Disaster risk reduction

Disaster risk reduction aims to make disasters less likely to happen. The approach, also called
DRR or disaster risk management, also aims to make disasters less damaging when they do
occur. DRR aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. In
technical terms, it aims to make them more resilient or less vulnerable. When DRR is
successful, it makes communities less the vulnerable because it mitigates the effects of
disasters.[2] This means DRR can make risky events fewer and less severe. Climate change can
increase climate hazards. So development efforts often consider DRR and climate change
adaptation together.[3]

Disaster risk reduction progress score for some countries in 2011. The
score of 5 is best. Assessments include four indicators that reflect the
degree to which countries have prioritised disaster risk reduction and
the strengthening of relevant institutions.[1]

It is possible to include DRR in almost all areas of development and humanitarian work.
People from local communities, agencies or federal governments can all propose DRR
strategies. DRR policies aim to "define goals and objectives across different timescales and
with concrete targets, indicators and time frames."[2]: 16

There are some challenges for successful DRR. Local communities and organisations should
be actively involved in the planning process. The role and funding of local government needs
to be considered. Also, DRR strategies should be mindful of gender aspects. For example,
studies have shown that women and girls are disproportionately impacted by disasters.[4] A
gender-sensitive approach would identify how disasters affect men, women, boys and girls
differently. It would shape policy that addresses people's specific vulnerabilities and needs.[5]

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction is an international initiative that has
helped 123 countries adopt both federal and local DRR strategies (as of 2022).[6] The
International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction, on October 13 every year, has helped increase
the visibility of DRR. It aims to promote a culture of prevention.

Spending on DRR is difficult to quantify for many countries. Global estimates of costs are
therefore not available. However an indication of the costs for developing countries is given by
the Us$215 billion to $387 billion per year (up to 2030) estimated costs for climate adaptation.
DRR and climate adaptation share similar goals and strategies. They both require increased
finance to address rising climate risks.[7]: 49

DRR activities are part of the national strategies and budget planning in most countries.
However the priorities for DRR are often lower than for other development priorities. This has
an impact on public sector budget allocations. For many countries, less than 1% of the
national budget is available for DRR activities.[7]: 51 The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction
and Recovery (GFDRR) is a multi-donor partnership to support developing countries in
managing the interconnected risks of natural hazards and climate hazards. Between 2007 and
2022, GFDRR provided $890 million in technical assistance, analytics, and capacity building
support to more than 157 countries.[7]: 54

Definitions and scope

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is defined by United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
(UNDRR) as those actions which aim to "prevent new and reducing existing disaster risk and
managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the
achievement of sustainable development".[2]: 16

The risk equation shows that disaster risk is a product of hazard, exposure, and climate
change vulnerability (where 'x' represents interaction between the components).[8]

Disaster risk is the potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets that could
impact a society or community. Disaster risk results from the interaction of three factors:
hazard(s), vulnerability and exposure.[2]: 14 This is illustrated in the risk equation.

Disaster risk reduction is extensive: Its scope is much broader and deeper than conventional
emergency management. The objectives of DRR align with many sectors of development and
humanitarian work.

DRR is such an all-embracing concept that it has proved difficult to define or explain in detail,
although the broad idea is clear enough. It is generally understood to mean the broad
development and application of policies, strategies, and practices to minimize vulnerabilities
and disaster risks throughout society. Its policy goals and objectives are defined in disaster
risk reduction strategies and plans.[2]: 16

The term disaster risk management (DRM) is often used in the same context and to mean
much the same thing. That is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing, and reducing
risks associated with hazards and human activities. DRM is more properly applied to the
operational aspects of DRR: the practical implementation of DRR initiatives.[9] In other words,
disaster risk reduction is the policy objective of disaster risk management.[2]

Related concepts

Resilience

Resilience is scientifically defined as the efficiency with which a system can reduce the extent
and duration of a disruption. The concept can take two forms: hard and soft resilience. Hard
resilience refers to the strength of a structure to withstand pressure, while soft resilience is
whether a system can recover from a disruptive event without changing its core function.[10]

