METAL CASTING AND WELDING BME401

MODULE-2

SAND MOULD AND METAL MOULD CASTING

STUDY OF IMPORTANT MOULDING PROCESSES

Moulds can be prepared with sand or metal. There are various sand moulds and metallic
moulds in which castings are made. The following moulds are discussed below:

(a) Sand Moulds

▪ Green sand mould

▪ Dry sand mould
▪ Core sand mould
▪ Carbon dioxide mould (CO2 mould)
▪ Shell mould
▪ Investment mould
▪ Sweep mould
▪ Full mould

(b) Metal moulds

Gravity die casting or Permanent mould casting

Pressure die casting
Continuous casting
Centrifugal casting
Squeeze casting
Slush casting
Thixocasting process

a. SAND MOULDS

Green sand mould:

Green sand moulding is the most widely used process for casting both ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.

Procedure involved in making green sand mould:

a) It is made from silica sand (85-92%), clay (bentonite binder) - (6-12%), water (3-5%)
and additives are mixed to prepare green sand mixture.

b) The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it as shown in fig
1(a). Parting sand (it is dried silica sand) is sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid
green sand mixture sticking to the pattern.
c) The drag box is filled with green sand and rammed manually till its top surface as

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shown in fig.. The drag box is now inverted so that the pattern faces the top as shown in
Fig. Parting sand is sprinkled over the mould surface of the drag box.
d) The cope box is placed on top of the drag box and the sprue and riser pin are placed in
suitable locations. The green sand mixture is rammed to the level of cope box as shown
in fig.
e) The sprue and the riser are removed from the mould. The cope box is lifted and placed
aside, and the pattern is the drag box is withdrawn by rapping it carefully so as to avoid
damage to the mould. Gates are cut using hand tools to provide passage for the flow of
molten metal. Fig. The mould cavity is cleaned and finished. Cores, if any, are placed in
the mould to obtain a hollow cavity in the casting fig.
f) The cope is now placed on the drag box and both are aligned with the help of pins. Vent
holes are made to allow the free escape of gases from the mould during pouring. The
mould is made ready for pouring fig.

Advantages of green sand moulding:

Least expensive method.

Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture.
Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
Suitable for mass production.

Disadvantages:

• Moulds prepared by this process lack permeability, strength and stability.

• The give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes, etc., because of low

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permeability and lot of steam formation due to moisture presence.
• Moulds cannot be stored for quite long time.
• Not suitable for very large castings.
• Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings are not satisfactory.

Dry Sand Moulding

Dry sand moulding is prepared in the same manner as that of green sand moulding, except
that the mould is baked in a oven to remove the moisture present in the sand and also to
harden the moulds.

Advantages:

Strength and stability of dry sand moulds is high when compared to green sand moulds.
Baking removes moisture and hence defects related to moisture are eliminated.
Dry sand moulds give better surface finish and dimensional tolerance of castings.

Disadvantages:
• Consumes more time, labour and cost due to baking process, hence not suitable for mass
production.
• Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult to bake.
• High capital cost of baking moulds in oven.
• Under baked or over baked moulds is another disadvantage.

Core sand moulding

In this process, sometimes complete mould can be obtained by assembling a large number
of intricate cores to obtain the desired mould cavity and the cores are baked to develop
greater strength. Such a mould is called core sand mould. This is a useful moulding process
when the intricacy of the casting is such that green sand moulding becomes impracticable.
The motor block is a good example. Good surface finish can be obtained.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) moulding

Carbon dioxide moulding also known as sodium silicate process is one of the widely used
process for preparing moulds and cores. In this process, sodium silicate is used as the
binder. But sodium silicate activates or tend to bind the sand particles only in the presence
of carbon dioxide gas to form silica gel & sodium carbonate. For this reason, the process is
commonly known as CO2 process, as shown in fig.

Na2 SiO3 + CO2 Na2 CO3 + SiO2

(Sodium silicate) (Silica gel)

Silica gel acts as a strong binder between silica sand grains and this process takes place
without the application of heat.

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Advantages:
Operation is faster, moulds and cores can be used immediately after processing
Eliminates baking ovens
Semi skilled labourers can be used.

Disadvantages:
• Moulds are more expensive compared to other process.
• Difficulty is reclaiming the used sand.

Shell Moulding

• It is a special form of sand moulding.

