Evolutionary Perspective Genetic Foundations of Development

NATURAL SELECTION & ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR COLLABORATIVE GENE

Natural Selection – an evolutionary process by which Genetic Code – information that helps us grow from one
those species who can adapt are the ones who will single cell to a person made of trillions cell.
survive and will leave the most fit offspring. Chromosomes – threadlike structures that come in 23
→ The adaptive behaviors and characteristics will pairs, with one member of each pair coming from each
be passed down to the next generation. parent.
Adaptive Behavior – behavior that promotes an organism’s → It can be found in the nucleus of the cell and it
survival in its natural habitat. contains the genetic substance DNA.
DNA – a complex molecule (double helix structure) that
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
contains genetic information.
Evolutionary Psychology – emphasizes the importance of Genes – units of hereditary information and are short
adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” in segment of DNA.
shaping behaviors.
→ These help cells to reproduce themselves and
→ “Fit” refers to the offspring of a species who can manufacture proteins that maintain life.
survive long enough to have their offspring of
Protein – building blocks of the cell and the regulator
their own.
that directs body processes.
→  chance of survival =  reproductive success
Human Genome Project – maps out the entire genetic
David Buss – emphasizes that evolution influences not
contents of our cells (linked to certain functions and
only the biological but also the psychological makeup of
developmental outcomes).
human.
→ Gene has its own location in a particular
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology – evolutionary chromosome.
psychology to understand development.
→ Major gene identification and discovery methods
→ Humans require time to develop large brains and are:
understand complexity of human society →
[1] Genome-Wide Association Method – used to
longer childhood period.
identify genetic variations linked to certain
→ Many psychological mechanisms are domain- diseases.
specific – it applies only to a specific aspect of a → Comparing the genes of a person who has a
person’s psychological makeup. certain disease to a person who don’t have
→ Brain is not a general device that can be the same disease.
applied to vast array of problems. [2] Linkage Analysis – to discover the location of
→ It evolved to process information related genes in relation to a marker gene (position of
with recurring problems experienced by our already known).
ancestors (e.g., hunting).
→ Genes passed to offspring tend to be in
→ Since evolutionary selection is primarily tied to close proximity to each other so that genes
reproductive fitness, it has not eliminated any involved in a disease are usually located
harmful conditions & nonadaptive behavior to older near the marker genes.
adults since reproduction mainly happens on the first
[3] Next-Generation Sequencing – a term used to
half of life (Paul Baltes).
describe the vast increase in genetic data
→ Alzheimer’s Disease would have been eliminated
generated at lower cost & shorter period
eons ago since this inhibits successful
compared in the past.
reproduction.
 → Entire human genome can be sequence in a → The presence of Y chromosomes in the 23rd pair
day compared before which is 10 years. determines natal sex of a person (XX in females
[4] Thousand Genome Project – the goal is to and XY in males).
→ The human genetic process creates several important
determine the genomic sequences of at least
sources of variability:
1000 individuals from different ethnic groups.
[1] The chromosomes in the zygote  chromosomes in
→ Rather than being a group of independent genes,
the mother’s ovaries/father’s testes. The
human genome consists of many genes that
chromosomes the goes into the gamete are a matter
COLLABORATE both with each other and with
of chance.
nongenetic factors inside & outside of the body.
Identical Twin (Monozygotic) – a single zygote splits
→ Gene Expression – genes can be turned on/off by
into two identical parts, creating two identical
their environment.
persons.
→ Methylation – tiny atoms attached themselves to
Fraternal Twin (Dizygotic) – two eggs are fertilized by
the outside of a gene → more or less capable of
different sperms, creating two persons w/ different
receiving & responding to biochemical signals of
genetic makeup.
body.
[2] Cellular mistake or environmental events can
GENES & CHROMOSOMES produce mutated gene – a permanently altered
segment of DNA.
→ Genes get passed down from generation to
generation (they are enduring) through three Susceptibility Genes – genes that make individual
processes: MORE vulnerable to certain diseases or accelerated
aging.
Mitosis – a cellular reproduction in which the nucleus of a
body cell divides itself into two identical parts. Longevity Genes – genes that make people LESS
vulnerable to certain disease and more likely to live
→ Each containing the same DNA as the parent’s
longer.
cells and arranged in the same chromosomal
pairs. Genotype – a person’s overall genetic materials.