Alternatively, the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)
defines resilience as “the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to
resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and
efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic
structures and functions.”[11]

Use of the term resilience in this context has evolved over time and across science,
humanities, legal and political disciplines. Professor David Alexander points out that there are
complications and contradictions to be aware of if using it as a model or paradigm in the
context of disaster risk reduction.[12]
Vulnerability

According to the UNISDR, vulnerabilities are "the characteristics and circumstances of a

community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard."[11]
The most vulnerable people or communities are those who have the most difficulties
accessing resources they need to respond to an event.[10]

Vulnerability plays a critical role in the analysis of risk, as the risk a structure faces is
proportional to its level of vulnerability. Risk is often defined by the likelihood of an event
occurring and the vulnerability of the community to that event.[13] The more vulnerable the
community, the more risk they face.

Risk reduction and mitigation

Mitigation is often used interchangeably with risk reduction, however the terms have a few
key differences. Both aim to reduce the number of negative effects of hazards, but risk
reduction focuses on reducing the likelihood of the event itself, while mitigation focuses on
reducing the impact of the event.[14]

Natural risk assessments commonly use the term mitigation, while broader climate change
reports tend to use adaptive capacity instead (mitigation holds another definition in the scope
of climate change; see climate change mitigation).[11] Although related, adaptive capacity
refers more to the potential to adjust a system, while mitigation is the actual implementation
of adjustments.[13]

Mitigation planning helps local governments lessen the impacts of hazards within their
communities.[15] No two locations have the same hazard risks and communities know their
experiences best. For example, even if a hazard is not recorded in government data, locals will
take note of anything that occurs in their neighborhood. Policymakers can use community
input to create more efficient mitigation plans.[15][16]

Climate change adaptation

Climate change, through rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and increasing sea
levels, affects the nature of hydro meteorological hazards that can give rise to a disaster.
Examples of such hazards are droughts, floods, and cyclones. Research on climate change
adaptation has been ongoing since the 1990s.[17]
Climate change contributes to disaster risk. So experts sometimes see climate change
adaptation as one of many processes within disaster risk reduction.[18] In turn, disaster risk
reduction is part of the broader consideration of sustainable development. Climate change
adaptation and disaster risk reduction have similar goals (to reduce potential impacts of
hazards and increase the resilience of people at risk). They use similar concepts and are
informed by similar sources and studies.[19]

Disasters are often triggered by natural hazards. A natural event such as a fire or flood is not of
itself a disaster: it's only when it affects people or is caused by them that is counts as a
disaster. It is argued that natural disasters are always linked to human action or inaction or
rooted in anthropogenic processes. Disasters, economic loss, and the underlying
vulnerabilities that drive risk are increasing. Global risks like climate change are having major
impacts everywhere.[20] Scientists forecast climate change will increase the frequency and
severity of extreme weather events and disasters. So adaptation may include measures to
increase preparedness and relevant disaster response capacities.

International governance

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

Different kinds of disasters

The Sendai Framework places the responsibility of reducing disaster risk primarily on federal
governments through seven targets divided into two categories: substantial reductions and
increases. It aims to reduce disaster mortality, people affected, economic loss, and damage to
infrastructure and services. The remaining targets work to increase access to warning
systems, aid to developing countries, and the number of countries with disaster risk reduction
strategies.[21] Since the adoption of the Sendai Framework in 2015, the number of countries
with national DRR strategies has increased dramatically, from 55 to 123 countries in 2022.[6]: 22

The framework also details four priorities for action to be accomplished by 2030:[21]
 1. Understanding disaster risk

2. Strengthening disaster risk governance

3. Investing in disaster risk reduction

4. Enhancing disaster preparedness

These priorities acknowledge current shortcomings of DRR efforts, such as the lack of
communication between local and federal governments and private programs, as well
inequities faced by women and people with disabilities in the realm of disaster response.

Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery

The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) is a global partnership
program established on September 29, 2006, to support developing countries on disaster risk
reduction and climate change adaptation. The facility is administered by the World Bank and
governed by a Consultative Group including the World Bank Group, the United Nations Office
for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) and several other international organizations and
countries.[22]

GFDRR was initially launched to support the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for
Action 2005-2015 (HFA)[23] approved during the Second World Conference on Disaster
Reduction in 2005. On March 18, 2015, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015-2030 (Sendai Framework) was adopted. GFDRR now supports the implementation of
this framework.

International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction

The United Nations General Assembly designated October 13th as the International Day for
Disaster Risk Reduction (IDDRR) to encourage citizens and governments alike to foster more
disaster-resilient communities. The day was created in 1989 as part of the United Nations'
proclamation of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Originally, the IDDRR
was on the second Wednesday of October and intended to highlight the goals of the decade
for disaster reduction.[24] In 2009 the day was officially set as October 13, rather than the
second Wednesday of the month.[25]

The IDDRR supports the themes of the Sendai Framework, especially after the Midterm
Review of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The 2023 IDDRR, just
months after this report, intended to bolster the framework's new plan for accelerated
disaster resistance by highlighting inequalities in disaster preparedness. The 2023 IDDRR used
the tagline "Fighting Inequality for a Resilient Future" and hashtags #ResilienceForAll,
#BreakTheCycle, and #DDRDay to spread awareness on social media.[26]

Sustainable Development Goals

In 2015 the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted as part of the broad
intergovernmental agreement on development to 2030. Many of these objectives tie directly
into disaster risk reduction, and sustainable development plans often mention DRR.[27]

DRR is applicable and relevant to several of the Sustainable Development Goals:[27]

SDG11 (sustainable cities and communities) lists DRR as a means of implementation.

Targets 11.5 and 11.B call for more investment into disaster risk resilience strategies and
policies, and 11.B aims to assess DRR strategies in accordance with the Sendai
Framework.[28]

SDG13 (climate action) also uses DRR as a means of implementation. Target 13.1 aims to
strengthen resilience to climate related hazards, and measures the number of local and
federal governments who have adopted DRR strategies.[29]

Numerous other SDGs also rely on DRR strategies as an interdisciplinary method of

achieving their goals. For example, SDG9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure) aims to
build infrastructure that is resilient to hazards, and SDG1 (to end poverty) asserts that many
impoverished people have the highest vulnerability to disasters.[27] DRR implementation has
long lasting effects on a wide range of social issues due to these related factors.

Issues and challenges

Communities and their organizations

Traditional emergency management thinking makes two misleading assumptions about

communities. First, it sees other forms of social organisation (voluntary and community-based
organisations, informal social groupings and families) as irrelevant to emergency action.
Spontaneous actions by affected communities or groups (e.g., search and rescue) are viewed
as irrelevant or disruptive, because they are not controlled by the authorities. The second
assumption is that disasters produce passive 'victims' who are overwhelmed by crisis or
dysfunctional behavior (panic, looting, self-seeking activities) and need to be controlled — in
some cases, through the imposition of martial law.[30][31]
An alternative viewpoint emphasises the importance of communities and local organisations
in disaster risk management. In this strategy, local people and organisations are the main
actors in risk reduction and disaster response. Community-based disaster risk management
responds to local problems and needs, capitalises on local knowledge and expertise, is cost-
effective, improves the likelihood of sustainability through genuine 'ownership' of projects,
strengthens community technical and organisational capacities, and empowers people by
enabling them to tackle these and other challenges.[32] Understanding the social capital
already existent in the community can greatly help reducing the risk at the community
level.[33][34]

Low community involvement can increase the severity of disaster.[35] Community volunteers
provide crucial resources to recovery efforts, such as access to communication, search and
rescue efforts, supply distribution, housing and food provision, and technological
assistance.[35][36] Government agencies rarely "consider the needs and desires of
communities" or ask for community input when implementing their DRR strategies.[36] A case
study in Rwanda showed that only 14.7% of policy utilised "community's traditional
knowledge" when creating plans, despite expressed interest from the community.[35]

