CH:1 INTRODUCTION
➢ Branch of public health engineering deals with the preservation and maintenance of
health of individual and the community, by preventing communicable diseases.
➢ Consists of scientific and methodical collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal
of the waste matter
➢ The sanitary sewage includes excreta, domestic sewage, and industrial waste
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
1. Refuse:
➢ Used to indicate what is rejected or left out as worthless
➢ May be in the form of liquid, semi-solid or solid form
➢ May be divided as garbage, rubbish, sullage, sewage, subsoil water and storm water
2. Garbage
➢ Indicates dry refuse
➢ Include waste paper, decayed fruits and vegetables, grass and leaves, sweepings from
streets, markets and public places
➢ Garbage contains large amount of organic and putrefying matter
3. Rubbish
➢ Indicate sundry solid waste from offices, residences and other building
➢ Also includes waste building materials, broken furniture, paper
➢ It is dry and is of combustible nature in general
4. Sullage
➢ Indicate wastewater from bathrooms, kitchens, washing places and wash basins
➢ Doesnot create bad smell as present of organic matter is very negligible
5. Sewage
➢ Indicates liquid waste from community
➢ Includes sullage, discharge from laterines, urinals, stables industrials water and storm
water that may be admitted to sewer
➢ Extremely putrescible
➢ May contain numerous pathogenic or disease producing bacteria
6. Sub-soil water
➢ Ground water that enters into sewer through leaks
7. Storm water
➢ Indicates rain water of the locality
8. Sanitary sewage
➢ Also called domestic sewage
➢ Indicates sewages mainly derived from residential building and industrial
establishment
➢ Extremely foul in nature
➢ May be classified as domestic sewage and industrial
9. Domestic sewage
➢ Sewage obtained from the lavatory basins, urinals and water closets of residential
buildings , office building, theatres and other institutions
➢ As it contains human excreta and urines, it is extremely foul in nature
[Link] sewage
➢ Wastewater obtained from the industrial and commercial establishment
➢ May contain objectionable organic compounds that may not be amenable tp
conventional treatment processes
[Link] soil
➢ Used to indicate human and animal excreta
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➢ Under-ground conduit or drain through which sewage is carried to a point of
discharge or disposal
➢ Sewer system as: separate, combined, and partially combined
➢ House sewer is a pipe carrying sewage from building to a street sewer
➢ Main sewer or trunk sewer : receives sewer from many tributary branches and sewer,
serving as outlet for large territory
➢ Branch sewer or submain sewer: receives sewage from relatively small area, usually a
few laterals and discharge into main sewer
➢ Lateral sewer: collects sewage directly from houses: first stage of sewage collection
➢ Depressed sewer: section of sewer constructed lower than the adjacent section to
pass beneath an obstacles or obstruction: runs full under gravity and at higher than
atmospheric pressure but sewage entering and leaving at atm. Pressure
➢ Intercepting sewer: laid transversely to general sewer system to intercept dry
weather flow of sewage and additional surface and storm water may be desirable:
usually large sewer, flowing parallel to natural drainage channel into which [Link]
main or out fall sewer discharges
➢ Outfall sewer: receives sewage from collecting system and conducts it to a point of a
final discharge
➢ Relief sewer or overflow sewer: built to carry the flow in excess of the capacity of an
existing water
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➢ Means structure, device, equipment and appurtenances intended for the collection,
transportation and pumping of sewage and liquid wastes but excluding work for
treatment of sewage
➢ Also include entire science of collecting and carrying sewage by water carriage
system through sewers
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➢ Includes both organic and mineral matter carried through liquid media
