CIV 8304: Advanced Timber

Structures
LECTURE NOTES
CIV 8304 Advanced Timber Structure (3 Units)

Properties of different types of timber. Modern connections and development in use of

joints, glued members. Design of composite beams. Design of plane and space trusses.

Types of timber structures in development. Examples of modern use of timber in structures.

Treatment of timber for structural use.

REFERENCES

1. Nigerian Standard Code of Practice NCP2 (1973) – The use of timber for

construction.

2. Structural Timber Design – Abdy Kermani

3. Practical design of timber structures to Eurocode 5 - Hans Larsen and Vahik Enjily

4. Structural Timber Design to Eurocode 5 - Jack Porteous and Abdy Kermani

5. Student's Guide to Structural Design - S. A. Lavan and B. G. Fletcher

 1. TIMBER AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION

Timber from well-managed forests is one of the most sustainable resources available and

it is one of the oldest known materials used in construction. It has a very high strength to

weight ratio, is capable of transferring both tension and compression forces, and is naturally

suitable as a flexural member. Timber is a material that is used for a variety of structural

forms such as beams, columns, trusses, girders, and is also used in building systems such

as piles, deck members, railway sleepers and in formwork for concrete.

THE STRUCTURE OF TIMBER

Mature trees of whatever type are the source of structural timber. a tree has three

subsystems: roots, trunk and crown. Each subsystem has a role to play in the growth pattern

of the tree.

1. Roots, by spreading through the soil as well as acting as a foundation, enable the

growing tree to withstand wind forces. They absorb moisture containing minerals

from the soil and transfer it via the trunk to the crown.

2. Trunk provides rigidity, mechanical strength and height to maintain the crown,

also transports moisture and minerals up to the crown and sap down from the crown.

3. Crown provides as large as possible a catchment area covered by leaves. These

produce chemical reactions that form sugar and cellulose which cause the growth

of the tree.

As engineers we are mainly concerned with the trunk of the tree.

Fig. 1: Cross-section of a trunk of a tree.

TYPES OF TIMBER

Trees and commercial timbers are divided into two types: softwoods and hardwoods.

This terminology refers to the botanical origin of timber and has no direct bearing on

the actual softness or hardness of the wood.

Softwoods

Softwoods, characterised by having naked seeds or as cone-bearing trees, are generally

evergreen with needle-like leaves (such as conifers) comprising single cells called

tracheids, which are like straws in plan, and they fulfil the functions of conduction and

support. Rays, present in softwoods, run in a radial direction perpendicular to the growth

rings. Their function is to store food and allow the convection of liquids to where they are

needed. Examples of the softwoods include spruce (whitewood), larch, Scots pine

(redwood) and Douglas fir.

Softwood characteristics

 Quick growth rate (trees can be felled after 30 years) resulting in low-density timber

with relatively low strength.

 Generally poor durability qualities, unless treated with preservatives.

 Due to the speed of felling they are readily available and comparatively cheaper.

Hardwood

Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved (deciduous) trees, which often lose their leaves at

the end of each growing season. The cell structure of hardwoods is more complex than that

of softwoods with thick-walled cells, called fibres, providing the structural support and

thin-walled cells, called vessels, providing the medium for food conduction. Due to the

necessity to grow new leaves every year the demand for sap is high and, in some instances,

larger vessels may be formed in the springwood, these are referred to as ‘ring-porous’

woods such as in oak and ash. When there is no definite growing period the pores tend to

be more evenly distributed, resulting in ‘diffuse-porous’ woods such as in poplar and

beech. Examples of the hardwoods include oak, beech, ash, alder, birch, maple, poplar and

willow.

Hardwood characteristics

 Hardwoods grow at a slower rate than softwoods, which generally results in a

timber of high density and strength, which takes time to mature, over 100 years in

some instances.

 There is less dependence on preservatives for durability qualities.

