Historical Development of Determinants

and Matrices

Abstract
This paper traces the historical development of determinants and matrices from
ancient Chinese mathematics to modern linear algebra. It examines how these
mathematical objects evolved from computational tools for solving systems of linear
equations to fundamental algebraic structures. The paper highlights key contribu-
tions across cultures and centuries, emphasizing the conceptual shift from determi-
nants as scalar functions to matrices as independent algebraic entities. Particular
attention is given to the work of mathematicians like Leibniz, Cramer, Sylvester,
and Cayley, who formalized these concepts and established their central role in
mathematics.

1 Introduction
The study of systems of linear equations led early mathematicians to methods that fore-
shadowed both determinants and matrices. Ancient Chinese mathematics (2nd century
BCE) used fang cheng (“rectangular arrays”) to solve simultaneous linear equations
[??]. These procedures—essentially Gaussian elimination—implicitly used determinant-
like combinations of coefficients. European mathematicians later rediscovered and ex-
tended these ideas: for example, Leibniz (1684) devised a determinant-based method for
solving linear systems [?], and Gabriel Cramer (1750) formulated Cramer’s rule, express-
ing each unknown as a ratio of determinants [?].
In both East and West, the arrangements of coefficients were treated as tables of
numbers, and the determinant was a scalar function (often computed by sign-weighted
products) summarizing a square system’s solvability. The formal notion of a matrix—a
two-dimensional array with its own algebraic operations—came later. The term “matrix”
(Latin for “womb” or “source”) was coined by James J. Sylvester in 1850 when he observed
that a rectangular array could be seen as the “common parent” giving rise to many
determinants (minors) [?]. Arthur Cayley soon (1858) developed a full algebra of matrices,
defining their addition, multiplication, and inverses [?].
This paper examines this historical evolution, tracing how determinants and matrices
emerged as distinct but related mathematical objects, and how their study transformed
from computational techniques to abstract algebraic structures.

1
Historical Development of Determinants and Matrices 2

2 Historical Timeline of Key Developments

2.1 Early Developments in China and Europe
The earliest systematic methods for solving systems of linear equations appear in ancient
Chinese mathematics, particularly in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (). This
influential text, compiled around the 2nd century BCE, contains a chapter called Fang
Cheng that presents methods equivalent to modern Gaussian elimination [??]. While
not using modern terminology, these calculations involved determinant-like operations
on coefficient arrays.
The Chinese method arranged coefficients of linear equations in columns rather than
rows (contrary to modern practice) and used a systematic elimination procedure to solve
the system. Consider this example from the Nine Chapters [?]:

“There are three types of corn, of which three bundles of the first type, two of
the second type, and one of the third type make 39 measures. Two bundles of
the first, three of the second, and one of the third make 34 measures. And one
bundle of the first, two of the second, and three of the third make 26 measures.
How many measures of corn are contained in one bundle of each type?”

This translates to the system:

3x + 2y + z = 39
2x + 3y + z = 34
x + 2y + 3z = 26

Chinese mathematicians would arrange this in a counting board with columns repre-
senting variables:
 
3 2 1 39
2 3 1 34
1 2 3 26

Through a process of elimination (multiplying rows and subtracting), they would solve
for the unknowns—a method that implicitly used determinant-like calculations without
formally defining determinants.
In Europe, similar ideas emerged much later. Gerolamo Cardano’s Ars Magna (1545)
introduced methods for solving equations that resembled Chinese elimination techniques
[?]. However, it was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz who, in 1684, first developed a systematic
approach to determinants through what is now known as cofactor expansion [?]. Leib-
niz wrote to l’Hôpital about his method for solving systems of linear equations, using
combinations of coefficients that we now recognize as determinants.

2.2 18th Century: Formalization of Determinants

Gabriel Cramer made a significant contribution in 1750 with his publication of a general
method for solving systems of linear equations using determinants—Cramer’s rule [?].
This approach expresses each unknown in an n × n system as a ratio of determinants:
Historical Development of Determinants and Matrices 3

For a system Ax = b, the solution for the ith variable xi is:

det(Ai )
xi =
det(A)

where Ai is the matrix formed by replacing the ith column of A with the column vector
b.
It’s worth noting that Colin Maclaurin had developed similar results by 1748, though
Cramer published first [?].
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre-
Simon Laplace further developed determinant theory, establishing expansion formulas
that made determinants a systematic tool in algebra. Laplace’s expansion theorem gen-
eralized Leibniz’s approach, providing a recursive method for computing determinants.

