Basic Engine Technology

Contents

1 Introduction 3

2 The Engine 4
2.1 Engine Block 5
2.2 Cylinder head 18
2.3 Crankcase 21

3 Four-stroke engine 25
3.1 The four-stroke process of the mixture
compression engine 27
3.2 Work diagram 32

4 Two-stroke engine 36
4.1 The two-stroke process 36
4.2 Port diagram 38

5 Engine power and torque 41

5.1 Work 41
5.2 Power 41
5.3 Torque 42
5.4 Graph of engine power and torque 43

6 Summary 46
 Basic Engine Technology
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Edition: 2007

© 2007 INNOVAM Publishing, Nieuwegein

The Netherlands
ISBN 90 405 0571 3

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 Basic Engine Technology
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1 Introduction

Every motor vehicle requires an energy source.

This is, of course, almost always a combustion
engine, which is fed chemical energy in the form
of fuel. In the engine, this fuel is mixed with air
and combusted in the cylinders. The combustion
transforms the chemical energy into heat, which is
referred to as thermal energy. The thermal energy
causes the pistons to move. How this precisely
occurs will be explained later. The result is the
mechanical energy that, through a few intervening
steps, produces vehicle movement.

There are therefore three types of energy required to

drive a car.
– chemical energy: the fuel
– thermal energy (heat): the combustion
– mechanical energy: the drive power

In the engine, there is therefore first a conversion

of chemical to thermal energy. The thermal energy
is then converted into mechanical energy (fig. 1).
air The ways in which these conversions occur will be
revealed later in this module.

fuel chemical
energy

this is where the fuel is combusted

moving piston
gas-pressure thermal
and heat energy

power mechanical
energy

Fig. 1 Energy flow

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2 The Engine

The engine is the heart of an automobile. Roughly

speaking, the engine is made up of three parts (fig.
2). From top down, these are:
– cylinder head
– engine block
– crankcase.

cylinder head
intake manifold engineblock
crankcase
gasket

gasket
cylinder head

exhaust manifold

head gasket

engine block

crankcase

Fig. 2 Engine block and cylinder head

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The top part is called the cylinder head, which

contains:
– valves
– camshaft(s)
– rockers

On either side of the cylinder head are the intake

manifold and the exhaust manifold, with the
intake and exhaust gaskets between the respective
manifolds and the head. These gaskets provide
a gas-proof seal (no gas can escape). Clamped
between the engine block and the cylinder head is
a head gasket. This provides a gas and fluid-proof
seal between the cylinder head and engine block.

The engine’s middle part is called the engine block,

in which the following elements are located:
– crankshaft
– connecting rods
– pistons
– cylinders

The crankcase (oil pan) closes off the bottom of the

engine block. The crankcase contains the oil for the
engine.

Exercise 1:
In figure 2 (on the facing page), colour:
– the engine block red
– the cylinder head yellow
– the crankcase blue
– the head gasket green
– the intake manifold brown
– the exhaust manifold black

2.1 Engine Block

The engine block is the largest and most central
part of the engine. It contains the cylinders
in which the pistons are located. A number
of cylinders in a row are called a cylinder
bank. Cylinder banks can be placed in various
configurations with regard to each other.
– When there is one cylinder bank with all cylinders
placed one behind the other (in a row), the
configuration is that of an in-line engine (fig. 3).

Fig. 3 In-line engine

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Fig. 4 V engine Fig. 5 Engine block for a six-cylinder V engine in

reality (Opel)

– When there are two cylinder banks at a certain

angle from each other, the engine is called a V
engine (figs. 4 and 5).
– Two cylinder banks laying directly opposed to
each other is the configuration of a flat engine
(fig. 6).

An in-line engine can be positioned transversely or

longitudinally under the bonnet (fig. 7). V engines
are mostly mounted in a longitudinal position.
Fig. 6 Flat engine
There are also different types of cylinders:
– cylinders with loose cylinder sleeves: the sleeves
motor motor are fi xed in the block with sealant so that they
can be easily removed (for example, when the
engine must be overhauled)
– cylinders with fi xed cylinder sleeves; the sleeves
are now pressed into the block
– cylinders that are integrated with the engine
block: in this case, there are no longer any
separate parts

Fig. 7 In-line engine in transverse and

longitudinal position
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If cylinder sleeves are used, there may be:

– dry cylinder linings in which the lining does not
come into contact with coolant (fig. 8)
– wet cylinder linings, in which the lining is in
contract with coolant; the big advantage of this
is, of course, good cooling of the cylinders (fig. 9)

cylinder lining engine block

engine block
coolant

coolant
cylinder lining

sealant

Fig. 8 Dry cylinder lining Fig. 9 Wet cylinder lining

Exercise 2:
In figures 8 and 9, colour the coolant blue and the
cylinder yellow.

The chance of coolant leakage is larger / smaller

with wet linings than with dry linings. Explain your
answer.
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................

channels ......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................

caps

There are channels in the engine block (fig. 10).

Some channels are for coolant and others are for
crankshaft lubricant. There are also holes for these purposes
in the cylinder head bolts. The engine block is cast
Fig. 10 Holes in the engine block are sealed from light metal or cast iron. Spaces are kept free in
with caps the engine block casting mould for boring cylinders
or inserting cylinder sleeves. The ventilation holes to
allow gas to escape during casting are later sealed
with steel-plated caps.
 Basic Engine Technology
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Crankshaft
The crankshaft is a peculiarly shaped shaft at the
bottom of the engine block to which the pistons are
connected. The crankshaft is forged or cast, and
then very precisely machined. Among other things,
it is susceptible to bending due to the variable
forces generated on the pistons during combustions
and therefore on the crankshaft as well. Since the
pistons move up and down, the crankshaft has to
bend in varying directions. This creates bending
vibration, which can cause serious damage if it
becomes too large. By supporting the crankshaft
at several locations, the crankshaft is better able to
withstand bending and therefore vibrations as well.
The support points are composed of two parts: One
is part of the engine block and forms a whole with
the cylinder block. The other is separate and is
called the main bearing cap (fig. 11). The “shells”
located above and below the crankshaft are called
the bearing shells.