46 chromosomes →
46 chromosomes Phenotype – the way a person’s genotype is expressed in
46 chromosomes
observed and measurable characteristics.
Meiosis – a form of cell division that happens in → Even though two persons are genetically
egg/sperm cells (gametes) in which the cells duplicate its identical, they may still vary in terms of physical
chromosomes and then divides twice. & psychological characteristics.
→ The end results are four cells that contain only
half of the genetic materials (only 23 unpaired GENETIC PRINCIPLES
chromosomes).
Dominant-Recessive Genes – one gene of a pair always
23 chromosomes
exerts its effects (dominant) and overrides the potential
23 chromosomes (23 chromatids)
→ influence of the other genes (recessive).
(46 chromatids) 23 chromosomes
46 chromosomes → (23 chromatids) → Only need one dominant gene to express the
(92 chromatids) 23 chromosomes trait (either from mother of father).
23 chromosomes (23 chromatids)
→ → A recessive gene needs another recessive gene
(46 chromatids) 23 chromosomes
(each one from both parents) to express itself.
(23 chromatids)
Fertilization – a stage in reproduction in which sperm and Sex-Linked Genes – most mutated genes are recessive but
egg cells fuse to create a zygote – a single fertilized egg. when this is carried on the X chromosomes → X-linked
23 chromosomes (sperm) + 23 chromosomes (egg) = 46 chromosomes inheritance.
 → Males only have one X chromosomes; males Dealing with Abnormalities:
have no backup copy to counter a harmful →
→ Not all individuals who a carry an abnormal
may develop X-linked disease.
genetic variation automatically develop that
→ Females have two X chromosomes and are not disease or mental disorder.
likely to develop X-linked disease.
→ Other genes or developmental events
Genetic Imprinting – happens when the expression of a compensate for genetic abnormalities.
gene has different effect in whether the mother or father Some Gene-Linked Abnormalities:
passed on the gene.
→ E.g., As a results of imprinting, only the
maternally derived copy of the expressed gene
might be active while the paternally derived copy
of the same expressed gene is silenced – or vice
versa.
Polygenic Inheritance – many different genes determine a
characteristic. They are collaborative and interacts to one
another to form a trait.
Gene-Gene Interaction – studies that focus on the
interdependent process by which two or more genes
influences characteristics, behaviors, diseases, and
development.

CHROMOSOMAL & GENE-LINKED ABNORMALITIES

Chromosomal Abnormalities – sometimes a gamete is

formed in which the male’s sperm/female’s ovum do not
have their normal set of 23 chromosomes.
Some Chromosomal Abnormalities:
Reproductive Challenges & Choice

PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS

Prenatal Diagnostic Tests – used to determine whether the

fetus is developing normally or not.
Ultrasound Sonography – high-frequency sound waves are
directed into the woman’s abdomen (sound echo →
visual image of fetus’s inner structures).
→ Number of fetuses or microcephaly that can lead
to intellectual disability.
Fetal MRI – uses a powerful magnet and radio images to
generate detailed images of the body’s organ and
structures; more detailed than ultrasound.
→ Abnormalities in CNS, chest, gastrointestinal
tract, genital/urinary organs, and placenta.
Gene-Linked Abnormalities – abnormalities can be
Chronic Villus Sampling – a small sample of placenta (the
produced not only by harmful chromosomes but also by
vascular organ that links the fetus to the mother’s uterus)
harmful genes.
is removed and tested.
 → Genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities. Closed Adoption – not having such sharing and contact.
Amniocentesis – sample of amniotic flied is withdrawn by → A choice can be offered to adoptive parents
syringe and tested for chromosomal or metabolic whether they like open or close adoption.
disorder. → Open adoption may serve the child’s best
→ Amniotic Fluid – found within amnion, a think sax interest in the long run.
un which the embryo is suspended.
Maternal Blood Screening – it identifies pregnancies that Heredity-Environment: The
have an elevated risk for birth defects. Nature-Nurture Debate
→ Spina bifida (defects in spinal cord), Down
syndrome, congenital heart disease. BEHAVIOR GENETICS
→ Also called triple screen – it measures three
Behavior Genetics – seeks to discover the influences of
substances in the mother’s blood.
heredity and environment on individual differences in
Fetal Sex Determination – sex can be determined as early human traits and development.
as 7 weeks into pregnancy.
→ Figure out the INFLUENCES that are responsible
→ Ultrasound and chorionic villus sampling in individual differences, and NOT THE EXTENT
of those influences.
INFERTILITY & REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY
→ How people vary in terms of differences in
Infertility – inability to conceive a child after 12 months genes, environment, or combination.
of regular intercourse w/o contraception. Twin Study – the behavioral similarity of identical twins
→ Can be corrected by surgery; hormone-based (genetically identical) is compared with the behavioral
drugs may improve the probability. similarity of fraternal twins.

