, culvert, storm
sewer, and sanitary sewer applications, although not all types of thermoplastic pipe are
allowed for use in all applications. The PEO must reference the appropriate section of the
Standard Specifications to determine the allowable thermoplastic pipe for a given application.
Thermoplastic pipe is classified as a flexible pipe, which means that applied loads are
resisted primarily by the strength of the bedding and backfill surrounding the pipe, with
some additional support given by the pipe material itself. Because of the dependence upon
the strength of the bedding and backfill material, it is critical that thermoplastic pipe be
installed in accordance with the requirements of Section 8-10.4 to ensure proper
performance.
The physical properties of thermoplastic pipe are such that the pipe is resistant to both pH
and resistivity. As a result, thermoplastic pipe is an acceptable alternative in all three
corrosion zones statewide, and no protective treatment is required. Laboratory testing
indicates that the resistance of thermoplastic pipe to abrasive bed loads is equal to or
greater than that of other types of pipe material. However, because thermoplastic pipe
cannot be structurally reinforced, it shall not be used for severely abrasive conditions as
described in Table 8-1.
Thermoplastic pipe is lightweight when compared to other pipe alternatives. This can
simplify pipe handling because large equipment may not be necessary during installation.
However, the light pipe weight can lead to soil or water flotation problems in the trench,
requiring additional effort to secure the line and grade of the pipe. The allowable fill height
and diameter range for thermoplastic pipe are somewhat limited. This may preclude
thermoplastic pipe being specified for use in some situations.
Any exposed end of thermoplastic pipe used for culvert or storm sewer applications shall be
mitered to match the surrounding embankment or ditch slope. The ends shall be mitered no
flatter than 4H:1V, as a loss of structural integrity tends to occur after that point. It also
becomes difficult to adequately secure the end of the pipe to the ground.
The minimum length of a section of mitered pipe shall be at least 6 times the diameter of the
pipe, measured from the toe of the miter to the first joint under the fill slope. This distance
into the fill slope will provide enough cover over the top of the pipe to counteract typical

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hydraulic uplift forces that may occur. For thermoplastic pipe 30 inches in diameter and
larger, a Standard Plan B-75.20-03 headwall shall be used in conjunction with a mitered end.

8-3.3.1 Corrugated Polyethylene for Drains and Underdrains

Corrugated polyethylene used for drains and underdrains is a single-wall pipe, corrugated
inside and outside. It is available in diameters up to 10 inches. This type of pipe is extremely
flexible and can be manipulated easily on the job site should it become necessary to bypass
obstructions during installation (see Chapter 3 for treating the exposed end for flotation.)

8-3.3.2 PVC Drain and Underdrain Pipe

PVC drain and underdrain pipe is a solid-wall pipe with a smooth interior and exterior. It is
available in diameters up to 8 inches. This type of pipe is delivered to the job site in 20-foot
lengths and has a significant amount of longitudinal beam strength. This characteristic is
useful when placing the pipe at a continuous grade but can also make it more difficult to
bypass obstructions during installation (see Chapter 3 for treating the exposed end for
flotation).

8-3.3.3 Corrugated Polyethylene Culvert and Storm Sewer Pipe

Corrugated polyethylene used for culverts and storm sewers is double-walled, with a
corrugated outer wall and a smooth interior. This type of pipe can be used under all state
highways, subject to the fill height and diameter limits described in Section 8-12 and the
Standard Specifications.

The primary difference between polyethylene used for culvert applications and
polyethylene used for storm sewer applications is the type of joint specified. In culvert
applications, the joint is not completely watertight and may allow an insignificant amount of
infiltration. The culvert joint will prevent soils from migrating out of the pipe zone and is
intended to be similar in performance to the coupling band and gasket required for metal
pipe. If a culvert is to be installed where a combination of a high water table and fine-
grained soils near the trench are expected, the joint used for storm sewer applications shall
be specified. The storm sewer joint will eliminate the possibility of soil migration out of the
pipe zone and will provide an improved connection between sections of pipe.
In storm sewer applications, all joints must be capable of passing WSDOT’s pressure test
requirements. Because of this requirement, the allowable pipe diameter for storm sewer
applications may possibly be less than the allowable diameter for culvert applications. The
PEO shall consult WSDOT’s Qualified Products List for the current maximum allowable pipe
diameter for both applications. Corrugated polyethylene is a petroleum-based product and
may ignite under certain conditions. If maintenance practices such as ditch or field burning
are anticipated near the inlet or outlet of a pipe, polyethylene shall not be allowed as a pipe
alternative.

8-3.3.4 Solid-Wall PVC Culvert, Storm, and Sanitary Sewer Pipe

Solid-wall PVC culvert, storm, and sanitary sewer pipe is a solid-wall pipe with a smooth
interior and exterior. This type of pipe can be used under all state highways, subject to the
fill height and diameter limits described in Section 8-12 and the Standard Specifications. This
type of pipe is used primarily in water line and sanitary sewer applications but may

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occasionally be used for culverts or storm sewers. The only joint available for this type of
PVC pipe is a watertight joint conforming to the requirements of the Standard Specifications.

8-3.3.5 Profile-Wall PVC Culvert and Storm Sewer Pipe

Profile-wall PVC culvert and storm sewer pipe consists of pipe with an essentially smooth
waterway wall braced circumferentially or spirally with projections or ribs, as shown in
Figure 8-5. The pipe may have an open profile, where the ribs are exposed, or the pipe may
have a closed profile, where the ribs are enclosed in an outer wall. This pipe can be used
under all state highways, subject to the fill height and diameter limits described in Section 8-
12 and the Standard Specifications. The only joint available for profile-wall PVC culvert and
storm sewer pipe is a watertight joint conforming to the requirements of the Standard
Specifications.
Figure 8-5 Typical Profile Wall PVC Cross Sections

8-3.3.6 Polypropylene Culvert and Storm Sewer Pipe

PP pipe is similar in style to corrugated polyethylene pipe; the difference is in the
compounds used to produce the pipe. The pipe is either double-walled (corrugated inside
and outside) or triple-walled (smooth inside and out) with a corrugated inner wall. The joint
systems are bell and spigot and are soil-tight and watertight.

The compounds used in this pipe produce a much stiffer profile, making it a good choice for
storm and sanitary sewer applications where line and grade may be critical. It is also highly
resistant to corrosive materials and abrasion. It is costlier than normal corrugated
polyethylene pipe.

8-3.3.7 Steel Rib Reinforced Polyethylene Culvert and Storm Sewer Pipe
Steel rib reinforced polyethylene pipe has a fairly thin wall profile; the inner wall is smooth,
and the outer wall has ribs that are steel encased in polyethylene. This profile creates a
lightweight, strong, corrosion- and abrasion-resistant pipe. Gasketed joints are made by bell-
and-spigot connections in smaller diameters, and a welded or electrofusion joint creates a
watertight connection in larger diameters.
8-3.3.8 Solid-Wall HDPE
Solid-wall HDPE pipe is used primarily for trenchless applications but occasionally this type
of pipe is used for specific applications including bridge drainage, drains or outlet locations
on very steep slopes, water line installations, and sanitary sewer lines. Solid-wall HDPE pipe
is often an economical choice for deep fill applications or shallow cover down to 0.5 foot.
This type of pipe is engineered to provide balanced properties for strength, toughness,
flexibility, wear resistance, chemical resistance, and durability.

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The pipe may be joined using many conventional methods, but the preferred method is by
heat fusion. Properly joined, the joints provide a leakproof connection that is as strong as
the pipe itself. There are a wide variety of grades and cell classifications for this pipe;
contact the State Hydraulics Office for specific pipe information.