front of
engine block

upper
bearing shell

crank

lower
bearing shell

main bearing cap

Fig. 11 Crankshaft in engine block

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Exercise 3:
In figure 11, colour:
– the crankshaft yellow
– the bearing shells blue
– the main bearing caps red

In most four cylinder engines, the crankshaft is

mounted on five bearings (fig. 12a). But this is not
always the case. In some light four cylinder engines,
the crankshaft is mounted on only three bearings
(fig. 12b), allowing the engine block to be shortened.
This has advantages for four-wheel drive vehicles

main bearing connecting rod

journal bearing journal

a five-bearing crankshaft b three-bearing crankshaft

Fig. 12 Main crankshaft bearings
The crankshaft has main bearing journals and
connecting-rod bearing journals. The journals
are round and are machined very accurately. The
number of connecting-rod bearing journals is the
same as the number of cylinders. Connected to
the connecting rod bearing journals are the piston
connecting rods

Exercise 4:
In figures 12a and 12b, colour:
– the main bearing journals red
– the connecting rod bearing journals green

connecting rod bearing journal The location of the cylinders and the number of
crank web cylinders determine the form that the crankshaft
takes. The crankshaft has crank webs to balance
the shaft and, as a result, enable it to rotate as
free of vibration as possible (fig. 13). Crankshafts
are always carefully balanced in order to prevent
main bearing journal
vibration and to reduce the chance of breakage.
The balancing occurs by drilling a small piece of
material out of the crank web or removing it in
another manner.

Fig. 13 Bearing journals and crank web Flywheel with starter ring gear
At one end of the crankshaft is a flywheel, which
ensures that the crankshaft rotates at an even
 Basic Engine Technology
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speed. For this reason, the flywheel has a large

mass.

The flywheel also has an auxiliary task: driving

the crankshaft when the engine is being started by
the starter motor. For this purpose, a starter ring
gear is mounted around the flywheel (fig. 14).

In starting the engine, the starter motor gear

engages the starter ring gear. The rotating motion
of the starter motor is then transferred to the
crankshaft by the starter ring gear and the
flywheel. The starter motor gear, which meshes with
the flywheel, is called the starter pinion.

starter ring gear

flywheel

Exercise 5:
Fig. 14 Flywheel with starter ring gear In figure 14, colour:
– the flywheel yellow
– the starter ring gear blue

Piston with piston rings

The piston moves up and down in the cylinder in
what is called a linear or reciprocating motion.
Combustion takes place in the space above the
piston, known as the combustion chamber.

To function properly under these conditions, the

piston must meet the following requirements:
– it must be of small mass in order to move up
and down without must loss of energy
– it must be strong in order to withstand the
combustion pressure
– it must be heat resistant and able to quickly
dissipate the heat from the combustion gas

For these reasons, pistons are mostly made from

light metal.
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The moving piston must also be well sealed in the

cylinder. Proper sealing prevents leakage of the
combustion gas compressed against the piston and
the cylinder. Each piston has therefore a number
of piston rings (fig. 15) placed in the grooves
encircling the piston.

The piston rings press outward against the cylinder

wall, effecting an appropriate seal. This furthermore
requires two types of piston rings:
– compression rings
– oil rings

The compression rings are the top two rings (fig.

15). They form a gas-proof seal between the piston
and the cylinder wall. The lower piston ring is
(usually) the oil ring, which scrapes the excess
lubricant off the cylinder wall, so the oil does not
enter the chamber above the piston. Oil, which is
used to cool and lubricate the cylinder wall, is then
1 compression ring returned to the crankcase through the openings in
2 compression ring the oil ring and in the piston ring groove. All piston
3 oil ring
rings also function to convey the heat of the hot
piston to the cylinder.

1
opening 2

1 3

opening
3
3

Fig. 15 Piston with piston rings

Exercise 6:
In figure 15, colour:
– the openings in the oil ring yellow
– the piston ring groove red

1 What can leak around the piston if it is not

properly sealed in the cylinder?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
 Basic Engine Technology
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piston Crank-connecting rod mechanism

The reciprocating motion of the piston in the
gudgeon pin cylinder is converted into a revolving and rotating
motion of the crankshaft. The revolving motion is
spring clip necessary in order to ultimately drive the wheels.

connecting
rod

cross section of the connecting rod

connecting
rod big end
Pistons are fastened to connecting rods by
upper bearing
shell
gudgeon pins (fig. 16). Connecting rods then
connect the reciprocating pistons to the revolving
engine block crankshaft (fig. 17).
lower bearing
shell To perform this function, they are subject to the
connecting rod following requirements:
bearing cap – connecting rods must be strong enough to
absorb the large variable forces generated above
the piston during the rapid reciprocal motion
– connecting rods must move up and down
connecting without much energy loss; they must therefore
rod bolt be lightweight.

Fig. 16 Parts of the crank-connecting rod mechanism

Fig. 17 The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft (Ford)
 Basic Engine Technology
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The connecting rod has a special form (see fig. 16)

and is made from high-grade steel (or from light
metal or plastic).

It has a small hole at one end a large hole at the

other. These holes are called bores (fig. 18). The
gudgeon pin fits into the small bore, which is on
top.
The large bore usually consists of two parts and is
small
bore
clamped to the crankshaft. The upper part of the
large bore is called the connecting rod big end. The
separate lower part is named the connecting rod
bearing cap, which is attached to the connecting
rod by bolts. Connecting rod bearings and bearing
shells are mounted between the connecting rod
big end, the connecting rod bearing cap and the
crankshaft. Connecting rods must after all always
be able to turn around the crankshaft.