 Due to the time taken to mature and the transportation costs of hardwoods, as most

are tropical, they tend to be expensive in comparison with softwoods.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Owing to the fact that wood is a material which is naturally occurring, there are many

defects which are introduced during the growing period and during the conversion and

seasoning process. Any of these defects can cause trouble in timber in use either by

reducing its strength or impairing its appearance.

Defects may be classified as: natural defects, chemical defects, conversion defects and

seasoning defects.

NATURAL DEFECTS

These occur during the growing period. These may include:

 Cracks and Fissures: They may occur in various parts of the tree and may even

indicate the presence of decay or the beginnings of decay.

 Knots. These are common features of the structure of wood. A knot is a portion of

a branch embedded by the natural growth of the tree, normally originating at the

centre of the trunk or a branch.

 Grain defects. Wood grain refers to the general direction of the arrangement of

fibres in wood. Grain defects can occur in the form of twisted-grain, cross-grain,

flat-grain and spiral-grain, all of which can induce subsequent problems of

distortion in use.

 Fungal decay. This may occur in growing mature timber or even in recently

converted timber, and in general it is good practice to reject such timber.

 Annual ring width. This can be critical in respect of strength in that excess width

of such rings can reduce the density of the timber.

CHEMICAL DEFECTS

These may occur in particular instances when timber is used in unsuitable positions or in

association with other materials. Timbers such as oak and western red cedar contain tannic

acid and other chemicals which corrode metals. Gums and resins can inhibit the working

properties of timber and interfere with the ability to take adhesives.

CONVERSION DEFECTS

These are due basically to unsound practice in the use of milling techniques or to undue

economy in attempting to use every possible piece of timber converted from the trunk. A

wane is a good example of a conversion defect.

SEASONING DEFECTS

Seasoning defects are directly related to the movement that occurs in timber due to changes

in moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor

stacking and spacing during seasoning can all produce defects or distortions in timber.

All such defects have an effect on structural strength as well as on fixing, stability,

durability and finished appearance

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

Due to the fact that timber is such a variable material, its strength is dependent on many

factors which can act independently or in conjunction with others, adversely affecting the

strength and the workability of the timber. Among many physical properties that influence

the strength characteristics of timber, the following may be considered the most important

ones.

Moisture content

The strength of timber is dependent on its moisture content, as is the resistance to decay.

Most timber in Nigeria should be air-dried to a moisture content of between 18% and 22%

which is generally below fibre saturation point at which the cell walls are still saturated but

moisture is removed from the cells. Any further reduction will result in shrinkage.

Further increases in moisture content have no influence on either strength or stiffness. It

should be noted that, although for most mechanical properties the pattern of change in

strength and stiffness characteristics with respect to change in moisture content is similar,

the magnitude of change is different from one property to another. It is also to be noted that

as the moisture content decreases shrinkage increases. Timber is described as being

hygroscopic which means that it attempts to attain an equilibrium moisture content with its

surrounding environment, resulting in a variable moisture content. This should always be

considered when using timber, particularly softwoods which are more susceptible to

shrinkage than hardwoods.

Density

Density is the best single indicator of the properties of a timber and is a major factor

determining its strength. Specific gravity or relative density is a measure of timber's solid
substance. It is generally expressed as the ratio of the oven-dry weight to the weight of an

equal volume of water. Since water volume ' varies with the moisture content of the timber,

the specific gravity of timber is expressed at a certain moisture content. specific gravity of

commercial timber ranges from 0.29 to 0.81, most falling between 0.35 and 0.60.

Slope of Grain

Grain is the longitudinal direction of the main elements of timber, these main elements

being fibres or tracheids, and vessels in the case of hardwoods. In many instances the angle

of the grain in a cut section of timber is not parallel to the longitudinal axis. It is possible

that this variation is due to poor cutting of the timber, but more often than not the deviation

in grain angle is due to irregular growth of the tree. This effect is of lesser consequence

when timber is axially loaded, but leads to a significant drop in bending resistance. The

angle of the microfibrils within the timber also affects the strength of the timber, as with

the effects of the grain, if the angle of deviation increases the strength decreases.