8-4 Pipe Corrosion Zones and Pipe Alternative Selection

Once a PEO has determined the pipe classification needed for an application, the next step
is to ensure that the pipe durability will extend for the entire design life. Pipe durability can
be evaluated by determining the corrosion and abrasion potential of a given site and then
choosing the appropriate pipe material and protective treatment for that location.
To simplify this process, Washington State has been divided into three corrosion zones,
based upon the general corrosive characteristics of that particular zone. A map delineating
the three zones is shown in Figure 8-6. A flow chart and corresponding acceptable pipe
alternative list have been developed for each of the corrosion zones and are shown in Figure
8-7 through Figure 8-12. The flow charts and pipe alternative lists can be used to develop
acceptable pipe alternatives for a given location.
The flow charts and pipe alternative lists do not account for abrasion, as bed loads moving
through pipes can quickly remove asphalt coatings applied for corrosion protection. If
abrasion is expected to be significant at a given site, the guidelines discussed in Table 8-1
shall be followed.
When selecting a pipe alternative, the PEO shall consider the degree of difficulty that will be
encountered in replacing a pipe at a future date. Drain pipes are relatively shallow and are
readily replaced. Culverts tend to have greater depth of cover and pass under the highway
alignment, making them more difficult to replace. Storm sewers are generally used in
congested urban areas with significant pavement cover, high traffic use, and a multitude of
other buried utilities in the same vicinity. For these reasons, storm sewers are generally
considered to be the most expensive and most difficult to replace and should have a long
design life.
When special circumstances exist (i.e., extremely high fills or extremely expensive structure
excavation) the PEO shall use good engineering judgment to justify the cost-effectiveness of
a more expensive pipe option or a higher standard of protective treatment than is
recommended on the figures in this section.

8-4.1 Corrosion Zone I

With the exceptions noted below, Corrosion Zone 1 encompasses most of eastern
Washington and is considered the least corrosive part of the state. Plain galvanized steel,
untreated aluminized steel, aluminum alloy, thermoplastic, and concrete pipe may all be used
in Corrosion Zone I. (See Figure 8-7 and Figure 8-8 for a complete listing of acceptable pipe
alternatives for culvert and storm sewer applications.)
The following parts of eastern Washington that are not within Corrosion Zone I are
categorized as Corrosion Zone II:

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• Okanogan Valley
• Pend Oreille Valley
• Disautel-Nespelem vicinity

8-4.2 Corrosion Zone II

Most of western Washington, with the exceptions noted below, along with the three areas
of eastern Washington identified above make up Corrosion Zone II. This is an area of
moderate corrosion activity. Untreated aluminized steel, aluminum alloy, thermoplastic, and
concrete pipe may be used in Corrosion Zone II. (See Figure 8-9 and Figure 8-10 for a
complete listing of acceptable pipe alternatives for culvert and storm sewer applications.)
Parts of western Washington that are not within Corrosion Zone II are placed into Corrosion
Zone III:
1. Whatcom County lowlands, described by the following:
a. State Route (SR) 542 from its origin in Bellingham to the junction of SR 9
b. SR 9 from the junction of SR 542 to the international boundary
c. All other roads/areas lying northerly and westerly of the above routes
2. Lower Nisqually Valley
3. Low-lying roadways in the Puget Sound basin and coastal areas subjected to the
influence of saltwater bays, marshes, and tide flats. As a general guideline, this shall
include areas with elevations less than 20 feet above the average high tide elevation.
Along the Pacific coast and the Straits of Juan de Fuca, areas within 300 to 600 feet of
the edge of the average high tide can be influenced by salt spray and shall be classified
as Corrosion Zone III. However, this influence can vary significantly, depending on the
roadway elevation and the presence of protective bluffs or vegetation. In these
situations, the PEO is encouraged to evaluate existing pipes near the project to
determine the most appropriate corrosion zone designation.

8-4.3 Corrosion Zone III

The severely corrosive areas identified above make up Corrosion Zone III. Concrete and
thermoplastic pipe are allowed for use in this zone without protective treatments. Aluminum
alloy is permitted only as described in Section 8-3. (See Figure 8-11 and Figure 8-12 for a
complete listing of all acceptable pipe alternatives for culvert and storm sewer applications.)

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Figure 8-6 Washington State Corrosion Zones

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Figure 8-7 Corrosion Zone I: Flow Chart of Acceptable Pipe Alternatives and Protective Treatments

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Figure 8-8 Corrosion Zone I: Acceptable Pipe Alternatives and Protective Treatments
Culverts Storm sewers
Schedule pipe: Concrete:
Schedule culvert pipe • Plain concrete storm sewer pipe
• Cl. Reinforced concrete storm sewer pipe
If Schedule pipe not selected, then: PVC:
• Solid-wall PVC storm sewer pipe
• Profile-wall PVC storm sewer pipe
Concrete:
Polyethylene:
• Plain concrete culvert pipe
• Corrugated polyethylene storm sewer pipe
• Cl reinforced concrete culvert pipe
• Solid-wall HDPE pipe
PVC:
Polypropylene storm sewer pipe
• Solid wall PVC culvert pipe
• Profile wall PVC culvert pipe Steel:
• Plain galvanized steel storm sewer pipe with
Polyethylene
gasketed or welded and remetallized seams
• Corrugated polyethylene culvert pipe
• Plain aluminized steel storm sewer pipe with
• Solid-wall HDPE pipe gasketed or welded and remetallized seams
Polypropylene culvert pipe Steel spiral rib:
Steel • Plain galvanized steel spiral rib storm sewer pipe
• Plain galvanized steel culvert pipe with gasketed or welded and remetallized seams
• Plain aluminized steel culvert pipe Aluminum spiral rib:
Aluminum: • Plain aluminum spiral rib storm sewer pipe with
• Plain aluminum culvert pipe gasketed seams

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Figure 8-9 Corrosion Zone II: Flow Chart of Acceptable Pipe Alternatives and Protective Treatments

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Figure 8-10 Corrosion Zone II: Acceptable Pipe Alternatives and Protective Treatments
Culverts Storm Sewers
Schedule pipe: Concrete:
Schedule culvert pipe • Plain concrete storm sewer pipe
If Schedule pipe not selected, then: • Cl. Reinforced concrete storm sewer pipe
Concrete: PVC:
• Plain concrete culvert pipe • Solid-wall PVC storm sewer pipe
• Cl reinforced concrete culvert pipe • Profile-wall PVC storm sewer pipe
PVC: Polyethylene:
• Solid wall PVC culvert pipe • Corrugated polyethylene storm sewer pipe
• Profile wall PVC culvert pipe • Solid-wall HDPE pipe
Polyethylene: Polypropylene storm sewer pipe
• Corrugated polyethylene culvert pipe Steel:
• Solid-wall HDPE pipe • Plain aluminized steel spiral rib storm sewer
Polypropylene culvert pipe pipe with gasketed or welded and remetallized
seams
Steel
Steel spiral rib:
• Plain aluminized steel culvert pipe
• Plain aluminized steel spiral rib storm sewer
Aluminum: with gasketed or welded or welded and
• Plain aluminum culvert pipe remetallized seams
Aluminum:
• Plain aluminum storm sewer pipe with
gasketed seams
Aluminum spiral rib:
• Plain aluminum spiral rib storm sewer pipe
with gasketed seams

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Figure 8-11 Corrosion Zone III: Flow Chart of Acceptable Pipe Alternatives and Protective Treatments

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Figure 8-12 Corrosion Zone III: Acceptable Pipe Alternatives and Protective Treatments
Culverts Storm Sewers
Schedule pipe: Concrete:
Schedule culvert pipe in. diam. • Plain concrete storm sewer pipe
If schedule pipe not selected, then: Concrete: • Cl. Reinforced concrete storm sewer pipe
• Plain concrete culvert pipe PVC:
• Cl reinforced concrete culvert pipe • Solid-wall PVC storm sewer pipe
PVC: • Profile-wall PVC storm sewer pipe
• Solid wall PVC culvert pipe Polyethylene:
• Profile wall PVC culvert pipe • Corrugated polyethylene storm sewer pipe
Polyethylene • Solid-wall HDPE pipe
• Corrugated polyethylene culvert pipe Polypropylene storm sewer pipe
• Solid-wall HDPE pipe Aluminum:
Polypropylene culvert pipe • Plain aluminum storm sewer pipe with
Aluminum: gasketed seams
• Plain aluminum culvert pipe Aluminum spiral rib:
• Plain aluminum spiral rib storm sewer
pipe with gasketed seams

8-5 Corrosion
Corrosion is the destructive attack on a material by a chemical or electrochemical reaction
with the surrounding environment. Corrosion is generally limited to metal pipes, and the
parameters that tend to have the most significant influence on the corrosion potential for a
site is the soil or water pH and the soil resistivity.