Exercise 7:
connecting rod bolt
In figure 16, colour:
– the connecting rod bearing yellow
– the connecting rod bearing shell red

connecting Connecting rod bearings are sleeve bearings in the

large bore rod big end shape of shells. They are prevented from turning
with the crankshaft by a tab on the convex side (fig.
19). The convex side (outside) of the bearing is made
of steel. A thin layer of copper or bronze is attached
connecting rod to the concave side; both are metals to which the
bearing cap bearing material adheres well. The bearing material
is itself a very wear-resistant substance. The sleeve
Fig. 18 Connecting rods with large and
small bores
bearing must fit perfectly and have very good
sliding qualities.

Exercise 8:
lock tab
In figure 19, colour:
– the bearing material blue
– the lock tab red
convex side – the intermediate layer yellow
– the steel bearing shell green
copper
Oil is pumped between the sleeve bearings and the
steel bearing journals to provide lubrication. A very thin
layer of oil develops between the bearing and the
journal, a coating that is called the oil film. If there
concave side is no oil film, then:
– there is no more lubrication
– the components become hot
– there is no longer any oil to dissipate heat
Fig. 19 Bearing shell – the engine “seizes”, which is to say that parts
more or less melt together.
 Basic Engine Technology
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In engines with small cylinder bores, use is made of

eye gudgeon pin a diagonally divided connecting rod big end. This
allows the connecting rod big end to be smaller. The
piston and connecting rod can be removed from the
top of the engine block.
rod
Exercise 9:
In figure 20, colour:
– the connecting rod red
– the bearing shells blue
– the connecting rod bearing cap green
bearing shells

The piston is fastened to the top of the connecting

big end
rod by a gudgeon pin.

Various constructions are possible:

cap – the gudgeon pin immovably fi xed in the piston,
so that all hinging occurs at the connection
Fig. 20 Diagonally divided connecting rod
with on the connecting rod (fig. 21 a)
big end
– “floating” gudgeon pin with lock springs (fig. 21 b).
– the gudgeon pin immovably attached to the
connecting rod, so that all hinging occurs at the
connections with the piston (fig. c)

a gudgeon pin fitted in the piston b floating gudgeon pin c gudgeion pin fitted in the connecting rod

Fig. 21 Fastening the gudgeon pin

The connecting rods, together with the crankshaft

and pistons, constitute the moving parts of the
engine block, a rotating component known as the
crank-connecting rod mechanism (fig. 22).
 Basic Engine Technology
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Exercise 10:
In figure 22, colour the rotating component yellow.
List the names of the numbered parts below.
1 ...................................................................................................
1
2 ...................................................................................................
3 ...................................................................................................
4 ...................................................................................................
5 ...................................................................................................
6 ...................................................................................................
7 ...................................................................................................

2
3

TDC
4

stroke
5

BDC

Fig. 22 Rotating components Fig. 23 BDC and TDC

As you already know, the connecting rod is

connected to the piston. The connecting rod is just
long enough that the piston can never contact the
cylinder head. At the highest and lowest point, the
piston changes the direction of its up and down
motion (fig. 23).

At the moment of change, the speed drops to null

and the piston stops. These points are called:
– Top dead centre (TDC)
– Bottom dead centre (BDC)
 Basic Engine Technology
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valve cover
Questions
1 List below the names of the numbered
components in figure 24.
1 ........................................ 6 ..........................................
2 ........................................ 7 ..........................................
1 3 ........................................ 8 ..........................................
4 ........................................ 9 ..........................................
5 ........................................ 10 ..........................................

9 6

10

Fig. 24 Parts of the engine (MGF)

 Basic Engine Technology
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2 What is the position of the cylinder banks in a

V engine?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

3 In figure 25, colour the piston ring groove for

the oil ring red.

4 To which two components is the connecting rod

Fig. 25 connected?
1 ............................................................................................
2 ............................................................................................

5 What is the function of the connecting rod?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

6 In figure 26b, draw the position of the

connecting rod when the piston is at TDC? Then
indicate the subsequent stroke in figure 26.

7 The crankshaft in figure 27 has ........ main

a b bearings. Give the connecting rod bearing
Fig. 26 journal in the figure a red colour.

Fig. 27 8 What happens when a sleeve bearing in a

running engine is no longer lubricated?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

9 Indicate two functions of the flywheel.

1 ...........................................................................................
.............................................................................................
2 ...........................................................................................
..............................................................................................
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10 What is the big advantage of wet cylinder

linings?
...........................................................................................
...........................................................................................
...........................................................................................
...........................................................................................

11 List four engine components that are mounted

in or against the cylinder head.
1 ...........................................................................................
2 ...........................................................................................
3 ...........................................................................................
4 ...........................................................................................

12 Fill in the blanks:

– The fuel in an engine supplies………………….
energy.
– ........................ energy is delivered to the
pistons of combustion motors
– The crankshaft in an engine
generates…………………. energy.

2.2 Cylinder head

The top of the engine block is closed off by the
cylinder head, which is mounted on the block using
head bolts
cylinder head bolts (fig. 28). Between the head
and the block is a head gasket. The cylinder head
bolts are tightened in a certain sequence, called
the tightening sequence (fig. 29). Tightening
also occurs to a prescribed torque using a torque
wrench.

head
gasket

Fig. 28 Cylinder head with head bolts Fig. 29 Example of a head bolt tightening
and gasket sequence
 Basic Engine Technology
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Torque is a force multiplied the length of an arm

(or lever). For example, if you have a torque wrench
cm
30 with a handle length of 30 centimetres (= 0.3 m)
and you exercise a force on it of 25 kg (= 250 N), the
torque is then:

250 N 250 x 0.3 = 75 Newton metres, abbreviated to 75

Nm (fig. 30).

