Gender Studies Module 1

Gender Psychology
The exploration of the concepts of gender across cultures and the influence of those concepts on
behaviour, health, interpersonal relationships, and psychological processes. Although gender
psychology originally denoted the analysis of biological sex differences between men and
women, the field has grown to encompass the social construction of gender and all gender
identities as well.
Current topics of study are broad, including within-sex variability, gender identity and gender
roles, sexuality and sexual orientation, gender stereotypes and their origins, and other
explorations of gender experiences, attitudes, and attributes.
Need of Gender Psychology
• Understanding gender identity and expression: Gender psychology helps explore how
individuals experience and express their gender beyond biological sex. Example: A study on how
transgender individuals develop their gender identity in different cultural contexts.
• Examining gender-based stereotypes and biases: It analyzes how societal norms shape
perceptions of masculinity and femininity, influencing behavior and opportunities. Example:
Research on how gender stereotypes affect hiring decisions in corporate settings.
• Addressing gender-based violence and harassment: It identifies psychological factors behind
gender-based violence and develops interventions for prevention and support. Example: Studies
on the impact of workplace sexual harassment on mental health.
• Promoting gender equality and social justice: It advocates for policies and practices that reduce
discrimination and ensure equal rights for all genders. Example: Research on the benefits of
gender-inclusive education in reducing bias from an early age.
Scope of Gender Psychology

 Gender identity: Examines how individuals perceive and experience their gender, influencing
self-concept and behavior. Example: A transgender person identifying as male despite being
assigned female at birth.

 Gender roles: Studies societal expectations of behaviors and responsibilities based on gender.
Example: Women being expected to handle household chores while men are expected to be
breadwinners.

 Stereotyping and prejudice: Analyzes biases and discrimination based on gender. Example:
Assuming women are less competent in leadership roles than men.

 Gender and sexuality: Explores the relationship between gender and sexual orientation,
identity, and behavior. Example: A non-binary individual identifying as pansexual.
 Intersectionality: Investigates how gender intersects with other social categories like race,
class, and disability. Example: A Black woman facing both racial and gender discrimination in
the workplace.

 Social change: Focuses on efforts to challenge and transform gender inequalities in society.
Example: Feminist movements advocating for equal pay and reproductive rights.

Sandra Bem’s Three Lenses of Gender

1. Biological Essentialism

 This idea focuses on biology, specifically reproductive biology (like differences in male
and female bodies), as the foundation for understanding gender differences.
 It assumes that characteristics such as strength, nurturing behavior, or leadership are
naturally tied to a person's biological sex.
 For example, people might think women are naturally more nurturing because they give
birth, while men are naturally more aggressive due to higher testosterone levels.

2. Androcentrism

 This lens sees the world from a male-centered perspective, where being male is the
default or "norm."
 Male traits, behaviors, and experiences are often considered superior or the standard,
while female traits are treated as deviations or secondary.
 For instance, leadership qualities like assertiveness are often seen as masculine, while
nurturing qualities are seen as feminine and undervalued.

3. Gender Polarization

 This perspective treats masculinity and femininity as complete opposites, so expressing

one often means suppressing the other.
 It forces people into strict gender roles, expecting men to act masculine (e.g., tough,
rational) and women to act feminine (e.g., soft, emotional).
 Examples include discouraging boys from crying because it’s "too feminine" or expecting
girls to avoid being assertive because it’s "too masculine."

Some Definitions

Sex as a Biological Classification

● Definition: Sex refers to the biological characteristics, such as chromosomes, hormones, and
reproductive anatomy, that classify individuals as male or female.

● UN Definition: The United Nations defines sex as the physical and biological characteristics
that differentiate males and females.
● Exceptions: This traditional view of sex does not account for individuals who are intersex or
identify as a third sex, which includes variations in biological traits that do not fit typical male or
female categories.

Sex and Historical/Cultural Contingency

● Dynamic Meaning: The concept of sex is not fixed and universal; its meaning has changed
over time and varies across cultures.

● Cultural Influence: Different societies and historical periods have interpreted and classified sex
categories in unique ways.

Gender as a Social and Cultural Concept

● Definition: Gender refers to the socialized roles, behaviors, and expectations assigned to
individuals based on their sex. It is about what it means to be “masculine” or “feminine” in a
given culture.