2.3 Parallel Developments in Japan

Independently in Japan, Seki Takakazu (1683) developed methods for solving systems of
linear equations using array elimination techniques akin to determinants [?]. His method,
sometimes called baransen (elimination method), shows remarkable parallels to Western
approaches, despite developing in isolation.

2.4 19th Century: Birth of Matrix Theory

The pivotal moment in the development of matrices came in the mid-19th century. James
Joseph Sylvester coined the term “matrix” in 1850, defining it as the rectangular array
that serves as the “womb” of determinants [?]. Sylvester wrote that a matrix “is a rect-
angular array of terms, out of which different systems of determinants may be engendered
from the womb of a common parent” [?].
Arthur Cayley then formalized matrix algebra in his groundbreaking 1858 paper, “A
Memoir on the Theory of Matrices” [?]. In this work, Cayley defined matrix addition
and multiplication, proved what is now known as the Cayley-Hamilton theorem (that
a matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation), and established matrix algebra as a
distinct mathematical discipline.
By the late 19th century, a comprehensive matrix theory was developing. Augustin-
Louis Cauchy and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi proved general theorems on determinants [?],
while Leopold Kronecker and Karl Weierstrass worked on axiomatizing determinant the-
ory [?]. Ferdinand Georg Frobenius extended the Cayley-Hamilton theorem to matrices
of all dimensions [?].

2.5 Early 20th Century: Modern Notation and Applications

The early 20th century saw the consolidation of matrix theory and the adoption of modern
notation. Cuthbert Edmund Cullis adopted the now-standard bracket notation A = [aij ]
for matrices in 1913 [?], while Wilhelm Jordan formulated the Gauss-Jordan elimination
method in 1898 [?].
During this period, matrices became central not only to linear algebra but also to
physics, especially with the development of quantum mechanics, where matrices represent
observable quantities and transformations.
Historical Development of Determinants and Matrices 4

3 Emergence of Matrix Theory as Distinct from De-

terminants
3.1 Conceptual Shift
Before the 19th century, mathematicians did not treat an array of numbers as an algebraic
“matrix” with its own operations. They wrote systems of equations in tabular form but
thought in terms of equations or of the determinant. For example, Carl Friedrich Gauss’s
elimination method (developed for number theory) implicitly works on the coefficient
table, but Gauss did not define matrix multiplication.
In contrast, Arthur Cayley (1858) treated matrices as objects in their own right: he
defined matrix multiplication (non-commutative in general) and matrix addition, and
studied properties like the determinant as a function of these objects [?]. Cayley’s for-
malism was partly motivated by geometric transformations: instead of transforming co-
efficients of equations, he applied transformations to matrices of geometric coefficients
[?]. This represented a revolutionary shift: the matrix became an independent algebraic
entity.
James Sylvester’s work in 1850 helped crystallize this idea when he coined the term
“matrix” to mean the rectangular array that serves as the “womb” of determinants [?].
By the late 19th century, a full matrix theory (linear algebra) was under development,
with determinants evolving from computational tools into algebraic invariants of the new
theory of matrices.

3.2 Functional Evolution

The evolution from determinants to matrices reflects a shift in mathematical think-
ing—from concrete computational tools to abstract algebraic structures. Determinants
were initially discovered as useful formulas for solving and understanding equations; ma-
trices were formalized later as generalized “containers” of those equations whose own
algebra could be studied.
This shift parallels other developments in 19th-century mathematics, where abstract
structures (groups, rings, fields) increasingly replaced concrete calculations as the focus
of study. The matrix concept allowed mathematicians to represent linear transformations
and systems of equations more efficiently and to develop a general theory for studying
their properties.

4 Determinants vs. Matrices: Conceptual and Func-

tional Differences
Determinants and matrices are related but distinct concepts. A matrix is a rectangular
array of elements (usually numbers) arranged in rows and columns [?], serving as a
representation of a linear mapping or system of equations. A determinant is a scalar
function assigned to a square matrix: it is the alternating sum of products of its entries
(the Leibniz formula) and encodes key properties like volume-scaling or invertibility of
the transformation.
In modern terms, “the determinant of a square matrix is a number associated with the
matrix, which is fundamental: for example, a square matrix is invertible if and only if its
Historical Development of Determinants and Matrices 5