• It is used for producing small castings (up to 50 Kg steel castings)
• Very intricate, accurate, very good surface finish castings can be produced.
• Machining can be eliminated almost.
• Sand mix consists of washed and dried fine sand (+60 – 150 sieve), 3-4% thermosetting
binder (urea/phenol formaldehyde) resin.
• Sand mix is prepared dry in a mixer and taken in a box.
• A metal pattern (aluminium) is heated 200-250oC and coated with the releasing agent.
(silicon grease) (only one half of the pattern is used).
• The sand mix is dumped on the heated metal pattern.
• A thin layer/shell of sand is formed on the pattern in about 30 sec.
• Now the shell along with the pattern is cured in a oven at about 300 oC for 2 to 3 min. to
make the shell strong.
• The shell is ejected out of the pattern.
• Similarly another half of the shell is prepared.
• Two halves are joined together with the gum.
• The completed shell is kept in an empty mould box and packed with sand, metal shots or
gravel as support.
• Molten metal is poured through the sprue and castings are made.
• The pattern along with gates and riser are fixed on to a metal plate to facilitate preparing
the shell, i.e., heating, coating with the resin sand and ejecting the shell easily. Fig. 3.

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Investment shell moulding (Investment moulding)

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Is a process to produce intricate, complex shape and highly smooth surface casting.
Absolutely no machining is required on the casting.
Any metal or alloy can be cast in the shell.
A disposable pattern material such as wax is used. Wax is the most popular pattern
material used.
Sand mix is a refractory slurry consisting of -200 mesh sand, a binder (ethyl silicate or
colloidal silica etc.) accelerator (HCl), water.
First the required shape of the pattern is got by injecting molten wax into a metallic die.
After freezing, the pattern is taken out of the die.
A number of patterns may be attached onto a common sprue with necessary gates, to
form a cluster.
The cluster pattern is dipped in the refractory slurry and taken out. A thin layer of
coating is formed on the pattern.
This process is continued several times (7-8) so that 8-10mm shell thickness is formed.
Now the shell is heated suddenly at 110-1200oC to remove wax as well as sintering the
shell (to harden the shell).
The sintered shell with the cavity is ready to receive molten metal.
After casting the metal, the shell is broken and the required castings are separated/cut
off from the sprue and gate.
Wax is collected and reused.
The castings are then collected for dispatch.
All types of metals and alloys can be easily cast.
Mainly Ni alloys, alloy steel, high temperature alloys are cast.
Surgical instruments, turbine blades, aerospace parts, etc., are produced by this method.
Process is costly.

Sweep Moulding

In sweep moulding, the cavity is formed as the pattern sweeps the sand all around the
circumference.
A thin wooden piece is attached to the spindle at one edge while the other edge has a
contour depending on the desired shape of the casting. (Refer Fig. 5). The spindly is placed
at the center of the mould and rotated so that the wooden piece sweeps in the mould box
generating the shape of the required casting. Green sand, loam sand or sodium silicate sand

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can be used to prepare moulds. The process is used for producing large castings of circular
sections and symmetrical shapes.
Full Moulding

• The mould contains pattern along with the sand.

• No cavity is seen in the mould.
• When molten metal is poured into the sprue, mould cavity is created instantaneously.
• The pattern burns off and makes away for the molten to occupy the space left.
• Hence the name full moulding.
• Here polysterene pattern is used.
• Polysterene has very low ash content and burns of easily at molten metal temperature.
• Extremely complex shaped castings can be made by this method.
• Any metal or alloy can be cast.
• Pouring rate of metal is very important in the process.
• Regular moulding sand can be used for moulding.
• Pattern is placed in the mould box and sand is rammed alround.
• The pattern with gates and riser is left in the mould itself.
• Molten metal is poured through the sprue at a rapid rate.
• Pattern burns off, cavity is created in its place and molten metal fills up this,
instantaneously.
• Thus mold cavity is created and is filled up with liquid metal at the same time.
• After cooling, the casting is taken out (solidified metal).

• Each time a new pattern must be used, to produce a casting.

(b) Metal moulds

• Metal moulds are used to make castings.