8-5.1 pH
The pH is a measurement of the relative acidity of a given substance. The pH scale ranges
from 1 to 14, with 1 being extremely acidic, 7 being neutral, and 14 being extremely basic.
The closer a pH value is to 7, the less potential the pipe has for corroding. When the pH is
less than 5.0 or greater than 8.5, the site will be considered unsuitable and only Corrosion
Zone III pipes, as discussed in Section 8-4.3, are acceptable.
The total number of pH tests required for a project will vary depending on different
parameters, including the type of structures to be placed, the corrosion history of the site,
and the project length and location. The general criteria listed below serve as minimum
guidelines for determining the appropriate number of tests for a project:
1. Size and importance of the drainage structure: A project comprising large culverts or
storm sewers under an interstate or other major arterial warrant testing at each
culvert or storm sewer location, while a project comprising small culverts under a
secondary highway may need only a few tests for the entire length of the project.

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2. Corrosion history of the project location: A site in an area of the state with a high
corrosion potential would warrant more tests than a site in an area of the state with a
low corrosion potential.
3. Distance of the project: Longer projects tend to pass through several soil types and
geologic conditions, increasing the likelihood of variable pH readings. Tests shall be
taken at each major change in soil type or topography, or in some cases, at each
proposed culvert location. Backfill material that is not native to the site and that will
be placed around metal pipe shall also be tested.
4. Initial testing results: If initial pH tests indicate that the values are close to or outside
of the acceptable range of 5.0 to 8.5, or if the values vary considerably from location
to location, additional testing may be appropriate.

8-5.2 Resistivity
Resistivity is the measure of the ability of soil or water to pass electric current. The lower
the resistivity value is, the easier it is for the soil or water to pass current, resulting in
increased corrosion potential. If the resistivity is less than 1,000 ohm-cm for a location, then
Corrosion Zone III pipe materials are the only acceptable alternatives. Resistivity tests are
usually performed in conjunction with pH tests, and the criteria for frequency of pH testing
shall apply to resistivity testing as well.

8-5.3 Corrosion Control Methods

This section presents corrosion control methods, including protective treatments and
increased gage thickness.

8-5.3.1 Protective Treatments

Corrugated steel pipe may be coated on both sides with a polymer coating conforming to
AASHTO M 246. The coating shall be a minimum of 10 mils thick and be composed of
polyethylene and acrylic acid copolymer.
The protective treatments, when required, shall be placed on circular pipe and pipe arch
culverts. Structural plate pipes do not require protective treatment, as described in Section
8-2.3.3. Protective treatments are not allowed for culverts placed in fish-bearing streams.
This may preclude the use of metal culverts in some applications.
The treatments specified in this section are the standard minimum applications, which are
adequate for a large majority of installations; however, a more stringent treatment may be
used at the PEO’s discretion. When unusually abrasive or corrosive conditions are
anticipated, and it is difficult to determine which treatment would be adequate, either the
HQ Materials Laboratory or State Hydraulics Office shall be consulted.
8-5.3.2 Increased Gage Thickness
As an alternative to asphalt protective treatments, the thickness of corrugated steel pipes
can be increased to compensate for loss of metal due to corrosion or abrasion. The
California Transportation Department (Caltrans) has developed a methodology to estimate
the expected service life of untreated corrugated steel pipes. The method uses pH,

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resistivity, and pipe thickness and is based on data taken from hundreds of culverts
throughout California. Copies of the design charts for this method can be obtained from the
State Hydraulics Office.

8-6 Abrasion
Abrasion is the wearing away of pipe material by water carrying sands, gravels, and rocks. All
types of pipe material are subject to abrasion and can experience structural failure around
the pipe invert if not adequately protected. Four abrasion levels have been developed to
assist the PEO in quantifying the abrasion potential of a site. The abrasion levels are
identified in Table 8-1.
The abrasion level descriptions are intended to serve as general guidance only; not all of the
criteria listed for a particular abrasion level need to be present to justify placing a site at that
level. Included with each abrasion level description are guidelines for providing additional
invert protection. The PEO is encouraged to use those guidelines in conjunction with the
abrasion history of a site to achieve the desired design life of a pipe.
In streams with significant bed loads, placing culverts on flat grades can encourage bed load
deposition within the culvert. This can substantially decrease the hydraulic capacity of a
culvert, ultimately leading to plugging or potential roadway overtopping on the upstream
side of the culvert. As a standard practice, culvert diameters shall be increased two or more
standard sizes over the required hydraulic opening in situations where abrasion and bed
load concerns have been identified.

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Table 8-1 Pipe Abrasion Levels

Abrasion Level General Site Characteristics Recommended Invert Protection
Non-abrasive • Little or no bed load Generally, most pipes may be used under these circumstances,
• Slope less than 1% if a protective treatment is deemed necessary for metal pipes,
• Velocities less than 3 ft/s any of the protective treatments specified in Section 8-5.3.1
would be adequate.
Low abrasive • Minor bed loads of sands, For metal pipes, an additional gage thickness may be specified if
silts, and clays existing pipes in the vicinity show susceptibility to abrasion, or
• Slopes 1%–2% any of the protective treatments specified in Section 8-5.3.1
• Velocities less than 6 ft/s would be adequate.
Moderately • Moderate bed loads of Metal pipe thickness shall be increased one or two standard
abrasive sands and gravels, with gages. The PEO may want to consider a concrete-lined
stone sizes up to about alternative.
3 inches Concrete pipe and box culverts shall be specified with an
• Slopes 2%–4% increased wall thickness or an increased concrete compressive
• Velocities from 6 to 15 ft/s strength.
Thermoplastic pipe may be used without additional treatments.

Severely • Heavy bed loads of Metal pipe thickness shall be increased at least two standard
abrasive sands, gravel, and rocks, gages, or the pipe invert shall be lined with concrete.
with stone sizes up to Box culverts shall be specified with an increased wall thickness
12 inches or larger or an increased concrete compressive strength.
• Slopes steeper than 4% Sacrificial metal pipe exhibits better abrasion characteristics
• Velocities greater than than metal or concrete. However, it generally cannot be
15 ft/s reinforced to provide additional invert protection and shall not
be used in this condition.

8-7 Pipe Joints

Culverts, storm sewers, and sanitary sewers require the use of gasketed or fused joints to
restrict the amount of leakage into or out of the pipe. The type of gasket material varies,
depending on the pipe application and the type of pipe material being used. The Standard
Plans and Standard Specifications shall be consulted for specific descriptions of the types of
joints, coupling bands, and gaskets for the various types of pipe material.
Corrugated metal pipe joints incorporate the use of a metal coupling band and neoprene
gasket that strap on around the outside of the two sections of pipe to be joined. This joint
provides a positive connection between the pipe sections and is capable of withstanding
significant tensile forces. These joints work well in culvert applications but usually do not
meet the pressure test requirements for storm sewer applications.
Concrete pipe joints incorporate the use of a rubber O-ring gasket and are held together by
friction and the weight of the pipe. Precautions must be taken when concrete pipe is placed
on grades greater than 10 percent or in fills where significant settlement is expected,
because it is possible for the joints to pull apart. Outlets to concrete pipe must be properly
protected from erosion because a small amount of undermining could cause the end section

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of pipe to disjoin, ultimately leading to failure of the entire pipe system. Concrete joints,
because of the O-ring gasket, function well in culvert applications and also consistently pass
the pressure testing requirements for storm sewers.
Thermoplastic pipe joints vary; some are similar in performance to either the corrugated
metal pipe joint or the concrete pipe joint described above, while others are completely
watertight and as strong as the pipe itself. The following joint types are available for
thermoplastic pipe:
• Integral, gasketed bell ends that positively connect to the spigot end
• Slip-on bell ends connected with O-ring gaskets on the spigot end
• Strap-on corrugated coupling bands
• Snap together, or threaded, bell and spigot connections
• Butt fusion welded or electrofusion coupling
• Mechanical or flanged
All types of joints have demonstrated adequate pull-apart resistance and can generally be
used on most highway or embankment slopes.