Cylinder head bolts are tightened to a certain torque

in order to obtain a good seal between the cylinder
Fig. 30 head and the block, both in a cold and a warm
engine.
top
Between the cylinder head and the motor block is
a special gasket called the head gasket. It contains
holes for the cylinder bores, as well as for the oil
and coolant channels (fig. 31). The top of the head
gasket is marked, as mounting it right side up is
extremely important when installing a new head
Fig. 31 Head gasket gasket. Proper alignment is needed to provide a gas,
oil and fluid-proof seal between the cylinder head
and engine block.
valve lock valve spring
washer The cylinder head houses the valve mechanism
(fig. 32), consisting of camshaft(s), rockers and/or
tappets, and the valves with valve springs.

outer Exercise 11:

valve spring exhaust In figure 32, colour:
valve guide
inner – the valves red
valve spring – the valve springs yellow
exhaust valve
spindle seal
valve spring The cylinder head is cast from light metal or cast
seat
iron. The advantage of light metal is that it has
better heat convection and smaller mass than cast
iron. This means, among other things, a weight
saving for the engine.
cylinder
head
Disadvantages of light metal in comparison with
cast iron are:
– less sound insulation
intake valve exhaust – poorer sliding qualities
valve
Camshaft
Fig. 32 Cylinder head Each cam on the camshaft will, as the shaft turns,
open a valve by pushing down the valve shaft.
 Basic Engine Technology
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A valve spring causes the valve to be closed again.

The shape of the camshaft determines:
– when the valve is opened
– how far the valve is opened
– when the valve is closed again

In brief, the camshaft is largely responsible for

controlling the “breathing” of the engine, as the
opening and closing of the valves enables the
combustion mixture to enter and the combusted
mixture to exit. The camshaft is driven by means of
a drive called the timing mechanism (fig. 33).

toothed belt intake camshaft

exhaust camshaft

intake valves

camshaft
gear
exhaust valves

tensioner

carter
crankshaft gear

Fig. 33 Camshaft with drive

In cars, the camshaft can be driven in two ways:
– with a chain
– with a toothed belt

Heavier commercial vehicles usually have timing

gears between the crankshaft and the camshaft.
The crank-connecting rod mechanism and the valve
mechanism are, in a certain manner, synchronised
to each other in terms of timing. This means that
the opening and closing of valves is synchronised
with the position of the piston in the cylinder. This
enables the combustion process to occur in the best
possible manner.
 Basic Engine Technology
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Exercise 12:
In figure 33, colour:
– the intake camshaft yellow
– the exhaust camshaft red
– the crank web orange
– the crankshaft blue
– the toothed belt green

The intake camshaft in figure 33 is driven by (a)

chain / gears / toothed belt.
The exhaust camshaft in figure 33 is driven by (a)
chain / gears / toothed belt.

The valve springs ultimately ensure that, when

the valve is closed, it is tightly pressed against
the cylinder head to enable warmth to be quickly
dissipated. The rings also make sure that the valve
does bounce open after abrupt contact with the
cylinder head.

2.3 Crankcase
The engine block is sealed off at the bottom by
the crankcase (fig. 34). The crankcase protects
gasket the rotating parts, such as the crankshaft, and
provides a reservoir for motor oil.

The crankcase often contains baffles with small

flow-through openings. With these baffles, the oil
pump can continue to pump oil and not air, even
while accelerating, climbing hills or cornering, thus
preventing a lack of lubrication. In most cars, as
much of the crankcase is exposed to air flow as
possible in order to help cool the oil. The crankcase
also has cooling fins, which enlarge the cooling
surface. Some cars may even have a special oil
cooler in which lubricating oil is cooled, as such
coolers dissipate a great deal of heat over a short
period.

Fig. 34 Crankcase
 Basic Engine Technology
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Questions
1 a What is the name of the engine part placed
between the cylinder head and the engine
block?
..............................................................................................

b What is the function of this component?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

2 What is the drive between the camshaft and the

crankshaft called?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

3 What is the function of a valve spring?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

4 The head gasket contains holes. For what

purpose are these holes?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

5 What are the functions of the crankcase?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

6 What are the parts of the valve mechanism?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
Basic Engine Technology
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7 What is the function of the valve mechanism?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

8 Why do head bolts have to be tightened in a set

sequence and to a certain torque?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

9 How is the timing mechanism usually driven in

commercial vehicles?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

10 Which components make sure that the engine

can breathe?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

11 Why are there often baffles located in the

crankcase.
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

12 What is the tightening sequence?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

13 In a drawing (in the margin), indicate a possible

sequence for tightening head bolts.
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14 Which engine part determines the maximum

valve opening?
..............................................................................................

15 From which two materials can a cylinder head

be made?
1 ............................................................................................
2 ............................................................................................

16 How do you recognise a flat engine?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

17 Why must pistons be as light as possible?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
 Basic Engine Technology
25

bore (d) bore 3 Four-stroke engine

TDC
The cylinder displacement or swept volume (Vs) of
a cylinder is determined by the bore and the stroke
Vs stroke (s) Vs (fig. 35):
– the bore (d) is the diameter of the cylinder
– the stroke (s) is the distance that the piston
BDC moves between TDC and BDC

The swept volume Vs is the content of the cylinder

between TDC and BDC. The stroke is the same
as the diameter of the crank circle. Half of the
diameter of the crank circle (the crank radius) is
called the crank length.
crank circle
Exercise 13:
In figure 35, draw a line indicating the crank length
and label it with the term “crank length”.
Fig. 35 Bore (d) and stroke (s)

The combustion chamber or clearance volume (Vc)

is the space between the piston and the cylinder at
the moment that the piston is at TDC (fig. 36).
Vc
Vc
TDC The total volume of the space above the piston at
BDC is then:
– swept volume + clearance volume or Vs + Vc.

As mentioned, the swept volume Vs is the content of

the cylinder between TDC and BDC. This applies to
one cylinder.
Engine displacement is the swept volume of
all cylinders together or Vs times the number of
cylinders.
90° Engine displacement is expressed in the cm3. In
this way, it is possible to speak of a 1600 cc or 1.6
litre (l) engine. For example, mopeds usually have
180° a little less than 50 cc cylinder displacement (i.e.
swept volume).
Swept volume is expressed in cm3 and can be
Fig. 36 Combustion chamber Vc calculated using the following formula.