determinant is nonzero” [?]. In contrast, the matrix itself (even if square or rectangular)
can be added or multiplied by other matrices and represents the transformation as a
whole [??]. Thus conceptually, matrices are second-order objects (tables of elements)
while determinants are first-order invariants (numbers derived from matrices).
Key differences include:
• Nature: A matrix (of size m × n) is an object with m rows and n columns. A
determinant is a single number defined only for square matrices (n × n).
• Operations: Matrices have their own algebra (addition, multiplication, scalar mul-
tiplication, transposition, etc.). Determinants cannot be added in any meaningful
way (except for trivial one-by-one matrices); instead, the determinant of a product
equals the product of determinants.
• Function: The determinant function captures properties like volume scaling, ori-
entation, and invertibility of the linear transformation represented by the matrix.
A matrix encodes the entire linear transformation (or system of equations) itself.
• Historical role: Historically, determinants were studied as formulas (e.g., for solv-
ing systems, computing areas), whereas matrices became the vehicle to generalize
and streamline linear algebra problems once their algebra was formalized in the
19th century.
• Notation and dimension: Matrices are often denoted by bold or capital letters
(e.g., A or A) with bracket or parenthesis notation. Determinants are denoted by
det(A) or |A|, emphasizing a scalar result.
These distinctions are summarized in Table 1.

5 Global Perspectives
Developments in determinants and matrices occurred independently in various cultures,
reflecting common mathematical needs. In China, the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Art (compiled ca. 2nd century BCE) applied tabular methods to solve linear equations
[??]. While this work did not use the term “determinant,” it implicitly employed the
same arithmetic manipulations that underlie determinants (e.g., eliminating variables
via cross-multiplication of coefficient tables).
In Japan, Seki Takakazu (17th century) likewise used elimination and identified deter-
minants (sometimes called baransen) for solving equations [?]. These Eastern methods
paralleled European discoveries: for instance, Leibniz’s determinant method (1684) was
essentially rediscovering what Chinese mathematicians had developed long before [?].
Apart from East Asia and Europe, there is little evidence of an independent theory
of determinants or matrices in other early mathematical traditions. Indian, Islamic, and
classical Greek mathematics dealt with linear equations more sporadically and did not
formalize determinants.
By the 19th century, the “matrix” as an algebraic concept was largely a European
innovation (Sylvester, Cayley) built on numerical techniques that had analogues in China
and Japan centuries earlier [??]. In the modern era, however, matrix theory and linear
algebra have become global disciplines, with contributions worldwide. Importantly, his-
torians recognize the Nine Chapters and Wasan (Japanese) mathematics as significant
early chapters in the story of determinants and matrices [??].
Historical Development of Determinants and Matrices 6

Table 1: Comparison of Determinants and Matrices

Aspect / Role Determinant (scalar) Matrix (array)
Definition A multilinear alternating function of A rectangular array (of size m × n)
a square matrix’s rows (or columns); of elements.
yields a number.
Typical Notation det(A) or |A| A
Dimensionality Only defined for n × n matrices Can be any m × n, square or
(square). non-square.
Operations Only output (scalar). Has its own operations (addition,
Satisfies det(AB) = det(A) det(B). multiplication, transpose, etc.).
Determinant of a matrix is one
derived operation.
Conceptual Role Measures volume scaling and Represents a linear transformation
invertibility. In linear algebra, or system of equations. Basis for
indicates if a matrix is invertible solving linear problems via
(det ̸= 0). algebraic operations.
Historical Use Used from the 17th century onward Known informally as arrays (e.g.,
to solve systems (Cramer’s rule) Chinese “fang cheng”). Formally
and study area/volume (Jacobians). defined in mid-19th century
First regarded as determinant before [??] as objects
matrix notion existed [?]. that generate determinants (minors).
Algebraic Produces an element of the base field. Elements of a (generally
Structure Determinant is a group homomorphism noncommutative) matrix ring or
det : GLn → F × . algebra. Matrices form a vector space
(addition) and ring (with multiplication).

6 Conclusion
The transition from determinants to matrices reflects a shift from concrete computational
tools to abstract algebraic structures. Determinants were discovered as useful formulas
for solving and understanding equations; matrices were formalized later as generalized
“containers” of those equations whose own algebra could be studied.
The key figures in this evolution—Leibniz, Cramer, Sylvester, Cayley, and others—built
on millennia of mathematical practice across cultures to transform determinants and ma-
trices into central concepts of linear algebra [??]. This historical journey illustrates how
mathematical ideas evolve: concepts initially developed for specific computational pur-
poses can, over time, become foundational abstract structures with far-reaching applica-
tions.
Today, matrices and determinants are fundamental to numerous fields beyond pure
mathematics, including physics, computer science, economics, and engineering. Their
historical development provides a fascinating window into the evolution of mathematical
thinking across cultures and through time.
Historical Development of Determinants and Matrices 7

References