● Cultural Variation: Gender is culturally constructed and varies across societies, influenced by
political, religious, philosophical, linguistic, and traditional forces.

● Examples: In one culture, being masculine may mean being a warrior, while in another, it
could mean being a provider or caretaker.

Gender as a Performance

● Not Inherent: Gender is not something we are born with but something we learn and do
through repeated actions and behaviors.

● Key Theories:

 West and Zimmerman (1987): Gender is an ongoing process; it’s something we “do” in
our everyday interactions.
 Judith Butler (1990): Gender is a performance, shaped by societal expectations and
norms.

● Implications: This means gender roles and behaviors can change over time and across cultures
as societal norms evolve.

Reproductive anatomy

1. Sex Assignment at Birth:

 A person's biological sex is typically assigned at birth based on the visual observation of
their external genitals (presence or absence of a penis).
 This is a simplistic method of classification, often ignoring other biological factors.
2. Genital Shape Is a Partial Definition:

 The shape of genitals is only one part of the complex biological process that determines
sex.
 It does not provide a complete understanding of an individual’s biological sex.

3. Other Factors in Defining Biological Sex:

 Chromosomes: XX (typically female) or XY (typically male), though variations (e.g.,

XXY, XO) exist.
 Hormones: Levels of testosterone, estrogen, and other hormones influence secondary sex
characteristics.
 Reproductive System Function: The ability to produce eggs or sperm, though not all
individuals with male or female reproductive anatomy are fertile.
 Internal Accessory Organs: Includes embryonic structures that develop into organs like
the uterus, fallopian tubes, or vas deferens. These organs are important in defining
biological sex but are not visible at birth.

Chromosomal Sex

1. Human Chromosomes:

 Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, making a total of 46 chromosomes in each cell.

 These chromosomes carry genes that determine the physical and biological traits of an
individual.

2. 23rd Pair - Sex Chromosomes: The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines an individual's
genetic sex:

 Females: Have two X chromosomes (XX).

 Males: Have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY).

3. Role of Chromosomal Difference:

 The presence of a Y chromosome is crucial for developing male characteristics in an

embryo.
 The X chromosome is present in both sexes and carries essential genes for development.
 The genetic sex of the embryo is determined at the moment of fertilization, depending on
whether the sperm carries an X or a Y chromosome:

a) Sperm with an X chromosome produces a female embryo (XX).

b) Sperm with a Y chromosome produces a male embryo (XY).

Chromosomes and Genitals

• Undetermined Genitals: Until 7-8 weeks, genital structures are not differentiated.
• Hormonal Influence: By three months, hormones guide genital development.

• Default Pathway: Without hormonal signals, the embryo develops along the female pathway.

Differences Between Male and Female Sex

Hormones

1. Hormonal Differences Are a Matter of Degree:

 The hormones present in males and females are largely the same but differ in their levels.
 Biological sex is influenced more by the amounts of specific hormones than by entirely
distinct types of hormones.

2. Key Hormones in Females and Males:

 Females: Tend to have higher levels of oestrogen and progesterone, which are essential
for reproductive functions like ovulation and menstruation.
 Males: Have higher levels of androgens, especially testosterone, which influences the
development of male reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., muscle
mass, body hair).
3. Hormonal Interactions:

 Hormones in males and females interact and cooperate, rather than functioning in
isolation. For example:

a) Both males and females have oestrogen and testosterone, just in different
concentrations.
b) These interactions are critical for overall health and development.

4. No Absolute Male or Female:

 Biologically, there is no such thing as being 100% male or 100% female.

 Hormonal systems overlap and vary significantly, contributing to a spectrum of traits and
characteristics in individuals.

Intersex- Variations of Reproductive/Sex Development

• Intersex Definition: Variations in reproductive/sexual development, unrelated to gender

identity.

Biological Traits:

• External Genitals: Atypical anatomy.

• Internal Reproductive Organs: Structural differences.

• Sex Chromosomes: Variations like XXY or XO.

• Prevalence: About 1.3 in 1,000 babies have intersex traits (Journal of the Endocrine Society,
2019).

Chromosomal variations

1. Klinefelter Syndrome (47, XXY or XXY Syndrome):

Definition: A genetic condition that occurs in males who have an extra X chromosome, resulting
in the karyotype 47, XXY instead of the typical 46, XY.

 Genetic Condition: Males with an extra X chromosome.