Vs = 0,785 x d x d x s

Vs = swept volume (otherwise known as cylinder

displacement)
d = bore (i.e. the diameter of a cylinder)
s = stroke
 Basic Engine Technology
26

Example:
The following information about an engine is provided:
d = 70 mm (= 7 cm) and s = 80 mm (= 8 cm).

What is the swept volume?

Solution:

Vs = 0,785 x d x d x s.

Vs = 0,785 x 7 cm x 7 cm x 8 cm = 307,72 cm3.

Exercise 14:
A four cylinder motor is said to have a 60 mm bore
and a 70 mm stroke. Calculate the swept volume
and the engine displacement.
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................

Vc

Vs A ratio exists between the space above the piston

at BDC (Vs + Vc) and the space above the piston in
TDC (Vc). This is called the compression ratio (⌺)
(fig. 37). This symbol is pronounced epsilon.
Vs + Vc
= –––––––– swepvolume + clearance volume
Vc ⌺=
clearance volume
Vc

Expressed as a formula:
Vs + Vc
⌺ = ––––––––
Vc

Fig. 37 Compression ratio

Example:
Given a motor with a clearance volume of 50 cm3
and a swept volume of 450 cm3, calculate the
compression ratio.

Vs + Vc 450 + 50 500
Solution: ⌺ = –––––––– = –––––––––– = ––––– = 10 : 1
Vc 50 50

This is pronounced 10 to 1.
 Basic Engine Technology
27

Exercise 15:
A motor has a clearance volume of 40 cm3 and a
swept volume of 320 cm3. Calculate the
compression ratio
bore
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
stroke ......................................................................................................

Ratio between bore and stroke

Combustion engines can be categorised on the basis
of their bore/stroke ratio. There are:
– long-stroke engines (fig. 38) in which the bore is
smaller than the stroke
– square engines (fig. 39) in which the bore is
same size as the stroke
– short-stroke engines (fig. 40) in which the bore
is larger than the stroke
Fig. 38 Long-stroke engine

bore bore

stroke stroke

Fig. 39 Square engine Fig. 40 Short-stroke engine

3.1 The four-stroke process of the

mixture compression engine
The complete combustion process, also called the
working process, consists of the intake stroke,
compression stroke, power stroke and exhaust
stroke.
 Basic Engine Technology
28

The total working process of a one cylinder

engine therefore occurs in four strokes of the
piston, which is consequently labelled the four-
stroke process (fig. 41). Each stroke involves a
180° movement of the crankshaft, which is to
say a semi-circular motion. For four strokes, the
rotational movement becomes 4 x 180° = 720°. Over
the four strokes, the crankshaft rotates twice (a
complete revolution of the crankshaft equalling 360
crankshaft degrees).

Intake stroke
The intake valve is open during this stroke (fig.
41a), while the exhaust valve is closed. The piston
moves from TDC to BDC. During this stroke, the
cylinder of a mixture compression engine is filled
by an inflowing combustible mixture of air and
fuel. This flow is created by a difference in pressure.
When the piston moves down, the space above
it becomes larger. The pressure in this space is
consequently reduced, and a flow of combustible gas
is created that enters the cylinder through the open
intake valve.

Compression stroke
During the compression stroke, both the intake
and the exhaust valves are closed (fig. 41b). The
piston moves from BDC to TDC. The mixture above
the piston is resultantly compressed, causing the
pressure and the temperature of the mixture to
rise.

Power stroke
Just before the piston reaches TDC, the compressed
gas in the small chamber above the piston is
ignited by a spark from the sparkplug (fig. 41b).
The mixture is ignited and combustion begins. The
heat released causes the temperature to rise and,
as a result, the pressure of the mixture to increase
extremely rapidly. Once the piston moves through
TDC, it is propelled downward with great force.
During the power stroke, both the intake and the
exhaust valves are closed. The piston now moves
from TDC to BDC (fig. 41c).

Exhaust stroke
Only the exhaust valve is open during the exhaust
stroke (fig. 41d). The piston now moves back from
BDC to TDC.
 Basic Engine Technology
29

The combusted gases are pushed by the piston

through the opened exhaust valve and out of the
cylinder chamber. When the piston has returned to
TDC, a new four-stroke process begins. The process
is, consequently, always repeating itself and is, for
this reason, called a cyclical process or cycle.

cylinder

piston

connecting rod
crankshaft

crank
a intake stroke b compression stroke c power stroke d exhaust stroke

Fig. 41 A diagram of the four-stroke process in a mixture compression engine

 Basic Engine Technology
30

Exercise 16:
Fill in the following table for a one cylinder engine:

Intake stroke Compression stroke Power stroke Exhaust stroke

Piston: up/down
Intake valve: open/
closed
Exhaust valve:
open/closed
Crankshaft
revolution
Crankshaft degrees

Questions
1 The following is known about a one-cylinder
engine: the bore is 6 cm and the stroke is 7 cm.
Calculate the swept volume.

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

2 What is meant by swept volume?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

3 During the intake stroke, the intake valve is

..............................................................................................
and the exhaust valve is .................................................
and the piston moves from ................ to .................. .

4 The following is known about an engine: the

bore is 70 mm, the stroke is 70 mm and the
clearance volume is 33.65 cm3. Calculate the
compression ratio.
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
Basic Engine Technology
31

5 What do you call the space above the piston at

TDC?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

6 During the compression stroke, the intake valve

is ..........................................................................................
and the exhaust valve is ................................................
and the piston moves from ............... to ................. .