➢ Organic portion of wastewater is putrescible, undergoing biological decomposition
➢ Minerals matter may combine with water to form dissolved solids, may form
unsightly sludge deposits and may contribute to the hardness of water in effulent
System of Sanitation
➢ Waste are in the form of solid or liquid waste
➢ The refuse consisting of nightsoil, garbage, sullage, sewage, formed in any sanitary
system should be rapidly and safely carried to disposal site for maintain clean
environment
➢ Depending on type of waste, two system may be employed for collection,
conveyance and disposal
1. Conservancy system
➢ Old system where various types of waste like night soil, garbage etc are collected
separately in vessels or deposited in pools or pits and then removed periodically at
least in 24 hrs
➢ Also known as dry system
➢ Handling is independent on different types of refuse
➢ Following are the methods of collection of different types of waste
a. Night soil
➢ Night soils in laterines, privies or cesspool is collected separately in pans or pails and
carried on head of sweepers to central place through bullock carts or motor vans
➢ Buried into ground, in trenches, to give excellent manure in one or two years
b. Garbage
➢ Collected separately in dustbins and conveyed on hand carts or motor vans once or
twice a day
➢ May consists of waste matter of both combustible as well as non-combustible type
➢ Disposal method include open dump, hog feeding, incineration, dumping into
sanitary fill, fermentation or biological digestion
c. Sullage and storm water
➢ Are collected and conveyed separately in closed or open gutters
➢ Sweepers swept away the liquid and semi-liquid mass of filth to drain from privies
2. Water carriage system
➢ Collection, conveyance and disposal of various types of waste are carried out with
the help of water
➢ Water is used as medium to convey the waste from its point of production to point of
its treatment or final disposal
➢ Sufficient quantity of water is required to be mixed with the waste so that dilution
ratio is great that mixture may flow like water
➢ System requires large initial cost of installation
➢ Requires large quantity of water to create efficient flow condition
Comparison of Conservancy system and water carriage system
Classification of water carriage system
1. Separate system
➢ Provides two separate system of sewers
➢ One intended for conveyance of foul sewage only such as faecal matter, domestic
wastewater, laundaries, stables and manufacturing processes and can be lead to
treatment works
➢ other for rain water including surface washing from certain streets, overflow from
public baths and foundations and can be discharge directly to natural stream without
any treatment
Advantages
➢ Cost of installation is low. The storm water can be disposed off through open channel
along road side. Sewer carrying foul sewage will be of smaller size
➢ The load on treatment unit will be lowered
➢ Lifting of sewage can be economical both from point of view of capital cost as well as
running cost
➢ Sewer of smaller section can be easily ventilated than those of large section
➢ No necessity of providing flushing tank in dry weather, as flow in sewer of smaller
section is more efficient
➢ Rain water can be discharged into stream or river without any treatment
Disadvantages
➢ Since sewer are of small size, difficult to clean
➢ Likely to get chocked
➢ Two sets of sewer may ultimately prove to be costly
➢ Storm water sewer will be used only during rainy season while it may serve as
dumping place for garbage on other time and gets chocked
Factors affecting choice of separate system
a) Financial aspect:
➢ If there is lack of sufficient fund in beginning, sewers may be constructed to
carry only domestic sewage, and rain water can be conveyed through open
drain
➢ These drain can be converted into regular sewer later when sufficient ffunds
are available
b) Flat topography
➢ If ground is flat, the sewer will have to be laid at a depth in order to achieve
reasonable gradient, in such case separate sewer are more economical.