 Symptoms: Low testosterone, reduced fertility, taller stature, learning challenges.
 Prevalence: 1 in 500–1,000 males.

2. Turner Syndrome (Monosomy X or X0):

Definition: A genetic condition that occurs in females who are missing part or all of the second
X chromosome, resulting in the karyotype 45,X or X0.
  Genetic Condition: Females with a missing or incomplete X chromosome.
 Symptoms: Short stature, delayed puberty, infertility, and potential heart/kidney issues.
 Prevalence: 1 in 2,500 females.

Hormonal Variations

1. Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS):

 Definition: Resistance to androgens in individuals with XY chromosomes.

 Physical Traits: Some or all female traits, despite male genetics.
 Symptoms: Female external genitals, infertility, or mixed physical traits.
 Cause: Mutation in the androgen receptor gene, preventing the body from using
androgens effectively.

2. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH):

 Definition: Enlarged adrenal glands due to a missing enzyme, impairing cortisol

production.
 Physical Traits: Ambiguous genitalia, early puberty, or excess androgens in severe cases.
 Symptoms: Difficulty coping with emotional and physical stress, potential salt-wasting
crises.
 Cause: Mutations in genes responsible for enzyme production needed by the adrenal
glands.

Gonadal variations

Ovotestes:

 Definition: Gonads with both ovarian and testicular tissue.

 Location: May replace one or both ovaries/testes.
 Impact: This can lead to ambiguous genitalia or mixed traits due to hormonal variations.

Terminology

Sex: A medical term designating a certain combination of gonads, chromosomes, primary sex
organs, secondary sex characteristics, and hormonal balances.

Gender: A complex system of roles, expressions, identities, performances, and more that are
given gendered meaning by society and usually assigned to people based on the appearance of
their sex characteristics at birth.

Sexuality: Refers to a person’s exploration of sexual behaviors, practices, and identities in the
social world.

Sexual Orientation – The desire for intimate emotional and/or sexual relationships with people of
the same gender, another gender, or multiple genders.
Gender Expression – How one presents oneself and one’s gender to the world via dress,
mannerisms, hairstyle, facial hair etc.

Gender Identity – A person’s sense of self as masculine, feminine, both, or neither regardless of
external genitalia.

Sexual Orientation – The desire for intimate emotional and/or sexual relationships with people of
the same gender, another gender, or multiple genders.

Gender Expression – How one presents oneself and one’s gender to the world via dress,
mannerisms, hairstyle, facial hair etc.

Cisgender Privilege – The set of privileges conferred to people who are believed to be Cisgender.
(Examples: having one’s personal pronouns correctly used, no harassment in public restrooms,
no denial of expected access to health care, etc.)

Cisnormativity – The assumption, in individuals or in institutions, that everyone is cissexual, and

that cisgender persons' identities are more normal, valid, and worthy of respect than transgender
people’s identities.

Cissexism – A pervasive and institutionalized system that “others” transgender people and treats
their needs and identities as less important than those of cisgender people.

Gender Binary – The idea that there are only two genders – man or woman – and that a person
must be strictly gendered as either/or.

Agender – A person without gender. An agender individual’s body does not necessarily
correspond with their lack of gender identity.

Gender Non-Conforming – A person who either by nature or by choice does not conform to
gender-based expectations of society (e.g. transgender, genderqueer, cross-dresser, etc.).

Androgyne – An androgyne is someone who embodies a blend or balance of traditionally

masculine and feminine traits. This can refer to their gender identity, gender expression, or both.

Bigender – A bigender person identifies as two genders, either simultaneously or shifting

between them. The two genders could be male and female, but they could also include nonbinary
identities (e.g., male and agender, female and demiboy).

Genderqueer – A genderfluid person experiences their gender as changing over time, fluctuating
between different identities, such as male, female, nonbinary, or others.

Intersex Person(s) – Individual(s) born with the condition of having physical sex markers
(genitals, hormones, gonads, or chromosomes) that are neither clearly male nor female. Intersex
people are sometimes defined as having “ambiguous” genitalia
Transgender – A person who lives as a member of a gender other than that expected based on sex
or gender assigned at birth. Sexual orientation varies and is not dependent on gender identity.

Trans Man – A person who was assigned female at birth but identifies as male.

Trans Woman – A person who was assigned male at birth but identifies as female.