Timber defects

As described earlier, defects in timber, whether natural or caused during conversion or

seasoning, will have an effect on structural strength as well as on fixing, stability, durability

and finished appearance of timber.

STRENGTH GRADING OF TIMBER

The strength capability of timber is difficult to assess as often there is no control over its

quality and growth. The strength of timber is a function of several parameters including

the species type, density, size and form of members, moisture content, duration of the
applied load and presence of various strength reducing characteristics such as slope of

grain, knots, fissures and wane. To overcome this difficulty, the strength grading method

of strength classification has been devised. Several design properties are associated with a

strength grade; these include modulus of elasticity and bending strength parallel to the

grain, strength properties in tension and compression parallel and perpendicular to the

grain, shear strength parallel to the grain and density. The design properties of timber are

determined non-destructively through visual strength grading criteria or by machine

strength grading via measurements such as the following: flatwise bending stiffness, using

a three-point loading system; density, using x-rays or gamma rays techniques; and modulus

of elasticity, by means of resonant vibrations (dynamic response) using one or a

combination of these methods.

Visual grading

Visual grading is a manual process carried out by an approved grader. The grader examines

each piece of timber to check the size and frequency of specific physical characteristics or

defects, e.g. knots, slope of grains, rate of growth, wane, resin pockets and distortion.

Machine grading

Machine grading of timber sections is carried out on the principle that stiffness is related

to strength; where the relationship between the modulus of elasticity, E, and the modulus

of rupture of a species of timber from a certain geographical location is determined from a

statistical population, based on a substantial number of laboratory-controlled tests.

Strength classes

This concept involves grouping timber into strength classes. Strength classes offer a

number of advantages both to the designer and the supplier of timber. The designer can

undertake the design without the need to check on the availability and price of a large

number of species and grades that might be used. Suppliers can supply any of the

species/grade combinations that meet the strength class called for in a specification. The

concept also allows new species to be introduced to the market without affecting existing

specifications for timber.

In Nigeria Timber code NCP2, the strength group is divided into 7 groups designated N 1,

N2….... N7 into which it has been found convenient to divide Nigerian timbers. The

strongest timbers fall into N1 group and the weakest into N7 group.

In UK and Europe, BS EN 338:2003 defines a total of 18 strength classes: 12 for softwoods

– C14, C16, C18, C20, C22, C24, C27, C30, C35, C40, C45 and C50; and six for

hardwoods – D30, D35, D40, D50, D60 and D70. The letters C and D refer to coniferous

species (C classes) or deciduous species (D classes), and the number in each strength class

refers to its ‘characteristic bending strength’ in N/mm 2 units; for example, C40 timber has

a characteristic bending strength of 40 N/mm 2. It ranges from the weakest grade of

softwood, C14, to the highest grade of hardwood, D70, often used in Europe.
Assignment 1:

1. Discuss the following wood products and state their application in Nigerian

construction industry:

a. Glued-laminated timber (glulam)

b. Plywood

c. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)

d. Laminated strand lumber (LSL)

e. Parallel strand lumber (PSL)

f. Particleboards

2. Discuss the methods for the preservative treatment of timbers for structural use.
 2. DESIGN BASIS
INTRODUCTION

Timber Design in Nigeria is based on the Nigerian Code of Practice (NCP 1973), the code

uses the permissible stress design approach has become outdated as it has been globally

replaced by the limit state design approach EN 1995. Recently, Eurocode 5 (EC5) has

replaced (BS, 2002) and is adopted in many countries around the world.

TIMBER STRENGTH

The Timber strength depends on the axis

-Flexural strength

-tension parallel to grain

- compression parallel to grain

-Shear is parallel to grain

-compression is perpendicular to grain

The strength group is divided into 7 groups designated N1, N2….... N7 into which it has

been found convenient to divide Nigerian timbers. The strongest timbers fall into N 1 group

and the weakest into N7 group (see Table 2, NCP2).

