PICO rence of fhatruchBry or strnnits : aig from an entry point the. theltufdval path seu o jie er7, potted po ea “the “path prodeet 8% not Comm ufadive. Ths ' jas Ce A Y B ave two pothe ther. , ‘ AB { BA the path product His Nesoc Pafive . Se A,B ‘che three paths then, — aeee a, SOMS “othe tte) path, Seqmerti fh te p ‘ ps of toe sthateetbe pias. aan oooh ae ae Nel paths, sae ye) + te Can be re presen tod ‘by, on the Ae “ERIM Sum Pe the path Hus tie Maks foleo Mdles. TP the path bles’ necler 72 20 conctdees there are fire thet leorg PSidét the podth _ ble, fk 420 Nodes ould be vepreien teal ao, ; nehc td eel ; AS: te Te eatie. would bey, aur aCbtotd fetta " se Ba = abg 4.009 + ada 4 aeq+ afyaot A sys 6-2 6) a a: $+ the loop on ook ore node & teelb £8 Preeory as “self loop = i Ei represented as c*, ~ at denote: occurerce of an element ore or ore tes (rot. Zero) Diststbutive lew y the ,combinatfen of psodoct Y Sum operations | Pe sosd -to be AXtbeafte - Eel cthe nowmed > ipltafron es Can = apple to thee cles a Bet aCbectdretg o e Rot Sat | : =y abgtacy sodg toeg tafy. 4 OE the “ke ~te30 eelore eo ce A, nef eae theese ee andPoth P_euprertfon os eos example aCbtedd f eC” t93 Crt} “eo (Ai) "Fgh.J ction i ieocesl ove, : : Ge yredu ction iy i-ce cwtial Componerd of gph " base cl ie, ] cat ‘Ss oO technidve employ ed to sinplity Commpler. dw systems fote So model. By ocaalyy the Aaa Nooler %.a poph,3c) Explain about node reduction algorithm. Node reduction, a critical component of Braph-based testing, is a technique employed to simplify complex software systems into manageable models. By reducing the number of nodes in a graph, testers can streamline test case generation, enhance test efficiency, and improve test coverage. Node Reduction: 1. Combine all serial links by multiplying their path expressions. 2. Combine all parallel links by adding their path expressions. 3. Remove all self-loops:- replace with links of the form X* 4. Select a non-initial & non-final node. Replace it with a set of equivalent links, whose path expressions correspond to all the ways you can form a product of the set of in-links with the set of out-links of that node. 5. Combine any serial links by multiplying their path expressions.( as in step 1) 6. Combine any parallel links by adding their path expressions.( as in step 2) 7. Remove all the self-loops.( as in step 3) 8. IF there’s just one node between entry & exit nodes, path expression for the flow graph is the link’s path expression. ELSE, return to step 4. 1) Removing node 10 by applying step 4 and combine by step 5 to yield Tank fen. kak ote of oN ofloop Removal Operahitry + There are “tide w, i of lout od the loop rem, tat spent ae Oo . ® ie 2'KX X = : Cox) - Oe == a » Cas x ¥ ; oa > : Wy zh Bink ne ] 2, 7 + tle rented th, cel le fe — Cop -& then mublinh a oud gop tn ke by a , 4 ae ae Second We if Gl Be node tte ty sal Poder, all tem # ge: ‘a)7 ry ; O76) 9 b j Qe er A a PL Remove ‘ ei = ™ove node to by apply slep 4 Combe by deps tp vieSte u> Remove mde 8 by steps qe tmp eee Aepy parallel tes tro noda 4 & 5 Combine them, ty Create a io aoa for ay egoivalent Cink path exp A> (Ctakh ns 5 et¢bhae sacl as eg OTR a aaa : s ey 7 ‘ step 67 oe node as leader 2 de team, Ae ay es ee g apetyiy bo aefep 8: Kemove node GS) a ¢ahd ' J *E(c1gk io Or Fr) "66 er ae 46 sep 4 Kemove the loop by apply loop rule - chase) * b6cigeh)d “ cebbele coe eo : Chal)” km Epsiel° - Remove odes Bi ct5 yield a Chasey *bCc 1geb)d Cathd >” crthdy ink