Governance

In most countries, risk management is decentralised to local governments. In urban areas, the
most widely used tool is the local development plan (municipal, comprehensive or general
plan), followed by emergency and risk reduction plans that local governments are required to
adopt by law and are updated every 4–5 years.[37] In many contexts, especially South of the
Sahara, this process clashes with the lack of funds or mechanisms for transferring resources
from the central to the local budget.[38]

Gender

Disaster risk is not gender-neutral. Studies have shown that women and girls are
disproportionately impacted by disasters. Following the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean,
77% and 72% of the deaths in the districts of North Aceh and Aceh Besar, Indonesia, were
female. And in India 62% of people who died were female.[4] This is due to socially-
constructed gender roles that determine what norms and behaviors are acceptable for
women and men, and girls and boys. In particular, women tend to take responsibility for
home-based tasks and can be reluctant to leave their assets in the case of hazard warning;
and often do not learn survival skills that can help in disasters, such as learning to swim or
climb.

A gender-sensitive approach would identify how disasters affect men, women, boys and girls
differently and shape policy that addresses people's specific vulnerabilities, concerns and
needs.[5]

Cost and financing

Costs

People have adapted the design of houses to

protect them from rising flood waters. Small
boats are used to transport people and food to
sustain livelihoods. This kind of disaster risk
reduction is also a method for climate change
adaptation.

The economic costs of climate-related disasters are on the rise. Recent global costs have
averaged above US$330 billion/year (over 2015-2021).[7]: 21 The insurance sector estimated
that weather- and climate-related disasters contributed to $165 billion of economic losses
worldwide in 2018 and $210 billion in 2020.[39][7]: 50 These figures are likely to be
underestimates because of under-reporting and technical difficulties in estimating losses.
Disaster risks are expected to significantly increase in future and may have cascading
economic impacts, including on the financial system and repayment of national debts.[7]: 49

Spending on DRR has proved difficult to quantify for many countries. Global estimates of costs
are therefore not available. However an indication of the costs for developing countries is
given by the $215 - US$387 billion per year (up to 2030) estimated costs for climate
adaptation. DRR and climate adaptation share similar goals and strategies and governing
entities have similar mandates including advocating for increased finance to address climate
risks.[7]: 49
DRR activities are part of the national strategies and budget planning in most countries.
However the priorities for DRR are often lower than for other development priorities. This has
an impact on public sector budget allocations. For many countries, less than 1% of the
national budget is available for DRR activities.[7]: 51 This can lead to an over-reliance on
international development funding for some activities, which may not align fully with national
priorities and needs. Other barriers include complex application processes and strict eligibility
requirements that hamper access to international funding.[7]: 51

Financing needs and finance flows

Only around 90% of international funding for DRR is currently spent on responding to and
recovering from disasters, rather than managing their future risks. Most of this funding is
spent on the settlements, infrastructure and service development sectors. Moreover, only a
very small percentage, around 0.5%, of total international development aid is currently spent
on the pre-disaster phase of disaster risk reduction.[7]: 50 This is despite the finding that every
dollar spent on risk reduction saves between $5 and $10 in economic losses from disasters.[40]
A case study of Niger showed positive cost and benefit results for preparedness spending
across 3 different scenarios (from the absolute level of disaster loss, to the potential reduction
in disaster loss and the discount rate), estimating that every $1 spent results in $3.25 to $5.31
of benefit.[41]

The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) is a multi-donor partnership
supporting low and middle-income countries in managing paired risks of natural hazards and
climate change. Between 2007 and 2022, GFDRR provided $890 million in technical
assistance, analytics, and capacity building support to more than 157 countries. For example,
GFDRR supported Maputo, Mozambique to develop detailed vulnerability maps to inform
government funding decisions.[7]: 54 In 2022, the GFDRR committed $21.1 million in new
grants and $3.3 million in additional funds to scale up existing activities.[42] GFDRR also works
to mobilise additional funding through the World Bank and other development banks'
engagement. It estimates that each dollar of GFDRR financing influences at least 100 dollars
in climate resilient development impact.[42]