Moisture Content

The strength to be used for design depends on the moisture condition of the timber. The

moisture content of timber, measured as a percentage of its oven-dried weight, is an

important factor both from the point of view of its structural capacity and of its durability.
 1. At a moisture content below 30% timber shrinks or swells, and its strength

properties increase or decrease according to its moisture content.

2. Wood is less prone to decay if its moisture content is below 25% and may be

considered immune below 20%.

3. Ideally, timber should have a moisture content, when installed, close to the content

it will attain in service. Table 3 NCP2 gives average values for selected categories

of end use.

4. Care should be taken on site to ensure that material supplied in a dry condition is

adequately protected from the weather.

Modification factors

The structural design of timber members is related to NCP2, and is based on permissible

stress design philosophy in which design stresses are derived on a statistical basis and

deformations are also limited.

Elastic theory is used to analyse structures under various loading conditions to give the

worst design case. Then timber sections are chosen so that the permissible stresses are not

exceeded at any point of the structure.

Permissible stresses are calculated by multiplying the ‘grade stresses’, given in NCP2

Tables, by the appropriate modification factors, F-factors, to allow for the effects of

parameters such as load duration, moisture content, load sharing, section size, etc. Applied

stresses which are derived from the service loads should be less than or equal to the

permissible stresses. A summary of the F-factors used for the calculation of permissible

stresses is given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Summary of F-factors used for calculation of permissible stresses

F-FACTOR DESCRIPTION NCP2

F1 Duration of loading on member in bending and Table 12

Tension

F2 Bearing stresses Table 13

F3 Shear at notched ends Clause [Link]

F4 Form factor Clause [Link]

F5 Depth factor: for beams greater than 300mm Clause [Link]

FLS Load sharing Clause 7.8.5

F7 Effective Length of spaced columns Table 17

F8 Joints: duration of loadings Clause 7.14.3

F9 Deflection Test Table 24

Duration of load

Duration of load affects timber strength and therefore the permissible stresses. The grade

stresses and the joint strengths given in NCP 2 are applicable to long-term loading. Because

timber and wood-based materials can sustain a much greater load for a short period (a few

minutes) than fora long period (several years), the grade stresses and the joint loads may

be increased for other conditions of loading by the modification factors given in the

appropriate sections of the Code.

Section size

The bending, tension and compression and moduli of elasticity given in the Code are

applicable to materials 300 mm deep (or wide, for tension). Because these properties of

timber are dependent on section size and size related grade effects, the grade stresses should

be modified for section sizes other than 300 mm deep by the modification factors specified

in the appropriate sections of the Code.

In general, it is possible to design timber structures using any size of timber. However,

since the specific use is normally not known at the time of conversion, sawmills tend to

produce a range of standard sizes known as ‘customary’ sizes. Specifying such customary

sizes will often result in greater availability and savings in cost.

Load sharing

Where four or more members such as joists in floors or compression members in stud walls,

which share the applied loading and are not spaced further apart than 610 mm, with the

load distributed by boarding, purlins, etc, the grade stresses should be multiplied by the

load-sharing modification factor FLS = 1.1.

Bearing stress

The bearing stresses in timber beams are developed due to compressive forces applied in a

direction perpendicular to the grain and occur in positions such as points of support or

applied concentrated loads.

It is recommended that the grade stresses for compression perpendicular to the grain apply

to bearings of any length at the ends of a member, and bearings 150mm or more in length

at any position. For bearing less than 150 mm long located 75 mm or more from the end of

a member, as shown in Fig. below, the grade stress should be multiplied by the

modification factor F2.