Chait) "bCeigtbod the fa er the loop & then node 6 rexalf E in the followiry ex exrion . i : ae [Link] Da sand "ok (0 p) Tbe) peace Cetee so ;a 3D ‘the perpore ot the rode roval algosthr 's —to present One generallnsel Concept the pate ae es8sion Se aa of- qe k. © Every appltiation follows thie commen pattern . ‘ at the rm Cov +a, in E, *) Convent Pryiam (oD g ee oe. *) Sdeatiy a Propesty of tecest & deytee dere hae appropriate sof of ‘axtthematic "sales thal Charactesizos the propesty . Mortimam path count -As'the mete tletyhr bla tle AB wine 5 — | pS eae See Cis BS fs?_— tiny Ps {h Count Nithow tlt Nie" : ‘i i" ue hex! Cornvey FE F f b Ue word a hok woe hh thes Labe eac : ¥ vepsosioril, a nds oe the no sof pothe that Loe * . “the no of -tanes “Hhect uy Ntowik each loop Rb “the encre leop Can be ta ben , ; 4 4 WAR Os — rf Thi aANngwe 4 Rs a ai to , yon orn tr : 9 goel! ct “Hye. analy or’ » bemusce t % Cleo. Hof the moar Moo pathe asl be dfintte | - “This asiithers ole & can ordiray,, algebra. —~ “the woe Paht re “lhe A» of paths each set, J $43 Cory De 4 7e CRY Pol, pect ple ae = 4, oe Seese feces» Kw Sree lhe eye Bs giver, a wel ht of nye yA exactly 4 Pre g aa ater | ro Or. thy eg Hinay SOP hin Le tebe, es Fleas Yaph should. ik Sr ches : Be REA Tp Mk e MA AM corth Mone of Potts : through Who ie Ct), ee a }B Gebhe “the Peck pais ob ie loop outside “the (cop alte in the’ outer leqp. Peae Meaktiply dhe th? Ke out G seroe nodes 40 cleax the clotles. ; ,Cu-9) , Co-d\K >, CA) He fnesy cop: if ‘ : Coleulite the totel weit oF fine, boop, talhich Can conecale a mins : Barres & mon. t 3 tina poet ty nity tty “42 ree ae a ae ) mi pe Ly is = - es a=) fs ae 2cty)— 8 cant ile ~~ = ms : C ee pe noe a(bic)a f eCh)* a Cort pe 7 * esha) BD her ci? Lobe 16 phy dD i i ee IxGad)* 4 2(y XDI xy belq 2(4* 2x BY yy aS 46g ‘ee aa ae rep eres: rather 4h as, oo <3 pots re emsLouses Rts Cunt Apsthemetic + Be lower bound on fe ro. of potte po “wsoutine Can be approxineted for stuclured Flees qpaph. eet at The. value of the cae Fit aw the noob members yn 0 Set of- pots.Pe From Step Hy Te would. be diferent fio e ide previous cramp , 2 (4-y) ai ae : fae Sea fou chitnse the oie gr in Th an tates attest Fev0 faa to Cav. rs : 2)> BE oe l a R baby of a Pb gree Probab tac oft pall ex prescion Gan be Caklata| hy assomin ‘AL all pevbabil?ties present ng ex prerion ave dependent, LS means decision nedee are not cbperdhte Re Prokakiltia ave caleulad ted of evexy decicidy cece Fnelidiby leop noch . = Helm each outline evith a ewefaht egual to 2 tng hed clitection “thal probability of golng + then the sum of oudilk probabilities mut eguel ih Asthmatic xules Tale} Aten eere i: | 08. sh. BR : Bl GHA):_y te Som of bobiltties of each decision node te epvol te coy (ate 4oul + 4) y foraidox Case a A pe, O— +0) S085 (0 8h KOs!) ® Combinirs Geep2al fry.rence near Te ade ok ie Ela: me 3) of O O44 oe — Ce Coenbtn%p 2) pathy 0.49 x0-8) 0.6326 s Oe ar =0.9/7 Oe Cos632 +008 %) iG “3 ome Gata) pcithy pobabiltty of Ge A & oly ce. B Rs oF. Og Ca oil fy © Cabin’ sl lobe\ Ce) Com bering tel pathe O00 O44 > - oie . () Corn bfnine tel path psobabiltty, of - G@se Be a Owe. (ose C F 0095——— = = me — ie, _—_ ool ; 940} J nN St Py AHO ® “K 098 Cc) Combing tle poths O05 a Be beg B26 Og CS) ale Cpersie, 020255 ee : 08 ee Ce) Conbiring Hee paths O2025~ , CH) Elinitatirg the Onneceres, AlodeMean Facessty Oe of a oie : + fo the procese of —Pirclihy he CAPT, -y the exeaifron —Hme of-all ama y Pratractions for each & eucry HE mothe flow qreaph ke given the mean processthy ine -for the edtire Soba shorelel be Caleuled od 5 == ~ a ee t Been Core. Faralle) Serie loop Pe | A+B _ AB | Ag . 