8-8 Pipe Anchors

Pipe anchor installation is rare and usually occurs when a pipe or half pipe is replaced above
ground on a very steep (15 to 20 percent grade) or highly erosive slope. In these cases, the
pipe diameter is relatively small (10 inches or smaller). Continuous polyethylene tubing may
be used without the need for anchors because there are no joints in the pipe. On larger
pipes, solid-wall HDPE pipe with fused joints may be used without the use of pipe anchors.
For further design guidance, contact the State Hydraulics Office.

8-8.1 Thrust Blocks

Thrust blocks shall be designed to help stabilize fittings (tees, valves, bends, etc.) of water
mains or pressure mains from movement by increasing the soil-bearing area. The key to
sizing a thrust block is a correct determination of the soil-bearing value. These values can
range from less than 1,000 pounds per square foot for soft soils to many thousands of
pounds per square foot for hard rock. A correctly sized thrust block will also fail unless the
block is placed against undisturbed soil with the face of the block perpendicular to the
direction of and centered on the line of the action of the thrust. (See Standard Plan B-90.40-
01, Standard Plan for Concrete Thrust Block, for details on placement and sizing of a thrust
block for various fittings.)

8-9 Pipe Rehabilitation: Trenchless Technology

Deteriorated pipes can affect the pipes’ structural integrity and lead to roadway failures and
development of sinkholes. Pipe deterioration could include longitudinal or circular cracks,
joint separations, root intrusions, deformation, erosion, voids outside the pipes, and bedding
erosion. Depending on the type of deterioration, failure to repair deteriorated pipes within

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certain time frames , which can lead to roadway failures, embankment failures, or sinkhole
development.
The most common option for a deteriorated pipe is to remove the existing culvert and
replace it with a new one.
For locations where replacing the pipe is not feasible, it may be possible to use rehabilitation
methods to restore the structural integrity of the pipe system, with minimal impact to
roadway traffic. These methods are referred to as trenchless technology because minimal
trenching is needed.
Prior to selecting a trenchless technology method, the PEO shall investigate the feasibility of
a pipe being rehabilitated to provide a long-term fix. The investigation shall include, at a
minimum:
• Evaluation of the pipe bedding and backfill conditions: The pipe bedding and backfill
shall be evaluated to determine if the existing conditions meet current design
criteria. For example, if the existing pipe has cracked, water may have leaked
through the pipe wall and caused erosion of the bedding material. In this case, the
void spaces may need to be grouted between the backfill and the host pipe prior to
rehabilitation.
• Analysis of the hydraulic capacity of pipe: The hydraulic capacity of a rehabilitated
pipe shall be analyzed using the same criteria required for a new pipe. This includes a
complete basin analysis as the contributing area may have changed since the original
pipe was designed. Also, many trenchless technologies involve methods that reduce
the diameter of the host pipe. For crossing culverts, if the pipe diameter is reduced,
it must be analyzed as a culvert. Evaluate the inlet or outlet control and upstream
and downstream impacts, and maintain the minimum pipe diameter requirement.
HDPE and PVC liners are typically strong enough to withstand the loads, and they
can last more than 50 years. However, these liners would reduce the inside diameter
of the pipes, and this could be an issue for crossing culverts. Minimum pipe
diameters must be maintained. The Manning’s n values of HDPE and PVC liners are
typically smaller than those of corrugated metal pipes and cement concrete pipes;
therefore, flow capacity might not be an issue. However, flow capacity analysis is
still required.
• Evaluation of the structural integrity of the pipe: The structural integrity of the pipe
shall be evaluated to determine if the host pipe is strong enough to tolerate the
trenchless technology. This will involve contacting the State Hydraulics Office for
guidance on inspecting the pipe and developing a risk assessment. The vendors
providing the trenchless technology shall also be consulted for determining the
minimum structural requirements of the pipe. When evaluating the structural
integrity of the pipes, the host pipes are excluded in the calculation. The liners must
be able to withstand the dead loads and live loads. All pipes under rails must be
sleeved. Cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) liners are typically very thin, and they may not be
able to withstand the loads as required. If selected, certification from the
manufacturer is required to testify that the liner is capable of withstanding the loads.

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• Evaluation of cost and age of the pipe: The rehabilitative cost shall be determined as
well as the replacement the replacement cost. Determine the age of the pipe as well
as its original design life when installed.
• Evaluation of design life: All liners must have a lifespan of 50 years or longer.
Certification from the manufacturer is required.
• Evaluation of environmental impacts: All liners must not have negative impacts on
the environment. Consult with HQ ESO and Hydraulics for review and approval.
If this analysis indicates that rehabilitating the pipe using trenchless methods will meet all
current design criteria, then the pipe may be rehabilitated. If the analysis indicates that the
rehabilitated pipe will not meet current design criteria, then it must be replaced with one
that does, or a deviation must be received from the State Hydraulics Office. See Figure
8-13.

Figure 8-13 Replace or Rehabilitate Decision Tree

8-9.1 Trenchless Techniques for Pipe Rehabilitation

Several rehabilitation methods are available that can restore structural integrity to the pipe
system while minimally affecting roadway traffic. As the name implies, these methods

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involve minimal trenching along with the ability to retrofit or completely replace a pipe
without digging up the pipe.
• Sliplining is a technique that involves inserting a full round pipe with a smaller
diameter into the host pipe and then filling the space between the two pipes with
grout.
• Pipe bursting is a technique where a pneumatically operated device moves through
the host pipe, bursting it into pieces. Attached to the device is a pipe string, usually
thermally fused HDPE. Using this method and depending on the soil type, the new
pipe may be a larger diameter than the pipe being burst.
• Tunneling, while more expensive than the other methods, may be the only feasible
option for placing large-diameter pipes under interstates or major arterials.
• Horizontal directional drilling (HDD) is a technique that uses guided drilling for
creating an arc profile. This technique can be used for drilling long distances such as
under rivers, lagoons, or highly urbanized areas. The process involves three main
stages: (1) drilling a pilot hole, (2) pilot hole enlargement, and (3) pullback installation
of the carrier pipe.
• Pipe jacking or ramming is probably most commonly used method. Pipe diameters
less than 48 inches can be jacked both economically and easily. Pipe diameters to
144 inches are possible; however, the complexity and cost increase with the
diameter of the pipe. Protective treatment is not required on smooth-walled steel
pipe used for jacking installations; however, jacked pipes require extra wall thickness
to accommodate the expected jacking stresses
• CIPP lining is a trenchless method of storm sewer pipe rehabilitation. It requires little
or no digging and significantly less time to complete than other sewer repair
methods. CIPP involves inserting a resin-impregnated glass-reinforced thermosetting
plastic (GRP) liner or flexible liner inside the existing pipe, inflating the liner, and
exposing it to heat or ultraviolet (UV) light to dry and harden the liner inside the
pipe. The liner essentially forms a smooth surface inside the existing pipe, restoring it
to near-new condition. The host pipe is assumed to be fully deteriorated in the
structural integrity calculations to determine the required thickness of the liner itself
may not be able to withstand the design live and dead loads. CIPP liners are
relatively less expensive than other materials, and they are easier to install. However,
certain installation protocols must be followed; otherwise, temporary impacts on the
environment could occur. GRP lining using UV cure shall be the preferred method.
See additional guidelines in General Special Provision 7-SA1.FR7 (currently under
final subject-matter expert review) for specifics. Consult with HQ ESO or the State
Hydraulics Office for more guidance.
GRP liner or flexible felt tube liner are placed inside an existing host pipe by one of the
following methods:
• Inverting in place using compressed air
• Pulling in place with a winch