7 The following is known about a four-cylinder

four-stroke engine: the clearance volume is
34.19 cm3, the bore is 70 mm, the stroke is 80
mm. Calculate the cylinder displacement of the
engine and the compression ratio.
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

8 At what moment is the mixture in the cylinder

ignited by the sparkplug spark?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

9 What causes the pressure and the temperature

to rise as the piston moves upward during
compression?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
 Basic Engine Technology
32

3.2 Work diagram

According to the four-stroke principle, the piston
makes four strokes during two complete revolutions
of the crankshaft (fig. 42). Two revolutions equal
720 crankshaft degrees. Each stroke is therefore
equal to a half revolution or 180 (crankshaft)
degrees.

1-4 These pistons move in the same direction

2-3 These pistons move in the same direction

Fig. 42 Piston positions in a four-cylinder in-line engine

Due to the shape of the crankshaft in a four-

cylinder in-line engine, the pistons of cylinders 1
and 4 are at TDC at the same time. Look again at
figure 42. If we rotate the crankshaft 180° further,
the two pistons of cylinders 2 and 3 are both at
TDC (fig. 43).

Fig. 43 Piston positions in the same four- The four strokes of the four stroke process are
cylinder in-line engine after 180° shown in the underlying block diagram.
0 180° 360° 540° 720°
Intake stroke Compression stroke Power stroke Exhaust stroke

Dit blokschema heet een arbeidsdiagram – in dit

This block diagram is called a work diagram – in
this case for a one-cylinder four-stroke engine. The
firing sequence in a motor of multiple cylinders
can, in principle, be determined with the aid of the
work diagram. To draw a work diagram, you must
have the following data:
– number and configuration of the cylinders
– shape of the crankshaft
– turning direction of the crankshaft

Since the four-stroke process is a continuous

process, the exhaust stroke is followed by another
intake stroke. A work diagram always begins with
the power stroke. Additionally, only one cylinder
can begin with the power stroke at one time. The
greater the number of cylinders, the faster the
power strokes in the cylinders follow each other.
 Basic Engine Technology
33

Exercise 17:
In the following table, fill in the angle of rotation
for the crankshaft. Also fill in the direction that the
piston moves and the position of the piston.

Power stroke Exhaust stroke Intake stroke Compression stroke

0 180° ..... ..... .....

TDC BDC ..... ..... .....

The above process applies to cylinder 1. In exercises

18 and 19, we will examine what the other cylinders
are doing at the same time. You can refer to the
examples in figures 42 and 43.

Exercise 18:
Take a look at the table.
Already indicated is the fact that the power stroke of
cylinder 1 is followed by the power stroke of cylinder
3. We now supply the following further information:
when cylinder is in the power stroke, cylinder 2 is
in the exhaust stroke. Now complete the table.

Cylinder 1 power stroke

Cylinder 2

Cylinder 3 power stroke

Cylinder 4

Colour the boxes of the power strokes red. The

sequence of the power strokes is called the firing
sequence.

Exercise 19:
Take a look at the following table. Complete this
table as well.

Cylinder 1 power stroke

Cylinder 2 power stroke

Cylinder 3

Cylinder 4 exhaust stroke

Colour the power-stroke boxes red.

 Basic Engine Technology
34

Exercise 20:
You have now discovered that, with the cylinder
configuration in figure 42, two firing sequences are
possible.
Indicate both possibilities below..

Possibility 1 ............... - ............... - ............... - ..............

Possibility 2 ............... - ............... - ............... - ..............

The regular “distribution” of power strokes in

various cylinders over the 720 crankshaft degrees
results in the fact that:
– the engine runs smoothly
– various engine components are exposed to less
mechanical stress

Questions
1 What are the four strokes that constitute the
four-stroke process?
1 ............................................................................................
2 ............................................................................................
3 ............................................................................................
4 ............................................................................................

2 How many revolutions does the crankshaft

make during the four-stroke process of one
cylinder?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

3 Why are power strokes distributed over 720°?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

4 What are the two possible firing sequences in a

four-cylinder in-line engine?
1 ............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
2 ............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
Basic Engine Technology
35

5 How many power strokes does a one-cylinder

four-stroke engine make per minute when it
runs at a rotational frequency of 40 revolutions
per second.
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
 Basic Engine Technology
36

4 Two-stroke engine

The two-stroke engine, in the forms known to

us, does not have any valves. The filling of the
2 out
cylinder with a combustible mixture and the
discharging of combusted exhaust gases occurs
3 through ports. These ports are holes in the in the
cylinder wall that are opened and closed by the
1 movement of the piston (fig. 44).
1 intake port
2 scavenge port (in) The ports are:
2 in 2 scavenge port (out) – intake port
3 exhaust port
– exhaust port
Fig. 44 Ports in the cylinder wall – scavenge port

4.1 The two-stroke process

In a two-stroke engine, the entire working process
of one cylinder takes place in two strokes, and
not in four-strokes as is the case in a four-stroke
engine. This means that several things have to
occur at the same time during one stroke. In the
two-stroke process, two events are simultaneously
occurring above and below the piston. The spaces
above and below the piston, which are then both
being used in this process, must therefore be gas-
tight to each other.

Intake and compression phase

In the crankcase, beneath the piston

When the piston moves from BDC to TDC, the
space in the crankcase becomes larger (fig. 45),
creating an underpressure in the crankcase.
At the moment when the bottom of the piston no
longer closes off the intake port, fresh mixture
flows through the intake port into the crankcase
chamber. The mixture consists of air, fuel and
lubricant. Due to the structure of the cylinder
and piston, no oil can be added separately for
lubrication, as is the case in a four-stroke engine.
The oil is therefore transported into the engine in
the combustible mixture, this oil additive being
used to lubricate the piston and cylinder. The inflow
of fresh mixture stops when the piston arrives at
TDC, as the space under the piston is no longer
growing larger (fig. 46).
 Basic Engine Technology
37

Above the piston

While the mixture under the piston flows into the
crankcase, the space above the piston becomes
smaller. At the moment when the top of the piston
closes the exhaust port (fig. 45), the pressure above
the piston begins to mount, as the gas can no
longer escape:
it is sealed in. This part of the process stops once
the piston reaches TDC (fig. 46).