1 ae we ee CPtn +f) I B+R | Rede fate = fate ee to(os) ap © 2 of oot; 19 (o.s 420 Cog) = 13 FOC0.2) t (ooCoF) <>(5) Combining Serial) fall, soto) i I3(07 Ym 2 1COM4) Oscy 2 ve Ps¢ xe 162(o-?) 34 + % +4yo-( 62 SAB + 252 4g q C4) Cre hig hoes loop ee z (62 Cose) “30420-5, ZOAMS= 33 Ap p lyf Crocs tests, shee ty Cride fone} - a Ceviminatiy celb00P mi ia. ua (3 428 33 230.4) 6. * 2Co+8) , ( ~50 = y2¢\ / Co) —hepply Cobrrty Sesial) links: 43 a3e css Cre + 4206433 2-12) (g2Cot)oe - om Bene 25548 COug ‘ seo) ; . ‘ ont fh ees ie ry ree 93.8+24t= [20 of j 2) Elintnating self loop “te o¢ the Cveral/ felixed 3 ane paph : ; [ao0@ 4 ' ©) [= : ; ‘| * 255 8 = SUL Og ‘ Posh/eop, Gert(eetoRN ———— — a *. SW6 > CIe.y the pat of opescthions of pustt/ FOP ove: generally weed! to Ss :meabtiplecatiion Table or Reblpep -y Py vepraeth po operation ee =) A, alo, > .u ~. lathe « e050 a eee oe the Seal Mould be Paes ‘both element: are. sented ‘l stack lege Prev eases ° i oe lg ate erie Pe inee hte: pation “Table fos Ruch, / POP al Slay Bh’ re y ies evono wtCase CPC ps, p) yor, - Cat pO prses)} i x es 4p) Lis syel = ROP. GarRe Case (0) chaiel the velienobernre oF ea (p.>+e.) {e"Ch~ AYP - (eA) f eC RY” p>) 2 Cesare +sh = B44 pts pr +pt Ce Cos) ; D520, M222 | Cera te'(APp)} RB’ mb 6 PITA OCprayy pe) = (PT (ey - A eafeuegtes) ete? a a AE. = BY +p.rep3 +B74P, pe : : Te, ee ied Me - . t N)+ Tagder Gprcssins ond “fee smemely The pxoblime 4). The ‘genente loo anomaly detiction problem is that of looking tor 0 spectize sequencs of options considustng all pessible paths “throug a xodtine- D. tek -the operations be set andl RESET, dinoted by Ss and + nespectively » we Loan to know if ther ts a set -ollowed seommectrately a stT @) a RESET -follourd Fomnedfately hy aneser, +The methods ‘ ).-Annctate each Unk 1m thi qreply wfth the appre pric opmalost (0) the null oprdtoy 4 2). Sten ply athengs to -the enlent posable, using -the -fact -that ata=a and 412 =4. 3). you now Bhave a mregulas enpnesston that denotes all -ihe. possible sequences of operstors fin. thor aerh- @. you can “noo enamine that reqalns expresston doy the sequinces of antonest. x Limitations® ee 2). Husng’s theorem an be easily. genvralyed to COvtH sequences oF react length. ~than awe charadtas - tod 2D. The axe come nice -hieorens tos finn sequences that occur at the beginnings + ' and ends of strings But sno nice algextthmas cox fading strmgs buwtecl ma enpregston.,6c) Explain Regular Expressions and Flow Anomaly detection The generic flow-anomaly detection problem is that of looking for a specific sequence of options considering all possible paths through a routine. Let the operations be SET and RESET, denoted by s and r respectively, and we want to know if there is a SET followed immediately a SET or a RESET followed immediately by 2 RESET (an ss or an rr sequence). EXAMPLE: Let A, B, C, be nonempty sets of character sequences whose smallest string is at least one character long. Let T be a two-character string of characters. Then if T is a substring of (i.e., if T appears within) ABnC, then T will appear in AB2C. (HUANG's Theorem) As an example, let A= pp B= srr C=rp T= ss The theorem states that ss will appear in pp(srr)nrp if it appears in pp(srr)2rp. 6d) minimize the given expression using four variable k-map. F(A,B,C,D)=5m(0,4,5,8,9,11).