Innovations in financing DRR include the establishment of risk disclosure initiatives to

understand whether companies are managing their exposure to disaster risks. They include
regulatory frameworks to incentivise private investments in risk reduction and resilience.
There has also been innovation in new financing instruments such as resilience bonds and use
of green bonds.[7]: 49
History

Disaster risk reduction has been strongly influenced by mapping of natural disaster risks and
research on vulnerability since the mid-1970s.[43][44]

Disaster management thinking and practice since the 1970s has included more focus on
understanding why disasters happen. It has also focused on actions that can reduce risk
before a disaster occurs. This has put more emphasis on mitigation and preparedness in
addition to the response and recovery phases of disasters. It has been widely embraced by
governments, disaster planners and civil society organisations.[45]

There have been growing calls for greater clarity about components of DRR and about
indicators of progress toward resilience — a challenge that the international community took
up at the UN's World Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR) in Kobe, Japan, in 2005, only
days after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The WCDR began the process of pushing
international agencies and national governments beyond the vague rhetoric of most policy
statements and toward setting clear targets and commitments for DRR.

The first step of the WCDR's process was formally approving the Hyogo Framework for Action
(2005–2015) (HFA). The HFA was the first internationally accepted framework for DRR. It set
out an ordered sequence of objectives (outcome – strategic goals – priorities), with five
priorities for action attempting to 'capture' the main areas of DRR intervention. The UN's
biennial Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction[46] provided an opportunity for the UN
and its member states to review progress against the Hyogo Framework. It held its first
session 5–7 June 2007 in Geneva, Switzerland, where UNISDR is based. The subsequent
Global Platforms were held in June 2009, May 2011 and May 2013, all in Geneva.

Subtitled "Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters," the HFA
emphasises how resilience to hazards is needed for community development and planning.[47]

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990s)

The United Nations General Assembly designated the 1990s an International decade for
natural disaster reduction. The United Nations' Secretary-General had been tasked with
overseeing research into the relationship between disasters and development, and in 1987
reported that there was room for improvement from the international community.[48] Due to
the increasing numbers of international deaths and damages due to climate related hazards,
especially in developing countries, the United Nations believed dedicating a decade to the
topic would substantially improve policies at local, regional, and federal levels.

The 1987 General Assembly session proposed 5 goals to guide policy efforts:[48]

1. Improve the capacity to mitigate effects of natural disasters, especially in developing

countries

2. Devise plans to apply preexisting knowledge of disasters from diverse perspectives

3. Foster programs aimed to close knowledge gaps

4. Disseminate information about current measures being applied

5. Develop programs to prevent and mitigate disasters specific to each hazard and location

Before the start of the decade in 1989, The General Assembly discussed plans for the decade
in more detail and created the International Framework of Action for the International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction.[24] This framework restates the goals, and adds further
guidelines for national governments, the United Nations Systems, and the Secretary-General
to follow.

Federal governments were encouraged to participate in the decade, formulate national

mitigation programs, create scientific committees, encourage local action, inform the
Secretary-General of their actions, increase public awareness, monitor the impact of disasters
on health care, and improve availability of emergency supplies.[24] The proposed role of the
United Nations System focused on holding countries accountable for these goals, as well as
providing resources or policy plans countries may need for implementation. However, many of
the tasks given to the United Nations fall to the secretary-general.

During the 1990s, there were three secretaries-general: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Boutros
Boutros-Ghalil, and Kofi Annan.[49] Over the decade, these secretaries were tasked with
establishing and leading a number of committees for the decade, including a scientific and
technical committee on the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, a special
high-level council to provide general advice and promote awareness, and a secretariat that
would handle daily activities and support the other committees.[24] These groups, as well as
leaders of each country, would report their progress to the secretary-general, who would
oversee all progress and report to the General Assembly every two years on the progress of
the decade's goals.
Examples