• Usually cast iron, carbon steel, copper are used to prepare the moulds.
• Metal moulds can be used again and again for making a number of castings
• They are also referred to as Permanent Moulds.
• Good accurate, consistent quality castings can be produced in the mould.
• Very much useful in mass production.
• The molten metal is subjected to gravitational force.
• Suitable for small & medium size castings.
• Section thickness of <6mm can be cast.
• The metal moulds incorporate gating & risering.
• Process is costlier than sand mould.

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Gravity die casting or Permanent mould casting

It is referred to as Gravity Die Casting or Permanent Mould Casting. The

process makes use of a metallic mould to produce the casting.
Two halves of the dies are used to produce the casting.
The die halves are cleaned well first.
Then the dies are preheated.
The dies are coated with a refractory mould coating.
The die halves are closed and clamped.
Molten metal is then poured into the cavity via sprue/pouring cup and allowed to
solidify under gravity or atmospheric pressure.
Metal is then allowed to cool.
After solidification, casting is removed by opening the mould/die halves.
The molten metal cools faster in metal moulds than in sand moulds.
Section >6mm thickness can only be cast.

Ex. Piston, carburetor bodies, oil pump bodies, connecting rods, etc.

Pressure die casting

Here also a permanent mould in two halves is used to produce castings, repeatedly.
But external pressure is used to force the molten metal into the mould cavity.
Hence much thinner castings can be produced as compared to gravity castings.
It can be further classified as Low Pressure Die Casting (LPDC) and High Pressure Die
Casting (HPDC).
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Low Pressure Die Casting (LPDC) process:

• Here a pressure of approximately 1N/mm2 is applied on the molten metal during

solidification.
• Die halves are closed and molten metal is poured into the mould cavity and pressure is
applied immediately.
• After few minutes, the die is opened and the casting is removed.

Construction:

Consists of a crucible positioned inside a resistance type electric furnace.

Metal ingots are placed inside the crucible and current is passed through the coils.
Temperature of the molten metal is maintained constant.
The entire crucible and furnace is housed inside a metal chamber.
The lid of the crucible is closed with asbestos lined hollow plate with an opening for
passing air through the plat. The plate has holes extended to the inside of the crucible.
A refractory tube enters the molten bath and connects the die cavity.
Whenever compressed air is passed through the opening the molten metal is pushed
upwards through the pipe into the die.
After the metal cools casting is removed from the die.
Thin castings can be made.

High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC) process

• A pressure of 7-500 N/mm2 is applied on the molten metal during solidification.

• Very thin and intricate castings can be made.
• Very high mechanical properties, good surface finish castings can be produced.
• Section thickness, 6mm can easily be produced.
• Any metal or alloy can be cast.
• Very large number of castings can be produced in a single die.
High pressure die castings can be classified into:
1. Cold chamber die-casting process (CCDP)
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2. Hot chamber die-casting process (HCDP)
• In CCDP, molten metal is poured outside the die chamber and then forced into the die.
• There will be a drop in the metal temperature by the time it reaches the die cavity.
• A separate melting unit is used to prepare the molten metal.
• In HCDP, molten metal is carried through a unit which a submerged in the molten metal
itself. And the molten metal is forced into the die cavity. Hence, the metal does not
loose any temperature at all.

Cold Chamber die casting process (CCDP)

It consists of a cylinder and a plunger arrangement. One end of the cylinder is connected to
the movable die. A fixed die engages the moveable die. The moveable die and cylinder
move together. The cylinder has an opening on the periphery. Through this opening the
molten metal is poured inside the cylinder. As and when the plunger moves towards the die,
the molten metal is forced into the die with high pressure. The dies are separated after few
seconds. By the help of an ejector solidified casting is removed. Process is repeated.

• Dies in closed position. Molten metal poured into the cylinder

• Plunger pushes the metal into the die out.
• Moveable die and plunger moves out.
• Ejector pushes the casting out of the die.
• Dies close and ready for the next casting
Very high pressure 20-200 N/mm2 is applied through the plunger.

Hot Chamber die casting process (HCDP)

i) Using compressed air

It consists of a goose neck chamber housed in a melting pot.

Melting pot holds liquid metal and is heated by a furnace.
The goose neck has a nozzle end which connects the die opening.
The die is closed and the goose neck chamber draws molten metal from the melting pot.
Now compressed air is allowed into the goose neck chamber.
This forces molten metal into the die cavity.
The molten metal solidifies after few seconds.
The die is opened and the solidified casting is ejected out.
The die is ready for the next cycle.
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ii. Using a plunger:

• It consists of a melting pot with a goose neck secured on to brick lining.