TDC

scavenge port
exhaust
port
intake
port

crankcase

Fig. 45 Intake and compression Fig. 46 Compression ends, Fig. 47 Exhaust and
phase power begins scavenge phase

Exhaust and scavenge phase

In the crankcase
When the piston moves from TDC to BDC, the
space in the crankcase becomes smaller (fig. 47).
When the intake port is closed by the piston,
the pressure in the crankcase increases as the
downward movement of the piston reduces the
volume under the piston. This part of the process
stops once the piston reaches BDC.

Above the piston

At the same time, the mixture above the piston is
ignited by a spark from the sparkplug. The power
stroke begins and the piston is forced downward.
The space above the piston is then increased. Once
the top of the piston clears the exhaust port, the
exhaust gases can escape. The piston clears a
second port a little later in its downward motion.
 Basic Engine Technology
38

This opening, which is called the scavenge port,

provides a passage way between the crankcase and
the combustion chamber. Due to the overpressure
in the crankcase, fresh mixture flows out of the
crankcase through the scavenge port into the
combustion chamber. This part of the process
stops once the piston closes the scavenge port after
passing through BDC (fig. 45). The two-stroke
engine also involves a process that repeats itself,
otherwise known as a cycle.

4.2 Port diagram

scavenge port
exhaust port

Intake port

intake phase

B
A

B A
B A

Fig. 48 Intake phase Fig. 49 Exhaust phase Fig. 50 Scavenge phase

intake TDC The opening periods for the intake port, the exhaust
phase
port and the scavenge port (in degrees) can be
placed in one diagram: the port diagram (fig. 51).
Figures 48, 49 and 50 show the components from
which figure 51 is composed. Point A is always
the position of the crankshaft (and connecting rod
and piston) when the port opens; point B is the
position when the port is closed. The port diagram
exhaust phase is symmetric, which is to say that it has the same
form on the left and right sides of the TDC/BDC
scavenge phase line.
BDC
Fig. 51 Port diagram
 Basic Engine Technology
39

Questions
1 How many strokes make up the working process
in a two-stroke engine?
..............................................................................................

2 For how many crankshaft revolutions does the

two-stroke process last?
..............................................................................................

3 What are the three ports in a two-stroke engine

called?
..............................................................................................

4 Supposing the engine begins with the compression

stroke, what happens above the piston of a two-
stroke engine when the piston moves upward?
Draw a piston in the correct position in figure 52a.
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

a 5 Supposing the engine begins with the compression

stroke. What happens under the piston of a two-
stroke engine when the piston moves upward?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

6 Supposing the engine begins with the power

stroke, what happens above the piston of a two-
stroke engine when the piston moves downward?
Draw a piston in the correct position in figure 52b.
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

7 Supposing the engine begins with the power

b
stroke, what happens under the piston of a two-
stroke engine when the piston moves downward?
Fig. 52
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
 Basic Engine Technology
40

8 In figure 53, colour:

– the intake phase blue
– the exhaust phase green
– the scavenge phase yellow

9 A four-cylinder two-stroke engine runs at 40

revolutions per second. How many power strokes
does the engine make per second?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

Fig. 53 ..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

10 Why must the crankcase of a two-stroke engine

be sealed leak-tight?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

11 In a two stroke engine, how does the combustion

mixture flow into the combustion chamber?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

12 Why is oil one of the inputs for a two-stroke

engine, along with air and fuel?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
 Basic Engine Technology
41

5 Engine power and torque

5.1 Work
During the power stroke of a combustion engine,
the gas mixture pushes the piston downward. The
gas mixture performs work. The quantity of work is
determined by:
– the average force (F) that the gas mixture
applies to the piston during the power stroke
– the length of the stroke (s) that the piston makes
during the power stroke (see fig. 54)

The quantity of work can be calculated with the

formula:
Work = Force x stroke

W = F x s [N x m = Nm] (newtonmeter)

5.2 Power
Power is the quantity of work per second.
Expressed as a formula:
Power = Work : Time

TDC
P = W : t [Nm/s] (Newton metres per second =
F watts)

s
One second is used as the time unit in this
calculation.

BDC Example 1
During the power stroke, the average force exerted
on a piston is 10,000 N. The stroke of the piston is
100 mm. The piston completes the stroke in 0.02
seconds. The work on the piston is:

W=Fxs
W = 10,000 N x 0,1 m
W = 1000 Nm

The power emitted by the piston is:

P =W:t
P = 1000 Nm : 0.02 s
Fig. 54 W = F x s P = 50,000 Nm/s
= 50,000 W (watts)
= 50 kW (kilowatts)
 Basic Engine Technology
42

Example 2
During the power stroke, the average force exerted
on a piston is 10,000 N. The stroke of the piston is
100 mm. The piston completes the stroke in 0.04
seconds.

The work on the piston is:

W=Fxs
W = 10,000 N x 0.1 m
W = 1000 Nm

The power emitted by the piston is:

P =W:t
P = 1000 Nm : 0.04 s
P = 25,000 Nm/s
= 25,000 W (watts)
= 25 kW (kilowatts)

Comparing examples 1 and 2 reveals that:

– the work on the piston is the same in both
cases
– the power is greater in example 1

This results from the fact that, in example 1, a

shorter time is required to perform the same work.