Transphobia – The irrational hatred of those who are transgender or gender non-conforming,
sometimes expressed through violent and sometimes deadly means.

The Gendered Path

1. Biological Sex (Penis/Vagina):

 Definition: Refers to the physical characteristics (e.g., genitals, chromosomes, hormones)

a person is born with.
 Key Aspect: Typically classified as male (penis) or female (vagina), though intersex
variations exist.

2. Assigned Gender (Boy/Girl):

 Definition: The gender label (boy or girl) given at birth based on biological sex.
 Key Aspect: This assignment often assumes a fixed link between physical anatomy and
gender identity.

3. Gender Role (Masculine/Feminine):

 Definition: The societal expectations and behaviors associated with being masculine or
feminine.
 Key Aspect: Roles are culturally constructed and can vary significantly across societies.
For example:

a) Masculine: Assertiveness, strength.

b) Feminine: Nurturance, sensitivity.

4. Gender Identity (Internalization):

 Definition: A person’s internal sense of their own gender (e.g., male, female, both,
neither).
 Key Aspect: May or may not align with their biological sex or assigned gender.

Example: A person assigned female at birth (biological sex) may identify as male.

5. Gender Expression (Externalization):

  Definition: How a person externally displays their gender through clothing, hairstyle,
behavior, and other means.
 Key Aspect: This is influenced by individual choice, cultural norms, and societal
expectations.

A System Perspective in Gender Psychology

In gender psychology, the concept of a system can be applied to understand how individuals,
social structures, and cultural norms interact to shape gender identities, roles, and behaviors.

Using the three principles of a system, let’s examine how they relate to gender:

1. The Behavior of Each Element Affects the Whole

● Explanation: Every individual’s understanding and expression of gender contributes to and is

influenced by societal norms and expectations. For instance:

 A person who challenges traditional gender roles (e.g., a man taking on caregiving duties)
can influence societal attitudes toward masculinity and femininity.
 Conversely, societal norms can shape the way individuals behave or identify (e.g.,
encouraging boys to suppress emotions to fit into "masculine" norms).

2. Interdependence Among Elements

● Explanation: In the "gender system," the behavior and beliefs of individuals, families,
communities, and institutions (like schools or workplaces) are interdependent. For example:

 Families might encourage gender roles (e.g., expecting daughters to help with household
chores), which influences individual behavior and reinforces broader societal norms.
 Workplaces that challenge gender stereotypes (e.g., promoting women to leadership
roles) can shift cultural attitudes, which in turn impacts individual aspirations.

3. No Subgroup Has an Independent Effect

● Explanation: Subgroups within the gender system, such as family units, peer groups, or media
representations, do not act independently. Their influence on gender perceptions and roles is
interconnected with the larger system.

 A family teaching their children egalitarian gender roles might be affected by societal
expectations (e.g., workplace policies or media messages), showing that no subgroup
operates in isolation.

Intersectionality

Intersectionality promotes an understanding of human beings as shaped by

the interaction of social locations (e.g., ‘ race ’/ethnicity, Indigeneity, gender, class, sexuality,
geography, age, disability/ability, migration status, religion) + interactions occur within a context
of connected systems and structures of power (e.g., laws, policies, state governments and other
political and economic unions, religious institutions, media) = Through such processes,
interdependent forms of privilege and oppression are created

Inequities are never the result of single, distinct factors. Rather, they are the outcome of
intersections of different social locations, power relations and experiences.

Principles of Intersectionality

 Lived realities are dynamic and cannot be explained by single categories

 Social problems are understood when the interplay of these social locations is
investigated
 No fixed template to explain an intersection.
 They can vary across time & settings
 Privilege & oppression can be experienced simultaneously

Ways to Incorporate Intersectionality in Practice

 Be aware of the intersectional framework

 Critical reflection of one’s own power and privilege
 Exploring instead of problem solving

Social Perspective of Gender

Minority Stress Theory

Minority Stress Theory explains how individuals belonging to stigmatized or marginalized

groups experience heightened levels of stress due to their minority status. These stressors arise
from societal prejudice, discrimination, and systemic inequality and are layered on top of the
regular stressors everyone faces. This theory is often used to understand the mental health
challenges faced by groups such as racial minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, people with
disabilities, and others.