• The pot is heated from outside.
• A burner is located which supplies flame for heating the pot.
• Molten metal enters the goose neck chamber through the inlet.
• The goose neck portion of the chamber ends as nozzle and connects the opening of the
dies (fixed end).
• The die is closed to start with.
• The goose neck chamber draws molten metal from the pot. Goose neck connects the die.
• Now the plunger moves down forcing molten metal into the die cavity. Plunger is
withdrawn after few seconds.
• After few seconds the metal solidifies. The die is opened and casting is taken out.
• The die is ready for the next casting.
• Burner keeps the metal at a constant temperature always, in the pot. Refer Fig. 10.

Hot chamber die-casting machine (using plunger)

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Continuous casting

Here liquid metal is directly converted into solid form in one stretch to produce billets, bars,
structural sections, etc.

It is a continuous casting process in which the operation of pouring, solidification and

withdrawal of casting from an open mould are carried out continuously.

• The molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle to the intermediate ladle called
tundish, through the opening in the tundish; the molten metal is fed into the mould with
minimum turbulence and keeping the level at a constant position.
• The mould is usually made of copper or graphite is open at the bottom and is water
cooled to extract the heat of the metal causing its solidification. The shape of the mould
corresponds to the shape of the desired casting.
• The process is started by placing a dummy bar at the bottom of the mould upon which
the first liquid metal falls.
• The molten metal from the tundish enters the mould and takes the shape of the mould.
The water cooled mould controls the cooling rate of the metal, so that it solidifies before
it leaves the mould.
• The metal after coming out of the mould is further cooled by direct water spray (or
water with air) to complete solidification.
• The solidified metal is continuously extracted (along with the dummy bar) by „pinch
rolls’, bent and fed horizontally and finally cut to the desired length.
Note: The dummy bar is initially placed at the bottom of the mould to receive the first
liquid metal. It is latter disconnected from the casting.

Advantages:
1. No wastage of metal, no riser / no runner / no ingate are required.
2. The casting yield is very high almost 100%.
3. Continuous production of castings can be carried out which is not possible in other
processes.
4. Since directional solidification is present, the casting will have superior properties.

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5. Grain size can be controlled very easily by controlling the cooling rates.
6. Human skill is almost eliminated.
7. Surface of the casting will be extremely good.
8. The output of the continuous casting can be easily converted to sheet, bar billet et.
9. Complete automation is possible.

Disadvantages:

1. Initial cost of equipment is very high.

2. Close maintenance of the plant is very much desirable.
3. Cost of the product is on the higher side.

Centrifugal casting

Centrifugal casting is a process in which the molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify
in revolving mould. The centrifugal force due to the revolving mould holds the molten
metal against the mould wall until it solidifies.

The material used for preparing moulds may be cast iron, steel, sand or graphite (for non-
ferrous castings). The process is used for making castings of hollow cylindrical shapes. The
various centrifugal casting techniques include:

a. True centrifugal casting

b. Semi-centrifugal casting and
c. Centrifuge casting.

a. True Centrifugal Casting:

True centrifugal casting is used to produce parts that are symmetrical about the axis like that
of pipes, tubes, bushings, liners and rings. The outside shape of the casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc. but the inside shape perfectly (theoretically) round due to radially
symmetric forces. This eliminates the need for cores for producing hollow castings.

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Process:

1. The mould of the desired shape is prepared with metal and the walls are coated with a
refractory ceramic coating.
2. The mould is rotated about its axis at high speed in the range of 300-3000 rpm.
Measured quantity of molten metal is poured into the rotating mould.
3. The centrifugal force of the rotating mould throws the liquid metal towards the mould
wall and holds the molten until it solidifies.
4. The casting cools and solidifies from its inner surface towards the axis of rotation of the
mould thereby promoting directional solidification.
5. The thickness of casting obtained can be controlled by the amount of liquid metal being
poured.

Note: The mould can be rotated horizontally or vertically. When the mould is rotated about
a horizontal axis, a true cylindrical inside surface is achieved, if rotated on a vertical axis; a
parabolic inside surface is achieved.

