Topic one General

Physics
Summary Notes
Length and time

 A ruler is used to measure the length of an object between 1mm and 1cm.
 The volume of an object of irregular shape can be measured by placing it into a
measuring cylinder full of water. This causes the water level to rise, and this rise is
equal to the volume of the object.
 A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small thickness 0.01
mm that a rule cannot measure.
 Analogue and digital clocks and devices are used to measure time intervals.
 An average value for a small distance and for a short time interval can be
found by measuring multiples (including the period of a pendulum).

Scalars and vectors

 A vector has a magnitude and a direction.
 A scalar has just a magnitude.

Scalars Vectors

Distance Displacement

Speed Velocity

Time Acceleration

 Vectors can be represented by arrows. To

determine the resultant of two vectors
graphically, (parallelogram method)

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SI Units
 Distance meter
 Mass kg
 time second

Motion
 Speed is defined as the distance traveled per unit time.
 Velocity is the speed in a given direction
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
𝒊 𝒊
Speed = 𝒊
velocity = 𝒊
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
acceleration = 𝒊

Distance-time graph
 The gradient is velocity
 Negative gradient is returning back to the starting point
 A horizontal line means it is stationary
 A curved line means that the velocity is changing and it
is accelerating

Speed-time graph
 The gradient is acceleration
 Negative gradient is deceleration
 If the speed is zero, it is at rest
 A horizontal line means constant speed
 The area under the line is the distance travelled
 A curved line means that the acceleration is
changing.

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 Mass
 Mass is a measure of how much matter is in an object.
Weight
 Weight is a gravitational force (the effect of a gravitational field on a mass)
measured in Newton

 The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10 N kg-1.

 Weights (and hence masses) can be compared using a balance
Weight = mass x gravitational field strength

Same object on two different planets

 The mass is the same
 The gravitational field strength on the two planets will be different so the
weight is different.
Density
 The density is defined as the mass per unit volume

 The density ρ is in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3, the mass m is in

kilograms, kg, and the volume V is in meters cubed, m3.

To find the density of a liquid

 Find the mass of the measuring cylinder by placing it on a balance, then fill
it with the liquid and measure the new mass. The difference in masses is the
mass of the liquid.
 The volume can be read from the cylinder and the density calculated using the
equation.
Density =

To find the density of solid

 Measure the mass of the solid by placing it on a balance.
 If the solid is regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a
ruler or other measuring tool and then use a mathematical
formula to find the volume.
 If the solid is irregularly shaped, immerse it in water and measure the volume

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 of the water displaced. This is the volume of the solid.
V = V2 – V1

 The density of water is 1g/cm3

 If the density of an object is greater than this it will sink in water
 If less, it will float
Forces
 Newton’s first law states that an object has
a constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force.
 Newton’s second
Force = mass x acceleration
 Newton’s third law states that every
action force has an equal and opposite
reaction force

Falling object (skydiver)

 Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
 As it falls, it accelerates which increases
its speed and hence air resistance, This
causes the resultant force downwards to
decrease so it is not speeding up as
quickly
 Eventually they are equal and opposite
and balance so there is no resultant
force So there is no acceleration and the
terminal velocity is reached
 finally as parachute open the upward
force air resistance greater than weight of the skydiver so speed of sky diver
decrease deceleration

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Friction
Is a force between two surfaces which slide against each other and results in
heating
 Air resistance is a form of friction.

To find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line, they
should be added together if in the same direction and subtracted if in the
opposite direction.

Object moving in a circle, with constant speed

 The speed is constant, but the direction is always changing This
means the velocity is always changing
 Therefore it is accelerating and there must be a force
perpendicular to its velocity towards the center of the circle

 A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body. This

is called deformation , also can change speed ( or direction)

Elastic deformation
 The object returns to its original shape when the load has been
removed, an example being a spring being stretched under
normal usage.

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Plastic deformation
 The object does not return to its original shape when the load has
been remove an example being a spring that has been stretched too
far.
Hook’s Law
Stated That’s Force Is direct proportional with extension until elastic limit

F=Kx

Linear (straight line) force-extension graph

 Elastic deformation following Hooke’s law
 The point it stops being linear is
called the limit of proportionality.
From then, it does not obey Hooke’s
law.
 Gradient is the spring constant, k

Non-linear (curved line) force-extension graph

 Plastic deformation not following Hooke’s law
 After the plastic region, it will fracture , spring will not go back to it’s original
shape

Moment (turning Effect)

For example, when riding a bike, pressing your foot down on the
pedal causes a moment about the pivot, turning the pedal arms.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒=𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹 ×𝑑

 The pivot point is the point which the object can rotate
about.