Key Components of Minority Stress Theory

1. General Life Stressors

 Everyone experiences general life stressors, such as financial difficulties, relationship

problems, or job challenges.
  However, people in minority groups face additional stress because of their marginalized
identities. This stress is unique to their minority status.

2. Minority Status and Added Stress

 Being part of a stigmatized group means facing:

a) Prejudice (e.g., racist, sexist, or homophobic attitudes).

b) Discrimination (e.g., being denied opportunities).
c) Social exclusion (e.g., being isolated or rejected by others).

 The label of being a minority can amplify these experiences and lead to internalized
feelings of shame, inferiority, or worthlessness.

3. Types of Stressors in Minority Stress Theory

A. Proximal Stressors (Internalized Stress): Proximal stressors are stressors that arise within the
individual, influenced by their experiences as a minority. They are more psychological and
subjective in nature.

● Examples:

 Fear of rejection: Expecting negative treatment because of your identity.

 Internalized stigma: Adopting negative societal views about your group, leading to self-
hate or low self-esteem.
 Concealment stress: Stress from hiding one's identity (e.g., a closeted LGBTQ+ person).

B. Distal Stressors (External Stress): Distal stressors are stressors that come from external
sources like society, institutions, or individuals. These stressors are more objective and
observable.

● Examples:

 Discrimination: Being denied housing, jobs, or rights due to your identity.

 Harassment: Experiencing verbal or physical abuse because of who you are.
 Microaggressions: Subtle, often unintentional insults or dismissals tied to your minority
status.

Conflict Theory

1. Competition and Inequality

  Explanation: Gender inequality arises because men and women (and non-binary
individuals) are in competition for resources like jobs, education, and opportunities.
Societal structures often prioritize men, reinforcing systemic inequalities.
 Example: The gender pay gap in workplaces globally and in India reflects how men are
paid more than women for the same roles and responsibilities. Women often have fewer
opportunities for promotion and leadership positions due to systemic biases.

2. Struggle and Conflict

 Explanation: Gender dynamics often lead to struggles, with marginalized genders

(women, transgender, and non-binary individuals) fighting for equal rights, recognition,
and opportunities against patriarchal norms.
 Example: The #MeToo movement in India highlighted the widespread prevalence of
sexual harassment and assault in workplaces and public spaces. Women came forward to
challenge patriarchal structures and demand accountability.

3. Unequal Distribution of Resources

 Explanation Resources such as education, healthcare, and political representation are

unequally distributed between genders, perpetuating systemic disadvantages for women
and gender minorities.
 Example: In rural India, families often prioritize boys over girls when it comes to
accessing education. As a result, girls are more likely to drop out of school, limiting their
future opportunities.

4. Power Dynamics

 Explanation: Power imbalances exist in gender relations, where men traditionally hold
more influence and control over societal structures like politics, law, and the family unit.
This power is often used to reinforce their dominant position.
 Example: Marital laws in India: For years, laws like Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code
(before the 2017 amendment) exempted marital rape from being considered a crime,
demonstrating how societal structures prioritized male authority over women's autonomy.

5. Exploitation and Oppression

 Explanation: Gendered exploitation occurs when dominant groups (e.g., men) use their
power to oppress others, often maintaining systemic inequalities. Women, transgender,
and non-binary individuals face exploitation in both private and public spheres.
 Example: Unpaid labor: Women in India disproportionately bear the burden of unpaid
domestic work and caregiving, which is often undervalued and taken for granted. This
contributes to economic inequality between genders.

6. Challenging the Status Quo

  Explanation: Conflict Theory emphasizes challenging societal norms that uphold gender
inequality, advocating for changes to achieve equity.
 Example: Feminist movements in India, such as those pushing for equal representation in
politics, challenge the male-dominated political landscape and advocate for gender-equal
policymaking.

7. Advocacy for Social Change

 Explanation: Gender-based movements aim to dismantle oppressive structures and create

a more just society by addressing systemic inequalities and power imbalances.
 Example: The fight for transgender rights in India, including the recognition of a third
gender and the demand for equitable healthcare, education, and employment
opportunities, reflects marginalized groups striving for equality and justice.

8. Intersectionality in Gender Conflict

 Explanation: Conflict Theory also considers how gender intersects with caste, class,
religion, and sexuality to exacerbate oppression.
 Example: Dalit women in India face intersectional discrimination, experiencing both
caste-based and gender-based violence. Their struggles highlight how systemic inequality
operates on multiple levels.