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The lining does not come in standard sizes but is designed specifically for the individual
pipeline to be rehabilitated, with variable diameters/shapes (i.e., round, elliptical, oval, etc.)
and wall thickness. When necessary, a minimum thickness of the liner can be specified to
provide additional service life for abrasive conditions. See Hydraulics Manual Section 8-6 and
Table 8-1 for guidelines regarding abrasion. Grouting may be required if the host pipe has
minor corrosion or minor cracks. There shall be no annular space between the host pipe and
liner.
A GRP liner, or felt tube liner, saturated with a thermosetting resin is either pulled into the
existing pipe or inverted through as air pressure pushes the tube tightly against the pipe
wall. The UV light source is then inserted in the tube and heated to the curing temperature
of 160 to 180 degrees Fahrenheit. The plastic resin on the tube cures to solid pipe inside the
existing pipe, creating a new lining. Installation goes quickly, leaving no annular space to be
sealed. Odd cross sections, bends, and minor deformations can be accommodated. This
method is particularly useful when flow capacity must be maintained or slightly increased by
lowering the Manning’s n value.
Concrete culverts subject to sulfate attack are especially good candidates for this repair
method or metal pipes where the reduction in diameter using other lining methods is not
acceptable.
For the pulled-in-place installation method, a winched cable is placed inside the existing
pipe. The resin-impregnated liner is connected to the free end of the cable and then pulled
into place between drainage structures or culvert ends. The cable is disconnected, the two
ends are plugged, and the liner is inflated (approximately 8 pounds per square inch [psi])
before curing by use of UV light. For resin control, the General Special Provisions (GSP 7-
SA1.FR7) require chemically resistant UV-cured isophthalic polyester resin or vinyl ester
resin. The contractor shall also send resin samples per GSP 7-SA1.FR7 to an independent
third-party laboratory certified by the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation
(A2LA) for quality assurance infrared fingerprinting. The tube shall include an impermeable
inner and outer foil layer (liner) to contain potential resin immigration and contamination,
and the inner foil layer should easily remove from the inside tube wall or remain if fabricated
as a permanent part of the cured fabric tube (refer to GSP 7-SA1.FR7).

When curing using UV light a fiberglass and resin tube is used and no refrigeration is
necessary; no heated water/steam is used. Cure times are quicker than the other methods;
however, there is a thickness limitation of 1 inch because the maximum thickness for light
curing is limited to 0.5 inch per run.
Site setup is a high proportion of costs on small projects. Prior to UV cure, the host pipe
shall be cleaned to remove debris, sediment, and any other accumulated material. Removed
sediment-laden washout and debris shall be disposed of per WSDOT Standard Specifications.
After pipe cleaning, the host pipe shall also be inspected per GSP “Video Pipe Inspection”
(currently under final subject-matter expert review) to check for unanticipated obstructions,
reduction in cross-sectional areas, sags, and structural defects to determine all the point
repairs prior to lining the pipe to be rehabilitated.
After completion of UV cure, core restrained samples shall be obtained to be sent to an
independent third-party laboratory certified by A2LA (refer to GSP 7-SA1.FR7) for physical

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properties tests such as flexural strength and flexural modulus of elasticity. Post-installation
inspection shall be conducted per GSP “Video Pipe Inspection” to check if there are any
imperfections such as wrinkles, fins, tears, holes, blisters, and delamination. Failed
installations shall not be accepted by WSDOT. For full details of failed installations and
required remedies, refer to GSP 7-SA1.FR7.
In general, the following steps are sequentially performed:

1. Install pipe plugs upstream and downstream of the storm sewer pipes and install
diversion (if needed)
2. Clean, inspect (pre-install), and prepare host pipe for cleaning (voids in backfill may
need grouting; remove protrusions greater than 0.5 inch, record exact locations of
lateral pipes)
3. Prepare liner: GRP or felt tube liner is vacuum impregnated with resin
4. Install liner
5. Cure (UV) liner
6. Take test samples
7. Conduct final (post-install) inspection
8. Repair as needed
9. Remove pipe plugs and diversion (if needed)
Spray lining could be an option if the host pipes are big enough. The materials could be
cement or polymer, and the liners could be installed with or without the wire mesh or
reinforced bars. Without the host pipe, the liners could provide very little strength to
significant strength to withstand the loads. Similarly, the liner lifespan depends on the
material and construction method.

8-10 Pipe Design

This section presents pipe design alternatives.

8-10.1 Categories of Structural Materials: Rigid or Flexible

Based upon material type, pipes can be divided into two broad structural categories: flexible
and rigid. Flexible pipes have little structural bending strength. The material they are made
of, such as corrugated metal or thermoplastic, can be flexed or distorted significantly
without cracking. Flexible pipes depend on support from the backfill to resist bending. Rigid
pipes are stiff and do not deflect appreciably. The material they are made of, such as
concrete, provides the primary resistance to bending.

8-10.2 Structural Behavior of Flexible Pipes

A flexible pipe is a composite structure made up of the pipe barrel and the surrounding soil.
The barrel and soil are both vital elements to the structural performance of the pipe. Flexible
pipe has relatively little bending stiffness or bedding strength on its own. As loads are

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applied to the pipe, the pipe attempts to deflect. In the case of round pipe, the vertical
diameter decreases and the horizontal diameter increases, as shown in Figure 8-14. When
adequate soil support and backfill material are well compacted around the pipe, the increase
in the horizontal diameter of the pipe is resisted by the lateral soil pressure. The result is a
relatively uniform radial pressure around the pipe, which creates a compressive force in the
pipe walls called thrust. To ensure that a stable soil envelope around the pipe is attained
during construction, follow the guidelines in Section 8-10.4 for backfill and installation.
As vertical loads are applied, a flexible culvert attempts to deflect. The vertical diameter
decreases while the horizontal diameter increases. Soil pressures resist the increase in
horizontal diameter. The thrust can be calculated, based on the diameter of the pipe and the
load placed on the top of the pipe, and is then used as a parameter in the structural design
of the pipe.

Figure 8-14 Deflection of Flexible Pipes

The flexibility of a pipe also allows for some bend in the horizontal when designing the pipe
layout. The PEO shall limit the bend to a maximum of 1.5 degrees. This same allowable bend
does not apply to pipe profiles, which shall be designed to be straight. When bends occur in
the profile, “bellies” form that cause sediment to accumulate.

8-10.3 Structural Behavior of Rigid Pipes

The load-carrying capability of rigid pipes is essentially provided by the structural strength
of the pipe itself, with some additional support given by the surrounding bedding and
backfill. When vertical loads are applied to a rigid pipe, zones of compression and tension
are created as illustrated in Figure 8-15. Reinforcing steel can be added to the tension zones
to increase the tensile strength of concrete pipe. The minor axis for elliptical reinforcement
is discussed in Section 8-3.1.

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Figure 8-15 Zones of Tension and Compression in Rigid Pipes

Rigid pipe is stiffer than the surrounding soil and it carries a substantial portion of the
applied load. Shear stress in the haunch area can be critical for heavily loaded rigid pipe on
hard foundations, especially if the haunch support is inadequate. Standard Plan B-55.20-03
and the Standard Specifications describe the backfill material requirements and installation
procedures required for placing the various types of pipe materials. The fill height tables for
concrete pipe shown in Section 8-12 were developed assuming that those requirements
were followed during installation.

8-10.4 Foundations, Bedding, and Backfill

A foundation capable of providing uniform and stable support is important for both flexible
and rigid pipes. The foundation must be able to uniformly support the pipe at the proposed
grade and elevation without concentrating the load along the pipe. Establishing a suitable
foundation requires removal and replacement of any hard spots or soft spots that would
result in load concentration along the pipe.
Bedding is needed to level out any irregularities in the foundation and to ensure adequate
compaction of the backfill material. (See the Standard Plans for Pipe Zone Bedding and
Backfill and the Standard Specifications Backfilling for guidelines.) Any trenching conditions
not described in the Standard Plans or Standard Specifications require approval from the
State Hydraulics Office.