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 If a force is applied in the same line as the pivot (see first example
in diagram) the object will not rotate, and will remain stationary.
 If the force applied is perpendicular to the object, then the
perpendicular distance is the length of the object (see second
example in diagram).
 If the force applied is not perpendicular to the object, then the
perpendicular distance to the pivot must be found (see third
example in diagram).

Conditions for equilibrium

 resultant moment = zero
 resultant force = zero

An object is in equilibrium
When the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise moments (the
principle of moments) and there is no resultant force

Centre of Mass
The center of mass of a body is the point at which all of its mass can be considered
to act,

To calculate the center of mass of a card

1. Pin the object from one point so that it rotate
freely
2. Draw vertical line once the object reaches
equilibrium
3. Repeat step 1 & 2
4. The point of intersection is the center of mass

Center of Gravity and Stability

The stability of a body is increased by
1) Lowering its center or mass
2) Increasing the area of its base.

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Momentum
 Momentum is the product of mass and velocity
 Impulse is the product of force and time
Momentum = mass x velocity impulse = Force x Time

Force = Force =

Principle of conservation of momentum

When two or more objects in a system interact (or collide), the total momentum remains
constant provided that there is no external resultant force acting on the system.
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
 Elastic collision (bounce off)

 inelastic collision ( join together )

Energy , Work and Power

Energy transfers

Energy can be transferred between different forms including kinetic,

gravitational potential, chemical, and elastic potential, nuclear and internal
energy as a result of an event or process.

Energy can be transferred in various ways including

 Forces when gravity accelerates an object downwards and gives it kinetic energy.
 Electrical currents when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light and heat.

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 Heating when a fire is used to heat up an object.
 Waves vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound.
 Work is done when a force moves something through a distance

Work = F × d KE= mv2 GPE=mgh

 unit is joule ( j )

Power
Is the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done. For example, a
lamp with a greater power will be brighter because it transfers more energy from electrical
energy to light and heat energy in a given time

P=
 unit is Watt ( W )

 Energy is always conserved. The total energy before is equal to the total energy after.

For example, when a ball is dropped, gravitational potential energy becomes kinetic
energy as it accelerates downwards. Upon impact with the floor, this kinetic energy will
become thermal energy and sound energy.
 In any event or process energy tends to become more spread out among the objects
and surroundings (dissipated) most common wasted energy heat and sound

Efficiency
Efficiency = x 100 %

 The efficiency of a system can be increased by:

 Reducing waste output (lubrication, thermal insulation)
 Recycling waste output (absorbing thermal waste and recycling it as input
energy)

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Energy sources
It is important to note that apart from geothermal, nuclear and tidal, the sun is the
original source of all energy on earth, released by nuclear fusion.

 Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished as quickly as it is used.

Examples include
 Biofuel
 Wind
 Hydro-electricity
 Geothermal
 Tidal
 Solar
 Water waves
 It is often more costly and less reliable (available 24 hour) than non-
renewable energy (the wind is intermittent and solar energy relies on
good weather).

 Non-renewable energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due

to the large energy output per kilogram of fuel. Examples include:
 Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
 Nuclear fuel
 It is usually cheaper than renewable energy but is becoming less popular
because one day it will run out and it is harmful for the environment (burning
fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases which cause global warming)

Pressure

in solid in Fluid (liquid , gas )

p= p = Density x gravity x height

 Measured in Pascal

For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail

 The force applied is the weight of your body

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  The total area is either a single pin point or many points spread out over a
larger area So on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater

Topic Two Thermal

Physics
Summary Notes
Simple kinetic molecular model of matter

Solids

 Molecules close together in regular pattern

 Strong intermolecular forces of attraction
 Molecules vibrate but can’t move about
 Cannot flow, have fixed shape and
cannot be compressed

Liquids

 Molecules close together in random arrangement

 Weaker intermolecular forces of attraction than solids
 Molecules move around each other
 Flow, take the shape of their container and
cannot be compressed

Gases

 Molecules far apart in random arrangement

 Negligible/very weak intermolecular forces
 Molecules move quickly in all directions
 Flow, completely fill their container and
can be compressed

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