5.3 Torque
In figure 55, a force (F) is exerted on the spanner
that, as a result, generates enough torque to rotate
the bolt. The amount of torque can be calculated
with the formula:
Torque = Force x leverage [N x m = Nm]

arm

Fig. 55 Torque = Force x leverage

 Basic Engine Technology
43

The force that the gases exert on the piston

is transferred to the crankshaft through the
connecting rod (fig. 56). The connecting rod
exercises a force (Ft) on the crankshaft. The force
piston (Ft) generates a moment of force causing the
crankshaft to rotate. This moment exerted at a
distance from the centre of rotation (d) is referred
to as torque (Md). The amount of torque can be
connecting rod calculated with the formula:
Torque = Force x radius [N x m = Nm] (where radius
is the distance from the centre of rotation, the
length of the lever arm or crank so to speak)
crankshaft
F Md = Ft x r
r
Where:
Fig. 56 The connecting rod generates Md = torque
torque causing the crankshaft to
Ft = the tangential force of the connecting rod on
turn
the crankshaft
r = the radius of the crank circle (the crank
length)

Kw
5.4 Graph of engine power and torque
40

Engine power and torque are important for engine

35 performance. They influence maximum speed and
pulling power.
30 Engine power and torque are not the same at all
engine speeds. Manufacturers draw graphs to
25 provide information about engine performance, in
which engine power and torque are shown as a
20 Nm
function of the number of engine revolutions per
unit of time (fig. 57).
90
The vertical axes in the graph indicate engine power
15
80 and torque. Engine revolutions are displayed along
the horizontal axis (in Hz = revs/sec).
10 70 The motor has a maximum power of 33 Kw. The
maximum power is delivered at 83 Hz. Maximum
5 60
torque is 79 Nm at 42 Hz. At 33 Hz, the engine
50 delivers 15 Kw of power at a torque of 74 Nm.
0
17 33 50 67 83 100 Hz
Fig. 57 Graph of engine power and torque
 Basic Engine Technology
44

Questions
1 Which formula is used to calculate work?
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

2 What is the unit for measuring work?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

3 Which two factors are used in calculating the

quantity of work that the gases exert on the
piston?
1 ............................................................................................
2 ............................................................................................

4 What is meant by the term power?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

5 The work on a piston in one minute is 840,000 Nm.

Calculate the power.
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

6 What is meant by the torque of an engine?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................

7 Which formula is used to calculate torque?

..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
..............................................................................................
 Basic Engine Technology
45

8 Figure 58 presents a graph indicating engine

power (Kw) torque (Nm) power and torque.
– maximum engine power is..........Kw
90
– maximum torque is..........Nm
80 – maximum engine power is reached at .
......... rpm
70 – maximum torque is reached at .......... rpm
160 – at 3000 rpm, the engine delivers ………of
60 140 power at a torque of ……... Nm.
120
50 100

40

30

20

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

RPM (revolutions/minute)
Fig. 58
 Basic Engine Technology
46

6 Summary

In the engine, chemical energy is converted into

mechanical energy. The engine consists of the
crankcase, engine block and cylinder head. The
cylinder head seals the top of the engine block,
which is sealed on the bottom by the crankcase.
A head gasket is placed between the engine block
and the cylinder head to provide a gas, water and
oil-proof seal. Cylinders can be positioned in the
engine block in various ways: in-line engines,
V engines and flat engines are all well known.
Cylinders can also have wet or dry linings. The
advantage of a wet cylinder lining is better cooling.
Wet linings can also be easily replaced when worn.
The crankcase is mounted in the in the engine
block on main bearing journals. Usually, a
crankshaft in a four-cylinder engine is supported
by five main bearings. A flywheel is attached to the
crankshaft to ensure that the crankshaft rotates
at an even speed. A starter ring gear is mounted
on the flywheel. The pistons move up and down in
cylinders, the lowest point being called bottom dead
centre (BDC), while the highest point is called top
dead centre (TDC).
The reciprocating motion of the piston is, with
the aid of a crank-connecting rod mechanism,
converted into the revolving motion of the
crankshaft. Connecting rods connect the pistons to
the crankshaft. These connecting rods are fastened
to the crankshaft by bearings made up of two
bearing shells, which are fitted on the convex side
with a tab to prevent them from rotating with the
crankshaft. The piston is fastened with a gudgeon
pin to the connecting rod, although this can occur
in various ways.
The piston is equipped with piston rings, the upper
two rings (the compression rings) forming a gas-
proof seal between the piston and the cylinder wall.

The lower oil ring has the function of removing the

superfluous lubricant from the cylinder wall. This
lubricant is returned to the crankcase through
openings in the oil ring and the piston ring groove.
The cylinder head contains a valve mechanism. The
intake and exhaust valves can move up and down
in the guides in the cylinder head. The valves are
opened by the camshaft and are closed by the valve
spring.
The space in the cylinder between BDC and TDC is
Basic Engine Technology
47

called the swept volume. The space above the piston

in the cylinder head at TDC is called clearance
volume or combustion chamber. The ratio between
the volume above the piston at BDC and the volume
above the piston at TDC is called the compression
ratio. Expressed as a formula, it is:

Vs + Vc
⌺ = ––––––––
Vc

The four-stroke process consists of:

– intake stroke
– compression stroke
– power stroke
– exhaust stroke

The working process of a four-stroke engine occurs

in two revolutions of the crankshaft or 720°. The
sequence of the strokes is indicated in the work
diagram. The working process of a two-stroke
engine occurs in one revolution of the crankshaft,
the process occurring above and below the piston
simultaneously. The opening and closing of the
exhaust port, intake port and scavenge port is
performed by the piston. Port opening and closing is
represented in a port diagram.

The quantity of work on the piston during the

power stroke can be calculated with the formula:

Work = Force x stroke

W = F x s [N x m = Nm] (Newton metres)

Power is the quantity of work per second. Expressed

as a formula:

Power = Work : time

P = W : t [Nm/s] (Newton metres per second = watts)

The force that gases exert on the piston is

transferred to the crankshaft through the
connecting rod. The connecting rod exercises a force
(Ft) on the crankshaft, generating a moment of force
causing the crankshaft to rotate. This moment is
referred to as torque (Md). The amount of torque can
be calculated with the formula:

Torque = Force x radius [N x m = Nm]

 Basic Engine Technology
48

Engine power and torque are not the same at all

engine speeds. Manufacturers draw graphs to
provide insight into engine performance, in which
engine power and torque are shown as a function of
the number of engine revolutions per unit time.