➢ Combined sewer of a bigger size will be costlier to be laid at greater depth
c) Rainfall pattern:
➢ If rainfall is for short duration and does not take place throughout the year, it
will be more economic to adopt separate system
d) Outlet conditions
➢ If river or natural stream is available nearby, separate system may be suited
➢ The storm water can be directly conveyed to stram, while foul sewage can be
led to treatment plant
e) Pumping aspect
➢ Separate system is best if sewages has to be lifted up by pumping, as there
will be no inclusion of storm water in sewage
2. Combined system
➢ Only one sewer is used to carry both foul sewage s well as rain water
➢ The sewage and rainwater are carried to the sewage treatment plant before its final
disposal
Advantages
➢ System requires only one set of sewer, so maintenance cost are reduced
➢ Sewer are of larger size, so chances of chocking is less
➢ Easy to clean
➢ Strength of sewage is reduced b dilution
➢ Chances of foul smell are reduced as there is more air in larger sewer which helps to
dilute sewer gas
Disadvantages
➢ Cost of construction are very high due to of larger dimension
➢ Because of larger size of sewer, handling and transport is difficult
➢ Load on treatment plant increases due to inclusion of storm water
➢ It will be uneconomical if pumping is required for lifting sewage
➢ During heavy rain, sewers may overflow which will create unhygienic conditions and
cause pollution problems
➢ Storm water is unnecessarily polluted
➢ Large sewers gets easily silted if not properly designed and may become foul in dry
season
Factor affecting choice of combined system
a) Space consideration
➢ Combined system is preferred when space available for laying the sewer is
restricted
b) Integrated system
➢ If the sewer are laid along with the overall development of area, a combined
system is preferred
c) Even rainfall pattern
➢ Combined system is preferred if rainfall is evenly distributed through the year
and also rainfall during monsoon is not so intensive
d) Conversion of existing storm water drain
➢ The combined system is preferred if an existing storm water drain is being
converted into a combined sewer.
➢ This is possible if quantity of sewage is small
e) Pumping requirement
➢ If it is necessary to lift both sewage as well as storm water , combined system
is preferred
3. Partially combined system
➢ Only one set of underground sewer is laid
➢ Foul sewage as well as early washing by rain are admitted
➢ As quantity of storm water exceeds a certain limit, the storm water overflows which
is collected and conveyed in open drain to natural stream
Advantages
➢ Sewers are of reasonable size, so cleaning is not very difficult
➢ Combines both the advantages of separate as well as combined system
➢ Storm water admitted to sewer helps to eliminates the chances of chocking and are
completely cleaned during rainy season
➢ Problem of disposing off storm water from homes is simplified
Disadvantages
➢ During dry weather, the velocity of flow will be low and self cleansing velocity may
not be achieved
➢ Storm water increases load on treatment plant
➢ Storm water increases cost of pumping
Quantity of waste water
➢ Quantity of waste water is essential to determine the size of sewer
➢ The total waste water flow can be divided into two components
1) Dry weather flow (D.W.F)
➢ It is quantity of wastewater that flows through a sewer in dry weather when no
storm water is in sewer.
➢ Also sometime called as sanitary sewage
Sources of sanitary sewage
a) Domestic wastewater
➢ Certain quantity of water is being supplied for domestic use
➢ Not all of it will reach sewer
➢ The waste water reaching the sewer will be part of water used for flushing
W.C, urinals, washing clothes, bathing etc
b) Industrial wastewater
➢ It is generated by the industry after consuming water for its manufacturing
process
c) Waste water from public facilities
➢ Waste water from schools, cinemas, hotels, railway stations , street washing
d) Ground water infiltration
➢ Quantity of ground water that infiltrates into sewer
➢ Depends on nature of soil, material of sewer, nature and condition of sewer
joints, depth of sewer and position of water table
Factors affecting D.W.F
a) Rate of water supply
➢ Quantity of wastewater produced from a community depends upon the rate
of water supply per capita per day
➢ Quantity of wastewater entering into sewer will be less than total quantity of
water supplied
➢ The wastewater quantity may be assumed to be 80% of the quantity of water
supply
➢ The sewer should be designed for a minimum of 150 ltr per capita per day
b) Population growth
➢ System is design for quantity of wastewater considering the population
growth
➢ The population forecast can be done by
c) Types of area served
➢ Quantity of wastewater produced depends upon whether the area to be
served is residential, commercial, or industrial
➢ Wastewater from residential area directly depends upon rate of water supply
➢ The amount of wastewater produced from industrial locality depends upon
the types of industries and their corresponding industrial process
d) Infiltration of sub-soil water
➢ Ground water or sub-soil water may infiltrate into sewer through the leaky
joints
➢ Exfiltration is reverse process which indicates the flow of wastewater from
sewer into ground
➢ Infiltration increases quantity of flow through sewer, while exfiltration results
In decrease in flow and consequent increase in pollution of ground water
Calculation of discharge of sanitary sewage
Design quantity of sanitary sewage (Qsa) = Pf *DWF
Pf = peak factor= 2 to 4, 3 in general
DWF= population * (70 to 90)% of water supply rate
So Qsa = (2 to 4)*(70 to 90) % *P*qw/s
Peak factors
2) Storm water flow
➢ The amount of water flowing over the ground surface, pavement, house roofs etc is
commonly known as runoff or storm water
➢ The amount of peak storm water flow may be several times more than D.W.F
➢ In case of combined system, the sewer are normally not designed for peak storm
water flow, otherwise size of sewer will be very large
➢ The storm water flow is also known as wet weather flow (W.W.F)
➢ The runoff may depend on catchment area, ground slope, permeability of ground,
extent of impervious area such as building, paved yards, extent of vegetation growth,
rainfall intensity, rainfall duration, etc.