Shear at notched ends

F3 is a modification factor which allows for stress concentration induced at square-cornered

notches at the ends of a flexural member, where:

 (1) For a notch on the underside of a beam

F3 =

(2) For a notch on the top edge, F3 =

Form Factors

Grade bending stress values given in the code apply to solid timber members of rectangular

cross-section. For shapes other than rectangular, the grade bending stress value should be

multiplied by the modification factor F4 where:

F4 = 1.0 for solid rectangular sections, and

F4 = 1.8 for solid circular sections, and

F4 = 1.41 for solid square sections loaded diagonally

Depth Factor

The grade bending stresses given in the Code apply to beams having a depth, h, of 300mm.

For other depths of beams, the grade bending stress should be multiplied by the depth

modification factor, F5, where: F5 =

DESIGN OF SOLID RECTANGULAR TIMBER SECTION IN BENDING

1. Obtain the imposed and dead loading for the member.

2. Calculate the maximum bending moment M and shearing force Fy values.

3. Establish whether it is part of a load-sharing system. If so, note that modification

factor FLS is to be used (i.e. FLS = 1.1).

4. Establish the service exposure condition. If wet or dry use appropriate Tables

(Tables 6- 10).

5. Establish duration of loading and note appropriate modification factor F 1.

6. Select a species from Table 8 and note the appropriate strength class (N) to obtain

grade stresses from Tables 9 or 10.

7. Bending: From Tables 9 or 10 note the following grade stresses:

(a) Bending parallel to grain:

(b) Shear parallel to grain:

8. Choose a section and check the adequacy of the section for:

i. Bending strength

ii. Shear strength

iii. Bearing stress

iv. Lateral torsional buckling

v. Deflection
 1. BENDING

 Applied bending stress is determined using simple elastic bending theory.

fmapar =

Where:

fmapar = Applied bending stress parallel to the grain

Ma = Maximum applied bending moment

Z = elastic section modulus about the axis of bending (usually the x-x axis)

 The permissible bending stress is given by:

fmppar = fgmpar x F1F4F5

Where:

fgmpar = grade bending stress parallel to the grain

 Must satisfy:

fmapar ≤ fgmpar x F1F4F5

 2. SHEAR

The critical position for shear is usually at supports where reaction occurs. For a

rectangular timber beam, the maximum applied shear stress parallel to grain, Ʈapar

occurs at the neutral axis and is calculated from:

where:

Fv = maximum vertical shear force (usually maximum reaction)

A = cross-sectional area

In general, the value of applied shear stress, Ʈapar , should not exceed the Permissible shear

stress parallel to grain, Ʈppar determined from:

Ʈppar = Ʈgpar x F1F2F3F8 FLS where appropriate

where:

Ʈg = grade shear stress parallel to grain

 3. BEARING STRESS

The bearing stresses in timber beams are developed due to compressive forces applied in a

direction perpendicular to the grain and occur in positions such as points of support or

applied concentrated loads. The applied bearing stress, σcapar is calculated from the

following equation:

σcapar =

where:

F = bearing force (usually maximum reaction or concentrated load)

Abearing = bearing area (= bearing length x breadth of the section).

In general, the value of applied bearing stress, σcapar, should not exceed the permissible

bearing stress, σcppar determined from :

σcapar = σcgpar x F1F2F8 FLS where appropriate

where:

σcgpar = grade stress for compression parallel to the grain

4. LATERAL STABILITY

In order to prevent lateral buckling, timber members subjected to bending must be

sufficiently thick. For design according to NCP2, a bending member is safe against lateral

buckling if the depth – to – breadth ratios of Table 15 NCP2 are maintained.

 5. DEFLECTION

For most general purposes, including domestic flooring, the deflection of the member when

fully loaded should not exceed 0.003 of the span. For longer-span (L > 4.5 m), domestic

floors it should not exceed 14 mm. When calculating the actual deflection, the following

modulus of elasticity should be used:

1. Solid timber member acting alone; Emin

2. Load-sharing members; Emean

3. Load sharing but subject to vibration; Emin