Bangladesh

Based on the Climate Risk Index,[50] Bangladesh is one of the most disaster-prone countries in
the world. Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to different types of disasters because of climatic
variability, extreme events, high population density, high incidence of poverty and social
inequity, poor institutional capacity, inadequate financial resources, and poor infrastructure.[51]
Bangladesh commenced its disaster preparedness following the cyclone of 1991 and has now
a comprehensive National Plan for Disaster Management which provides mechanisms at both
national and sub-national levels.[52]

Cuba

Located in the Caribbean, Cuba is highly vulnerable to tropical storms and hurricanes, yet it is
frequently recognized for its low mortality rates during such weather events.[53][54] Cuban
disaster risk reduction became an integral part of the socialist project in the aftermath of the
catastrophic Hurricane Flora in 1963. The extensive damage and loss of life led the Cuban
government to institutionalize disaster preparedness as a central part of state governance.
The event catalyzed the development of Cuba's Civil Defense system, integrating community-
based preparedness and centralized response mechanisms. Unlike neoliberal approaches that
rely on market-based solutions, Cuba's DRR model is rooted in state-led infrastructure, with
centralized decision-making and mass mobilization of citizens.[54]

European Union

Panel on Disaster Risk Reduction in the

age of Climate Change during a 2012
European Union Development Day
In addition to providing funding to humanitarian aid, the European Commission's Directorate-
General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (DG-ECHO) is in
charge of the EU Civil Protection Mechanism[55] to coordinate the response to disasters in
Europe and beyond and contributes to at least 75% of the transport and/or operational costs
of deployments. Established in 2001, the Mechanism fosters cooperation among national civil
protection authorities across Europe. Currently 34 countries are members of the Mechanism;
all 27 EU Member States in addition to Iceland, Norway, Serbia, North Macedonia,
Montenegro, Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Mechanism was set up to enable
coordinated assistance from the participating states to victims of natural and man-made
disasters in Europe and elsewhere.

United States

The United States has a government organization designated to address emergency

management. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) created a model to
measure hazardous events. This assessment plan, the FEMA model, uses history, vulnerability,
maximum threat, and probability of each potential disaster to predict potential damage. Each
hazard is then given a rating on the scale using these criteria and comparisons to other
hazards to determine the priority of mitigation efforts.[56]

As of May 2023, FEMA has updated their Local Mitigation Planning Handbook, which provides
a framework for local governments to follow in the case of hazardous events. This strategy
contains 4 steps: organise resources, assess risks, develop mitigation strategies, and
implement plans.[15] These steps are broad, as they are designed to be applied to a wide
variety of hazards. FEMA also has more specific policy plans, such as their Hazard Mitigation
Field Book (HMFB) on Roadways. This document focuses on preventing road erosion,
inundation, and debris pileup caused by damaged culverts, embankments, and road surfaces.
The HMFB uses a project identification diagram to realise each issue and a selection matrix to
match that problem with an effective solution using duration, feasibility, design, and
environmental considerations.[57]

FEMA's Mitigation Directorate[58] is responsible for programs that take action before a
disaster, in order to identify risks and reduce injuries, loss of property, and recovery time.[59]
The agency has major analysis programs for floods, hurricanes and tropical storms, dams, and
earthquakes.[59][60]

Pre-Disaster Mitigation grants are available to acquire property for conversion to open space,
retrofit existing buildings, construct tornado and storm shelters, manage vegetation for
erosion and fire control, and small flood control projects.[61] Critics say this program is
underperforming because it is starved for funding compared to disaster response and
recovery, the process of applying for a buyout is unreasonably slow, and is wasting taxpayer
dollars because the National Flood Insurance Program has paid to reconstruct some
properties up to 18 times.[62] 1% of NFIP-insured properties are responsible for more than one
quarter of the money the program has paid out.[63]

See also

Disaster response

Emergency management

Global catastrophic risk

International Day for Disaster Reduction

Hazard map

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External links

Asian Disaster Preparedness Center ([Link]

FAO – Platform for East and Central Africa ([Link]

Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery ([Link]

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction ([Link]

Preventionweb – Building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters ([Link]

[Link])

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Emergency Response ([Link]