The bedding equal to one-third of the pipe outside diameter shall be loosely placed directly
under the pipe, while the remainder shall be compacted to a minimum 90 percent of
maximum density per AASHTO guidelines. The importance of proper backfill for flexible and
rigid pipe is discussed in Sections 8-10.2 and 8-10.3, respectively.
The bedding and backfill must also be installed properly to prevent piping from occurring.
Piping is a term used to describe the movement of water around and along the outside of a
pipe, washing away backfill material that supports the pipe. Piping is primarily a concern in
culvert applications, where water at the culvert inlet can saturate the embankment and

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move into the pipe zone. Piping can be prevented through the use of headwalls, dikes, or
plugs. Headwalls are described in Chapter 3 and dikes and plugs are discussed in the
Standard Specifications.
To simplify measurement and payment during construction, all costs associated with
furnishing and installing the bedding and backfill material within the pipe zone are included
in the unit contract price of the pipe.

8-11 Abandoned Pipe Guidelines

Abandoned pipes shall be removed, plugged per Standard Specification 7-08.3(4), or filled
with controlled-density fill (CDF) per Standard Specification 2-09.3(1)E. If it is not practical to
remove the pipe, the pipe can be abandoned in place and the pipe ends can be plugged as
specified in the Standard Specifications. All pipes shall be evaluated prior to abandonment by
the project PEO, RHE, or State Hydraulics Office to determine what potential hazards are
associated with pipe failure. If a pipe failure could cause a collapse of the roadway prism, the
pipe shall either be removed or completely filled with a CDF that meets the requirements
per the Standard Specifications. See the decision tree for pipe abandonment in Figure 8-16
and pipe abandonment determination schematic in Figure 8-17.

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Figure 8-16 Decision Tree for Pipe(s) to be Abandoned

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Figure 8-17 Pipe abandonment determination schematic

Note: if the distance between the edge of the excavation area and the edge of the pipe is greater than 5 feet horizontally or
vertically, plug and abandon pipe. Refer to Section 8-11 and pipe abandonment tree chart above.

8-12 Structural Analysis and Fill Height Tables

The State Hydraulics Office, using currently accepted design methodologies, has performed
a structural analysis for the various types of pipe material available. The results are shown in
the fill height tables at the end of this section (Table 8-2 through Table 8-19). The fill height
tables demonstrate the maximum and minimum amounts of cover that can be placed over
an existing or new pipe, assuming that the pipe is installed in accordance with WSDOT
specifications. All culverts, storm sewers, and sanitary sewers shall be installed within the
limitations shown in the fill height tables.
The PEO shall specify the same wall thickness or class of material for the entire length of a
given pipe, and that specification will be based on the most critical load configuration
experienced by any part of the pipe. This will negate the necessity of removing structurally
inadequate pipe sections at some point in the future should roadway widening occur.
Additionally, when selecting corrugated pipe, the PEO shall review all of the tables in
Section 8-12.3 and select the most efficient corrugation thickness for the pipe diameter. For
fill heights in excess of 100 feet, coordination with the HQ Geotechnical, Bridge and
Structures, and Hydraulics Offices is required for review and approval.
When a pipe is rehabilitated with a liner, the liner must be able to withstand the loads
without the host pipe included in the calculations.

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8-12.1 Pipe Cover

Pipe systems shall be designed to provide at least 2 feet of cover over the pipe, measured
from the outside diameter of the pipe to the bottom of pavement (see Figure 8-18). This
measurement does not include any asphalt or concrete paving above the top course. Unless
the contract plans specify a specific pipe material, the PEO shall plan for the schedule pipe
fill heights as described in the Standard Specifications. If there is no possibility of a wheel
load over the pipe, a PEO may request using non-scheduled pipe with approval from the
State Hydraulics Office through a deviation.
During construction, more restrictive fill heights are required, and are specified in the
Standard Specifications. The restrictive fill heights are intended to protect pipe from
construction loads that can exceed typical highway design loads.
Figure 8-18 Pipe Minimum Cover

NOTES:
(1) Minimum thickness of cover is measured at edge of shoulder.
(2) Minimum cover is measured from outside diameter of pipe to bottom of pavement.
(3) All pipes not listed in Table 8-19 of Hydraulic Manual shall have minimum cover of 2.0 feet.
(4) Provide supporting calculations and references for the proposed pipes if minimum cover is less than 2.0 feet.
(5) Consult RHO or State Hydraulics Office if minimum cover is less than 2.0 feet.

8-12.1.1 Pipe Sleeve

The pipe shall be sleeved when it is located underneath railroad guideways. The sleeves
must be able to withstand the dead and live loads. The sleeve must be extended 10 feet out
from the edge of the guideway.

8-12.2 Shallow Cover Installation

In some cases, it is not possible to lower a pipe profile to obtain the necessary minimum
cover. In those cases, pipe of the class shown in Table 8-19 may be specified. Included in
that table are typical pipe wall thicknesses for a given diameter. The pipe wall thickness
must be taken into consideration in low cover applications.
In addition to circular pipe, concrete box culverts and concrete arches are available for use
in shallow cover installations. For three-sided or box concrete culverts, the PEO must verify
that the shallow cover will still provide HS 25 loading. Other options include ductile-iron
pipe, plain steel pipe, PP pipe, or the placement of a concrete distribution slab. The PEO

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shall consult with either the RHO/contact or the State Hydraulics Office for additional
guidance on the use of these structures in this application.

8-12.3 Fill Height Tables

Table 8-2 through Table 8-19 are fill height tables.

Table 8-2 Concrete Pipe
Maximum Cover in Feet
Pipe Class II Class III Class IV Class V
Diameter (in.) Plain AASHTO
AASHTO M AASHTO M AASHTO M AASHTO M
M 86
170 170 170 170
12 18 12 17 38 42
18 18 13 17 40 42
24 16 13 17 40 42
30 -- 13 17 40 42
36 -- 12 17 40 42
48 -- 12 17 40 42
60 -- 12 17 40 42
72 -- 12 17 39 42
84 -- 12 16 39 42
Notes:
-- = not applicable
Minimum cover is 2 feet.
In. = inch

Table 8-3 Concrete Pipe for Shallow Cover Installations

Minimum Cover in Feet
Pipe Diameter Pipe Wall Class III Class IV Class V
Plain AASHTO
(in.) Thickness (in.) AASHTO M AASHTO M AASHTO M
M 86
170 170 170
12 2 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5
18 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5
24 3 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5
30 3.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5
36 4 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.5
48 5 -- 1.0 1.0 0.5
60 6 -- 1.0 1.0 0.5
72 7 -- 1.0 1.0 0.5
84 8 -- 1.0 1.0 0.5
Notes:
-- = not applicable
in. = inch

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Table 8-4 Corrugated Steel Pipe: 2⅔ in. × ½ in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 36

Maximum Cover in Feet

Pipe Diameter
(in.) 0.064 in. 16 ga 0.079 in. 14 ga 0.109 in. 12 ga 0.138 in. 10 ga 0.168 in. 8 ga
12 100 100 100 100 --
18 100 100 100 100 --
24 98 100 100 100 100
30 78 98 100 100 100
36a 65 81 100 100 100
42 a 56 70 98 100 100
48 a
49 61 86 100 100
54 a
-- 54 76 98 100
60 a -- -- 68 88 100
66 a
-- -- -- 80 98
72 a
-- -- -- 73 90
78 a -- -- -- -- 80
84 a
-- -- -- -- 69
Notes:
-- = not applicable
ga = gage
in. = inch
Minimum cover is 2 feet.
a. The PEO shall consider the most efficient corrugation for the pipe diameter.

Table 8-5 Corrugated Steel Pipe: 3 in. × 1 in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 36

Maximum Cover in Feet
Pipe
Diameter (in.)
0.064 in. 16 ga 0.079 in. 14 ga 0.109 in. 12 ga 0.138 in. 10 ga 0.168 in. 8 ga
36 75 94 100 100 100
42 64 80 100 100 100
48 56 70 99 100 100
54 50 62 88 100 100
60 45 56 79 100 100
66 41 51 72 92 100
72 37 47 66 84 100
78 34 43 60 78 95
84 32 40 56 72 89
90 30 37 52 67 83
96 -- 35 49 63 77
102 -- 33 46 59 73

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Maximum Cover in Feet

Pipe
Diameter (in.)
0.064 in. 16 ga 0.079 in. 14 ga 0.109 in. 12 ga 0.138 in. 10 ga 0.168 in. 8 ga
108 -- -- 44 56 69
114 -- -- 41 53 65
120 -- -- 39 50 62
Notes:
-- = not applicable
ga = gage
in. = inch
Minimum cover is 2 feet.