Cores and gating / risering systems are not required for this process.
b. Semi Centrifugal Casting

• It is a process to produce solid castings and hence requires a core to produce hollow
cavities.
• A simple cylindrical pipe casting is produced in true CF method.
• Gear blanks, wheels, pulleys are produced.
• CF force is used to force the molten metal to get the shape in the casting.
• A speed of 300-500 rpm is employed.
• Cope and drag moulds are made in sand and fixed on to the casting machine.
• Core is also assembled.
• The riser extended to the top surface acts as pouring basin.
• The mould is kept rotating and molten metal is poured
• Molten metal gets thrown outward forcing it against the mould wall.
• Molten metal solidifies and casting shape is formed.
• After cooling, casting is taken out.
• A fresh mould box is kept and the process is repeated.

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Centrifugal Casting

• A number of castings whose axis is away from the axis of rotation can be made each
time.
• Any casting shape that can be created in the sand mould can be formed in this process.
• A number of mould impressions are grouped around a central sprue and subjected to CF
force due to rotation.
• Small castings are done by this method.

Squeeze casting

Squeeze casting or squeeze forming or liquid metal forging is a combination of casting and
forging process. Fig. shows the sequence of operations involved in the process.

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Process:

1. The process makes use of two dies: bottom die and top die, cast and machined in such a
way that upon mating leaves a cavity similar to the shape of the desired casting.
2. The bottom die is preheated to around 200-250oC with the help of torch and sprayed by a
water based graphite lubricant to facilitate easy removal of casting after solidification.
3. Measured quantity of molten metal is poured into the bottom die as shown. As the metal
starts solidifying, pressure is applied to the top die causing it to move rapidly towards
the bottom die. This causes the molten metal to get squeezed and fill the mould cavity.
4. The squeezing pressure is applied until solidification is completed.
5. The casting is ejected by operating the lift pin provided in the bottom die, and the die is
made ready for the next cycle.
Squeeze casting is commonly used for casting aluminium and magnesium alloys. Cores can
be used in this process to produce holes.

Slush casting

• Castings with external features having aesthetic value are made by this technique.
• Castings will be hollow inside and wall thickness may be non-uniform.
• Core is not required for the purpose.
• Ex. Lamp posts, statues, toys, etc are produced by this method.
• Molten metal is poured into the metal mould.
• After few seconds the mould is inverted and the molten metal is drained out into a
container.
• A thin layer of solidified metal is formed in the mould.
• The mould is opened.
• The thin layered hollow casting is taken out.

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Thixocasting process

In this process, semi solid metal is subjected to compressive force inside a die and the
metal, is shaped as required.

Principle:

A known quantity of metal is heated in a furnace to its softening point then subjected to
external force when kept inside a die cavity. Since the metal is subjected to squeezing
action, when it is in plastic state or semi-solid state, it is referred as “Thixocasting”.
Process:

The metal pieces are kept in a furnace and maintained at a known temperature.
When the metal reaches to a pasty zone as indicated by an indicator, semi-solid metal is
transferred into the cavity and forced between two dies.
The dies used for the purpose are capable of withstanding wear & tear and high
temperature.
The semi-solid metals cool very fast and gets solidified. The component is withdrawn, the
casting is ejected out. Fig shows the details.

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Metals and alloys are converted to liquid state using an equipment (a refractory lined
metallic shell wherein this conversion takes place) called “furnace”.
The source of heat provided to the furnace for the conversion of solid to liquid is called
as “melting furnace”.
Furnaces are selected based on the type of metal to be melted, quantity, fuel used and
quality of metal required, etc.

Sand Slingers:
• Sand slinger is used for large boxes for preparing large molds.
• Large amounts of sand is handled.
• Uniform ramming is obtained.
• Ramming is fast.
• Initial cost is high.
• A number of moulds can be prepared one after the other, around the slinger.

Steps in moulding using sand slinger:

1. Mould boxes with patterns are kept around the base of the slinger.
2. Mixed sand is dumped in the container
3. The slinger is switched on.
4. The conveyor buckets carry sand to the top and delivers to the belt conveyor.
5.

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6. The sand is now conveyed into the horizontal hopper containing a screw conveyor.
7. At the end of the hopper an impeller keeps rotating and carries the sand mixed from the
screw conveyor and throws it out.
8. The sand at high velocity is thrown above the pattern and gets consolidated.
9. Uniform hardness is obtained in the mould.

Dept., of Mechanical Engineering. Page 19