Power Theory

● Power Centre (Core)

 The innermost circle represents the "Power Centre", where the majority of power,
influence, and control resides.
 Those within this centre hold dominant positions in terms of authority, privilege, and
decision-making.
 Examples: Political leaders, dominant cultural groups, or individuals from privileged
socio-economic backgrounds.

● Periphery

 The periphery lies outside the Power Centre but still within the broader system.
 Individuals or groups here are partially included in the system but lack full access to
power and resources.
 They may experience limited participation, influence, or visibility compared to those in
the Power Centre.
 Examples: Minority voices, marginalized professionals within dominant workplaces.

● Outside – Margin

 Represented by the circle placed completely outside the core system.

  Groups or individuals in this space are excluded or relegated to the margins of society or
systems.
 They lack representation, recognition, and influence.
 Examples: Disenfranchised communities, stigmatized groups like LGBTQ+, refugees, or
the impoverished.

Key Concepts Highlighted

1. Centre vs. Margin: This binary reflects the imbalance of power where the "Centre" dominates,
and the "Margin" is excluded or overlooked.

2. Power Dynamics: The closer a group or individual is to the "Power Centre," the more power,
privilege, and access they hold. Moving further towards the periphery or outside the margin
reduces this power and inclusion.

3. Interconnectedness: Even those in the periphery or margins are connected to the centre.
Decisions made at the centre affect everyone, though unequally.

4. Exclusion and Inequality: The "Outside-Margin" highlights systemic inequality where certain
groups are excluded altogether.

Example

1. Cis-Het White Men (Power Centre): This group is at the center of power and privilege. Cis-
Het White Men (Cisgender Heterosexual White Men) hold dominant positions in societal
structures, such as politics, economics, and culture. They benefit most from systemic advantages
due to their race, gender, and sexual orientation.

2. White Women (Close to Power but Marginalized by Gender): White women are located closer
to the center, sharing some privileges based on race but experiencing marginalization due to
gender. This positioning reflects intersectionality—the overlapping effects of race and gender.

3. Cis-Het BIPOC (Periphery): Cis-Het BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and People of Color) are
positioned outside the power center. Despite being cisgender and heterosexual, they experience
marginalization primarily due to their race, which limits their access to systemic power.

4. All Other Identities (Outside-Margin): This group includes people marginalized by multiple
identities: LGBTQ+ individuals, people with disabilities, non-binary people, and BIPOC women.
They are the furthest from power and face compounded discrimination due to their multiple
intersecting identities.

Psychoanalytical Perspective

Detailed Explanation of Psychoanalytic Theory in Gender Identity Formation

1. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory:

Key Idea: Gender identity is shaped by unconscious processes and early childhood experiences,
particularly during the phallic stage (ages 3–6).

Oedipus Complex (Boys):

 Boys experience castration anxiety, fearing punishment for their sexual desire toward
their mother.
 This anxiety leads to the repression of these desires and the identification with their
father, ultimately forming their superego (moral conscience).

○ Electra Complex (Girls):

 Girls experience penis envy, feeling inferior because they lack a penis.
 They turn their affection toward their father and identify with their mother later.
However, Freud claimed the Electra complex is never fully resolved, leaving girls with a
sense of inferiority, jealousy, and an inclination toward maternal desires.

2. Newer Developments in Psychoanalytic Thought:

A. Karen Horney – Womb Envy:

 Criticized Freud’s concept of penis envy, suggesting that men may experience womb
envy—a deep envy of women’s ability to bear children.
 Horney argued that this envy could explain men’s efforts to dominate women and
achieve success in other areas to compensate.

B. Nancy Chodorow – The Reproduction of Mothering:

 Explored why women tend to take on the role of mothering.

 Chodorow argued that children’s early intense emotional connection with their mother
shapes their gender identity and their attitudes toward women:

a) Daughters: Develop a sense of self and identity tied to relationships, leading to a

strong desire for connection and nurturing roles (e.g., mothering).
b) Sons: Learn to differentiate themselves from their mothers, often devaluing
feminine traits to assert their masculinity.

 Chodorow also emphasized that women’s relational needs often go unmet in relationships
with men, which motivates them to have children to fulfil these needs.

Key Takeaway: Psychoanalytic theories emphasize the impact of early experiences, unconscious
processes, and parental relationships in shaping gender identity, with newer developments
challenging and expanding Freud’s original ideas.

Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning: People learn by watching others. This learning can occur through

 Live Model (Just Like Bobo Doll Exp) Learning through an Individual Behaviour
 Symbolic Model: Behaviour learnt through Media
 Verbal Intrustructional Model: Verbal Instructions by others

Reinforcement: plays a significant role in learning and behavior change. Individuals are more
likely to adopt modelled behaviours if they are reinforced (rewarded)(Intrinsic/Extrinsic) for
doing so

Modelling: Individuals learn behaviours by

 Observing others
 Imitating them
 Modelled (Learning in other words)
 Individuals replicate behaviours they have observed and learnt from others.

Factors Affecting: Social Learning

1. Attention: Relatable behaviour increases likelihood of us paying good attention

2. Retention: Rehearsal is one way of retaining information
3. Reproduction: Depends on how physically and mentally prepared the observer is
4. Motivation: Reinforcement and punishment become important aspects

Observational Learning:

 Children observe the behaviours, roles, and interactions of individuals around them,
including their parents, peers, and media figures.
 They internalize these observations and use them to shape their understanding of gender
roles.

Reinforcement:

 Children receive both direct and indirect reinforcement for conforming to gender norms.
 Direct reinforcement occurs when they receive praise or approval for behaving in ways
consistent with their gender roles.
 Indirect reinforcement can come in the form of media representations, where characters
who adhere to traditional gender roles are portrayed positively.

Modelling:

 Children often model the behaviours they observe in others, particularly those they
perceive as role models.
 If they consistently see certain gendered behaviours being rewarded or reinforced, they
are more likely to adopt them
Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation:

 Children pay attention to gendered behaviors and roles,

 Retain this information,
 Reproduce it in their own behavior, and are motivated to do so by the rewards and
punishments associated with conformity or non-conformity to gender norms.

Social Cognitive Theory

Self-Regulation: Actively monitoring and regulating one’s behavior based on

rewards/consequences of gendered actions.

• Vicarious Learning: Learning through observation of rewards/ punishments given to others.

• Internalization of Gender Roles: Using cognitive processes to incorporate observed gender

behaviors into the self-concept.

• Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to perform actions aligned with their gender identity,
shaping motivation and behavior.

Examples

[Link] Learning: The boy observes gendered behaviors and society's reactions.

[Link] Reinforcement: Praise or criticism given to others teaches him what behaviors are
appropriate for his gender.

[Link]-Regulation: He modifies his own actions to align with what he perceives as socially
acceptable.

[Link]: Gender roles and stereotypes become part of his self-concept.

[Link]-Efficacy: His confidence in certain tasks (aligned with gender norms) shapes his
motivation and actions.

Gender Schema Theory

Given By: Sandra Bem in 1981

How individuals develop and internalize gender roles and stereotypes.

Children actively construct mental frameworks, or schemas, about what it means to be male or
female in their society

These schemas influence how they perceive, interpret, and remember information about gender
and guide their behaviour accordingly.
Bem’s theory suggests that people fall into one of four gender categories:

1. Sex-typed individuals identify with the gender that corresponds to their physical sex.
These individuals process and integrate information according to their schema for their
gender.
2. Cross-sex typed individuals process and integrate information according to their schema
for the opposite sex.
3. Androgynous individuals process and integrate information based on their schema for
both genders.
4. Undifferentiated individuals have difficulty processing information based on any gender
schema.

Gender Schema:

 Mental frameworks individuals construct about what it means to be male or female.

 Consist of beliefs, attitudes, and expectations about gender roles and characteristics.
 Shaped by societal norms, media, and social interactions.

Categorization:

 Children categorize themselves and others into gender groups based on observable
characteristics.
 Once categories are established, children actively seek and process information consistent
with their gender schema.

Influence on Perception and Memory:

 Gender schemas filter incoming information, influencing how children perceive and
interpret gender-related information.
 Children notice and remember behaviors, traits, and activities that align with their gender
schema.

Behavioral Guidelines:

 Gender schemas serve as behavioral guidelines, shaping children's attitudes, interests, and
preferences.
 Children are more likely to engage in activities and adopt roles consistent with their
gender schema.

Impact on Gender Development:

 Gender schemas become integrated into individuals' self-concepts, influencing their

beliefs and behaviors across different contexts.