Table 8-6 Corrugated Steel Pipe: 5 in. × 1 in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 36

Maximum Cover in Feet
Pipe
Diameter (in.)
0.064 in. 16 ga 0.079 in. 14 ga 0.109 in. 12 ga 0.138 in. 10 ga 0.168 in. 8 ga
30 80 100 100 100 100
36 67 83 100 100 100
42 57 71 100 100 100
48 50 62 88 100 100
54 44 55 78 100 100
60 40 50 70 90 100
66 36 45 64 82 100
72 33 41 58 75 92
78 31 38 54 69 85
84 28 35 50 64 79
90 26 33 47 60 73
96 -- 31 44 56 69
Notes:
-- = not applicable
ga = gage
in. = inch
Minimum cover is 2 feet.
Table 8-7 Corrugated Steel Structural Plate Circular Pipe: 6 in. × 2 in. Corrugations
Maximum Cover in Feet
Pipe
Diameter Minimum 0.111 in. 0.140 in. 0.170 in. 0.188 in. 0.218 in. 0.249 in. 0.280 in. 1
(in.) Cover (ft) 12 ga 10 ga 8 ga 7 ga 5 ga 3 ga ga
60 2 42 63 83 92 100 100 100
72 2 35 53 69 79 94 100 100
84 2 30 45 59 67 81 95 100
96 2 27 40 52 59 71 84 92
108 2 23 35 46 53 64 75 81

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Maximum Cover in Feet

Pipe
Diameter Minimum 0.111 in. 0.140 in. 0.170 in. 0.188 in. 0.218 in. 0.249 in. 0.280 in. 1
(in.) Cover (ft) 12 ga 10 ga 8 ga 7 ga 5 ga 3 ga ga
120 2 21 31 42 47 57 67 74
132 2 19 29 37 42 52 61 66
144 2 18 26 37 40 47 56 61
156 2 16 24 31 36 43 52 56
168 2 15 22 30 33 41 48 53
180 2 14 20 28 31 38 44 49
192 2 -- 19 26 30 35 42 46
204 3 -- 18 24 28 33 40 43
216 3 -- -- 23 26 31 37 41
228 3 -- -- -- 25 30 35 39
240 3 -- -- -- 23 29 33 37
Notes:
-- = not applicable
ga = gage
in. = inch
6 in. × 2 in. corrugations require field assembly for multiplate; diameter is too large to ship in full section.

Table 8-8 Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch: 2⅔ in. × ½ in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 36

Maximum Cover in Feet for
Span × Rise Min Corner Thickness Minimum Soil-Bearing Capacity of:
(in. × in.) Radius (in.) Cover (ft)
in. Gage 2 tons/ft2 3 tons/ft2
17 × 13 3 0.064 16 ga 2 12 18
21 × 15 3 0.064 16 ga 2 10 14
24 × 18 3 0.064 16 ga 2 7 13
28 × 20 3 0.064 16 ga 2 5 11
35 × 24 3 0.064 16 ga 2.5 NS 7
42 × 29 3.5 0.064 16 ga 2.5 NS 7
49 × 33 4 0.079 14 ga 2.5 NS 6
57 × 38 5 0.109 12 ga 2.5 NS 8
64 × 43 6 0.109 12 ga 2.5 NS 9
71 × 47 7 0.138 10 ga 2 NS 10
77 × 52 8 0.168 8 ga 2 5 10
83 × 57 9 0.168 8 ga 2 5 10
Notes:
ft2 = square feet
ga = gage
in. = inch
NS = not suitable

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Table 8-9 Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch: 3 in. × 1 in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 36

Maximum Cover in Feet for
Span × Rise Corner Radius Thickness Minimum Soil-Bearing Capacity of:
(in. × in.) (in.) in. Gage Cover (ft) 2 tons/ft2 3 tons/ft2
40 × 31 5 0.079 14 ga 2.5 8 12
46 × 36 6 0.079 14 ga 2 8 13
53 × 41 7 0.079 14 ga 2 8 13
60 × 46 8 0.079 14 ga 2 8 13
66 × 51 9 0.079 14 ga 2 9 13
73 × 55 12 0.079 14 ga 2 11 16
81 × 59 14 0.079 14 ga 2 11 17
87 × 63 14 0.079 14 ga 2 10 16
95 × 67 16 0.079 14 ga 2 11 17
103 × 71 16 0.109 12 ga 2 10 15
112 × 75 18 0.109 12 ga 2 10 16
117 × 79 18 0.109 12 ga 2 10 15
128 × 83 18 0.138 10 ga 2 9 14
137 × 87 18 0.138 10 ga 2 8 13
142 × 91 18 0.168 10 ga 2 7 12
Notes:
ft2 = square feet
ga = gage
in. = inch

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Table 8-10 Corrugated Steel Structural Plate Pipe Arch: 6 in. × 2 in. Corrugations

Thickness 2 TSF Soil-Bearing 3 TSF Soil-Bearing

Capacity Capacity
Span × Rise
(ft.-in. × ft.-in.) Corner Min. Max. Min. Max.
Radius (in.) in. Gage Cover (ft) Cover (ft) Cover (ft) Cover (ft)
6-1 × 4-7 18 0.111 12 ga 2 16 2 24
7-0 × 5-1 18 0.111 12 ga 2 14 2 21
7-11 × 5-7 18 0.111 12 ga 2 13 2 19
8-10 × 6-1 18 0.111 12 ga 2 11 2 17
9-9 × 6-7 18 0.111 12 ga 2 10 2 15
10-11 × 7-1 18 0.111 12 ga 2 9 2 14
11-10 × 7-7 18 0.111 12 ga 2 7 2 13
12-10 × 8-4 18 0.111 12 ga 2.5 6 2 12
13-3 × 9-4 31 0.111 12 ga 2 13 2 17 a
14-2 × 9-10 31 0.111 12 ga 2 12 2 16 a
15-4 × 10-4 31 0.140 10 ga 2 11 2 15 a
16-3 × 10-10 31 0.140 10 ga 2 11 2 14 a
17-2 × 11-4 31 0.140 10 ga 2.5 10 2.5 13 a
18-1 × 11-10 31 0.168 8 ga 2.5 10 2.5 12 a
19-3 × 12-4 31 0.168 8 ga 2.5 9 2.5 13
Notes:
ft. = feet
ga = gage
in. = inch
TSF = tons per square foot
a. Fill limited by the seam strength of the bolts. Additional sizes are available. Contact the OSC Hydraulics Office for
more information.

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Table 8-11 Aluminum Pipe: 2⅔ in. × ½ in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 196

Maximum Cover in Feet
Pipe 0.060 in. 0.075 in. 0.105 in. 0.135 in. 0.164 in.
Diameter (in.) (16 ga) (14 ga) (12 ga) (10 ga) (8 ga)
12 100 100 -- -- --
18 75 94 100 -- --
24 56 71 99 -- --
30 -- 56 79 -- --
36 -- 47 66 85 --
42 -- -- 56 73 --
48 -- -- 49 63 78
54 -- -- 43 56 69
60 -- -- -- 50 62
66 -- -- -- -- 56
72 -- -- -- -- 45
Notes:
-- = not applicable
in. = inch
ga = gage
Minimum cover is 2 feet.

Table 8-12 Aluminum Pipe: 3 in. × 1 in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 196

Maximum Cover in Feet
Pipe 0.060 in. 0.075 in. 0.105 in. 0.135 in. 0.164 in.
Diameter (in.) (16 ga) (14 ga) (12 ga) (10 ga) (8 ga)
36 43 65 76 98 --
42 36 46 65 84 --
48 32 40 57 73 90
54 28 35 50 65 80
60 -- 32 45 58 72
66 -- 28 41 53 65
72 -- 26 37 48 59
78 -- 24 34 44 55
84 -- -- 31 41 51
90 -- -- 29 38 47
96 -- -- 27 36 44
102 -- -- -- 33 41
108 -- -- -- 31 39
114 -- -- -- -- 37
120 -- -- -- -- 35
Notes:
-- = not applicable
in. = inch
ga = gage
Minimum cover is 2 feet.