➢ Estimation of storm water flow for sewer is done by rational method and empirical
formula
Rational method
➢ Most commonly used for design of storm drains
➢ Catchment area (A), impermeability factor (C) of catchment area and intensity of
rainfall (I) is taken into consideration
➢ The rational formula can be expressed as
𝐶∗𝐼∗𝐴
𝑄=
360
Q= discharge in m3/s
C = coeff of run off
I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hr)
A = area of catchment in ha ( 1 ha = 0.01 sq km)
Runoff coefficient (C)
𝐶1 𝐴1 + 𝐶2 𝐴2 + ⋯ … … . . +𝐶𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝐶=
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + ⋯ … … … 𝐴𝑛
Rainfall intensity
a) General Formula
25.4 ∗ 𝑎
𝐼=
𝑡+𝑏
Where,
R = rainfall intensity in mm/hr
T= duration of storm in minute= time of concentration
a , b = const
The united states ministry of health recommend as
Duration of storm (min) a B
5 to 20 30 10
20 to 100 40 20
b) For area of heavy and frequent rainfall
3430
𝐼=
𝑡 + 18
The above formula gives rainfall intensity of frequency once in 5 years
c) For storm occurance un a year
150
𝐼=
𝑡 0.625
d) For storm occurring once in 10 year
380
𝐼=
𝑡 0.5
e) Kuichling’s formula
For storm occurring once in 10 year
2667
𝐼=
𝑡 + 20
For storm occurring once in 15 years
3048
𝐼=
𝑡 + 20
Assumption and limitation of rational method
➢ Limited to small catchment area (about 400 ha)
➢ Precipitation is assumed to be uniform over the entire catchment
➢ Storm duration is equal to time of concentration
➢ Runoff is dominated by overland flow
➢ Catchment slope is not considered
➢ Selection of suitable runoff coefficient and rainfall intensity is extremely tedious for
large area
➢ Basin storage is neglected
Factors affecting quantity of storm water
Time of concentration
Time area graph
Q. A population 30000 is residing in a rural area of 60 ha. If
the overall runoff coeff is 0.6 , time of entry is 25 min and
time of flow is 5 min. if the avg flow of waster is 45 lpcd and
peak factor is 2.7. find the design discharge for combined
sewer.
Q. Determine the quantity of storm water for the data
Q. find out the quantity for separate, combined and partially
separate system for catchment area of 200 ha. Assuming the
surface on which rainfall is classified as
Solid waste
➢ Also known as dry refuse
➢ Includes house refuse, trade refuse and street refuse
Types of solid waste
Composition of Solid waste
➢ Quantity and composition of refuse varies from place to place and also varies from
from season to season
➢ Quantity of garbage depends on availability of food, food habits and standard of
living
➢ It also depends on whether the town is residential, commercial or industrial
Example of kirtipur municipality as per 2023 data
Method of solid waste collection
Solid waste management