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) – parent’s gametes are → Twins have the struggle of developing the sense
combined in a laboratory dish → zygote → transferred of individuality (more prevalent when identical).
into woman’s uterus. → The process of moving from “WE” to “I” is a
critical task for twin children and even adults.
→  Age =  Success rate of IVF
→ Twin separation process accelerates in
→ Reproductive technologies →  multiple births
adolescence when one twin is likely to mature
→  chances of life-threatening & costly
first; also happens in emerging adulthood when
problems for babies
they go to different colleges.

ADOPTION Adoption Study – seek to discover whether the behavior

and psychological characteristics of adopted children are
Adoption – a social and legal process that establishes a
more like those of their:
parent-child relationship between persons unrelated at
[1] Adoptive parents who have provided a home
birth.
environment;
→ Three pathways to adoption:
[2] Biological parents who have contributed their
[1] Domestic adoption from the public welfare
DNA.
system
[2] Domestic infant adoption through private HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS
agencies and intermediaries
→ Difficult to interpret results of twin and adoption
[3] International adoption
studies since it reflects the complexity of heredity-
→ Issue: whether there should be any contact with environment correlation.
children’s biological parents Heredity-Environment Correlations - individuals’ genes
Open Adoption – sharing identifying information & contact may be systematically related to the types of
with the biological parents. environments to which they are exposed.
 → Individuals inherit, seek out, or construct THE EPIGENETICS VIEW & GENE-ENVIRONMENT (G x E)
environments that may be related or linked to INTERACTION
genetic “propensities.”
→ Behavior geneticist Sandra Scarr (1993) described → Heredity-environment correlation gives heredity too
three ways that heredity and environment can be much of a one-sided influence because it does not
correlated: consider the role of prior environmental influences in

[1] Passive Genotype-Environment Correlations – occur shaping the correlation itself.

because biological parents, who are genetically → Since genes are collaborative, they do not determine
related to the child, provide a rearing environment an individual’s traits independently but in
for the child. conjunction with the environment.
[2] Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlations – occur Epigenetic View – emphasizes that development is the
because a child’s genetically influenced result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between
characteristics elicit certain types of environments. heredity and environment.
[3] Active (Niche-Picking) Genotype-Environment → Heredity and environment operate together—or
Correlations – occur when children seek out collaborate—to produce a person’s well-being.
environments that they find compatible and Heredity-Environment Correlations View
stimulating.
Heredity → Environment
→ Niche-Picking – finding a setting that is suited to
Epigenetic View
one’s genetically influenced abilities.
Heredity  Environment
→ Children select from their environment certain
aspects that they respond to, learn about, or Gene × Environment (G × E) Interaction – the interaction of
ignore (active selection is related to genotypes). a specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific
→ Relative importance of the three genotype- measured aspect of the environment.
environment correlations changes as children → It involves the actual molecular modification of
develop from infancy through adolescence. the DNA strand as a result of environmental
inputs in ways that alter gene functioning.
→ Specific gene  → depression; rather, gene 
stressful environment = depression.

CONCLUSIONS ABOUT HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT

INTERACTION
→ Contributions of gene and environment are not
additive; there is no certain percentage about the
extent of their influences.
→ It is NOT accurate to say that full genetic expression
happens once.
→ Complex behaviors are influenced by genes and
environments → it gives people a propensity for a
particular developmental trajectory.
→ Development = complex gene + complex
environment.
→ Although genetic factors clearly contribute to
behavior and psychological processes, they don’t
determine these phenotypes independently from the
contexts in which they develop.