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Chapter 8 Pipe Classifications and Materials

Table 8-13 Aluminum Structural Plate: 9 in. × 2 in. Corrugations with Galvanized Steel Bolts

Pipe Maximum Cover in Feet

Diameter (in.) 0.100 in. 0.125 in. 0.150 in. 0.175 in. 0.200 in. 0.225 in. 0.250 in.
60 31 45 60 70 81 92 100
72 25 37 50 58 67 77 86
84 22 32 42 50 58 66 73
96 19 28 37 44 50 57 64
108 17 25 33 39 45 51 57
120 15 22 30 35 40 46 51
132 14 20 27 32 37 42 47
144 12 18 25 29 33 38 43
156 -- 17 23 27 31 35 39
168 -- -- 31 25 29 33 36
180 -- -- -- 23 27 30 34
Notes:
-- = not applicable
in. = inch
Minimum cover is 2 feet.

Table 8-14 Aluminum Pipe Arch: 2⅔ in. × ½ in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 196

Maximum Cover in Feet for
Span × Rise Corner Radius Thickness Minimum Soil-Bearing Capacity of:
(in. × in.) (in.) in. Gage Cover (ft) 2 tons/ft2 3 tons/ft2
17 × 13 3 0.060 16 ga 2 12 18
21 × 15 3 0.060 16 ga 2 10 14
24 × 18 3 0.060 16 ga 2 7 13
28 × 20 3 0.075 14 ga 2 5 11
35 × 24 3 0.075 14 ga 2.5 NS 7
42 × 29 3.5 0.105 12 ga 2.5 NS 7
49 × 33 4 0.105 12 ga 2.5 NS 6
57 × 38 5 0.135 10 ga 2.5 NS 8
64 × 43 6 0.135 10 ga 2.5 NS 9
71 × 47 7 0.164 8 ga 2 NS 10
Notes:
ft2 = square feet
ga = gage
in. = inch
NS = not suitable

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Chapter 8 Pipe Classifications and Materials

Table 8-15 Aluminum Pipe Arch: 3 in. × 1 in. Corrugations—AASHTO M 196

Maximum Cover in Feet for
Span × Rise Corner Radius Thickness Minimum Soil-Bearing Capacity of:
(in. × in.) (in.) Cover (ft)
in. Gage 2 tons/ft2 3 tons/ft2
40 × 31 5 0.075 14 ga 2.5 8 12
46 × 36 6 0.075 14 ga 2 8 13
53 × 41 7 0.075 14 ga 2 8 13
60 × 46 8 0.075 14 ga 2 8 13
66 × 51 9 0.060 14 ga 2 9 13
73 × 55 12 0.075 14 ga 2 11 16
81 × 59 14 0.105 12 ga 2 11 17
87 × 63 14 0.105 12 ga 2 10 16
95 × 67 16 0.105 12 ga 2 11 17
103 × 71 16 0.135 10 ga 2 10 15
112 × 75 18 0.164 8 ga 2 10 16
Notes:
ft2 = square feet
ga = gage
in. = inch

Table 8-16 Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe Arch: 9 in. × 2⅔ in. Corrugations, ¼ in. Steel Bolts, 4
Bolts/Corrugation
Maximum Covera in Feet for Soil-
Span × Rise Corner Radius Min. Gage Bearing Capacity
(ft-in. × ft-in.) (in.) Thickness Min. Cover (ft) 2 tons/ft2 3 tons/ft2
(in.)
a 5-11 × 5-5 31.8 0.100 2 24 b 24 b
b 6-11 × 5-9 31.8 0.100 2 22 b 22 b
c 7-3 × 5-11 31.8 0.100 2 20 b 20 b
d 7-9 × 6-0 31.8 0.100 2 28 b 18 b
e 8-5 × 6-3 31.8 0.100 2 17 b 17 b
f 9-3 × 6-5 31.8 0.100 2 15 b 15 b
g 10-3 × 6-9 31.8 0.100 2 14 b 14 b
h 10-9 × 6-10 31.8 0.100 2 13 b 13 b
i 11-5 × 7-1 31.8 0.100 2 12 b 12 b
j 12-7 × 7-5 31.8 0.125 2 14 16 b
k 12-11 × 7-6 31.8 0.150 2 13 14 b
l 13-1 × 8-2 31.8 0.150 2 13 18 b
m 13-11 × 8-5 31.8 0.150 2 12 17 b
n 14-8 × 9-8 31.8 0.175 2 12 18
o 15-4 × 10-0 31.8 0.175 2 11 17

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Chapter 8 Pipe Classifications and Materials

Maximum Covera in Feet for Soil-

Span × Rise Corner Radius Min. Gage Bearing Capacity
(ft-in. × ft-in.) (in.) Thickness Min. Cover (ft) 2 tons/ft2 3 tons/ft2
(in.)
p 16-1 × 10-4 31.8 0.200 2 10 16
q 16-9 × 10-8 31.8 0.200 2.17 10 15
r 17-3 × 11-0 31.8 0.225 2.25 10 15
s 18-0 × 11-4 31.8 0.255 2.25 9 14
t 18-8 × 11-8 31.8 0.250 2.33 9 14
Notes:
in. = inch
ft2 = square feet
a. Additional sizes and varying cover heights are available, depending on gage thickness and reinforcement spacing.
Contact the State Hydraulics Office for more information.
b. Fill limited by the seam strength of the bolts.

Table 8-17 Steel and Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Pipe: ¾ × 1 × 11½ in. or ¾ × ¾ × 7½ in.
Corrugations—AASHTO M 36

Maximum Cover in Feet

0.064 in. 0.079 in. 0.109 in.
Diameter (in.) 16 ga 14 ga 12 ga
18 50 72 --
24 50 72 100
30 41 58 97
36 34 48 81
42 29 41 69
48 26 36 61
54 21 32 54
60 19 29 49
Notes:
-- = not applicable
ga = gage
in. = inch
Minimum cover is 2 feet.

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Chapter 8 Pipe Classifications and Materials

Table 8-18 Aluminum Alloy Spiral Rib Pipe: ¾ × 1 × 11½ in. or ¾ × ¾ × 7½ in. Corrugations—AASHTO
M 196

Maximum Cover in Feet

0.060 in. 0.075 in. 0.105 in. 0.135
Diameter (in.) 16 ga 14 ga 12 ga 10 ga
12 35 50 -- --
18 34 49 -- --
24 25 36 63 82
30 19 28 50 65
36 15 24 41 54
42 -- 19 35 46
48 -- 17 30 40
54 -- 14 27 35
60 -- 12 24 30
Notes:
-- = not applicable
ga = gage
in. = inch
Minimum cover is 2 feet.

Table 8-19 Thermoplastic and Ductile-Iron Pipe

Solid-Wall PVC Profile-Wall PVC Corrugated Polyethylene
ASTM D 3034 SDR 35 AASHTO M 304 AASHTO M 294 Type S
3 in. to 15 in. diameter or 12 in. to 60 in. diameter
ASTM F 794 Series 46
ASTM F 679 Type 1 4 in. to 48 in. diameter
18 in. to 48 in. diameter
40 ft max, 2 ft min. 40 ft max, 2 ft min. 18 ft max, 2 ft min.
All diameters All diameters All diameters
Solid-Wall HDPE Polypropylene Ductile-Iron Pipe
Std Spec 9-05.23 Std Spec 9-05.24 Std Spec 9-05.13
12 in. to 60 in. diameter 12 in. to 48 in. diameter
18 ft max, 0.5 ft min. 21 ft max, 1 ft min. 25 ft max, 0.5 ft min.
All diameters All diameters All diameters
Notes:
in. = inch
For cover, refer to Section 8-12.3.

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