BIOLOGY

CHAP 16 - REPRODUCTION
CE16.1.1Describe asexual reproduction as a process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent (AO1)
CE16.1.2Identify examples of asexual reproduction in diagrams, images and information provided
(AO2)
E16.1.3Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction (AO3)
(a) to a population of a species in the wild (b) to crop production
CE16.2.1Describe sexual reproduction as a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes
to form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other (AO1)
CE16.2.2Describe fertilization as the fusion of the nuclei of gametes (AO1)
E16.2.3State that nuclei of gametes are haploid, and that the nucleus of a zygote is diploid (AO1)
E16.2.4Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction: (AO3)
(a) to a population of a species in the wild (b) to crop production
CE16.3.1Identify in diagrams and images and draw the following parts of an insect-pollinated flower:
sepals, petals, stamens, filaments, anthers, carpels, style, stigma, ovary, and ovules (AO2)
CE16.3.2State the functions of the structures listed in 16.3.1 (AO1)
CE16.3.3Identify in diagrams and images and describe the anthers and stigmas of a wind-pollinated
flower (AO2)
CE16.3.4Distinguish between the pollen grains of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers (AO3)
CE16.3.5Describe pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma (AO1)
E16.3.9Describe self-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the same plant (AO1)
E16.3.10Describe cross-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species (AO1)
E16.3.11Discuss the potential effects of self-pollination and cross-pollination on a population, in
terms of variation, capacity to respond to changes in the environment and reliance on pollinators
(AO3)
CE16.3.6State that fertilization occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule (AO1)
CE16.3.7Describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers (AO3)
CE16.3.8Investigate and describe the environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds,
limited to the requirement for: water, oxygen, and a suitable temperature (AO1 for describing needs;
AO3 if it includes designing, interpreting, or evaluating an experiment)
E16.3.12Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by fertilization
(details of production of endosperm and development are not required) (AO2)
CE16.4.1Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following parts of the male reproductive
system: testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra, and penis.) (AO2)
CE16.4.2Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following parts of the female
reproductive system: ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and vagina (AO2)
CE16.4.3Describe fertilization as the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female
gamete (egg cell) (AO1)
CE16.4.4Explain the adaptive features of sperm, limited to flagellum, mitochondria, and enzymes in
the acrosome (AO3)
CE16.4.5Explain the adaptive features of egg cells, limited to energy stores and the jelly coat that
changes at fertilization (AO1)
CE16.4.6Compare male and female gametes in terms of size, structure, motility, and numbers (AO3)
CE16.4.7State that in early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a ball of cells that
implants into the lining of the uterus (AO1)

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CE16.4.8Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following in the development of the
fetus: umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac, and amniotic fluid (AO2
E16.4.9Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to the exchange of
dissolved nutrients, gases, and excretory products between the blood of the mother and the blood of
the fetus (AO3)
E16.4.10State that some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta and affect the fetus (AO1)
CE16.5.1Describe the roles of testosterone and estrogen in the development and regulation of
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty (AO1)
CE16.5.2Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the ovaries and in the lining of the uterus
(AO1)
E16.5.3Describe the sites of production of estrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle and in
pregnancy (AO1)
E16.5.4Explain the role of hormones in controlling the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, limited to FSH,
LH, progesterone, and estrogen (AO3)
CE16.6.1Describe a sexually transmitted infection (STI) as an infection that is transmitted through
sexual contact (AO1)
CE16.6.2State that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a pathogen that causes an STI (AO1)
CE16.6.3State that HIV infection may lead to AIDS (AO1)
CE16.6.4Describe the methods of transmission of HIV (AO1)
CE16.6.5Explain how the spread of STIs is controlled (AO3)

REFERENCE VIDEO LINKS:

[Link] - reproduction in plants
[Link] - reproduction in plants
[Link] - Sexual reproduction in plants
[Link] - Fertilization & seed formation
[Link] - Fertilization
[Link] - human reproduction
[Link] - human reproduction
[Link] - hormones controlling menstrual cycle.

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Types of Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction does not involve sex cells or fertilization
• Only one parent is required so there is no fusion of gametes and no mixing of genetic information
• As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each other (clones)
• Asexual reproduction is defined as a process resulting in genetically identical offspring from one
parent
• Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction called binary
fission. Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission. Inside an individual bacterium, the DNA
replicates. Then the cell divides into two, with each daughter cell containing a copy of the parental
DNA. Once the daughter cells have grown, they can also reproduce.

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Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction called binary
fission

• Plants can reproduce asexually using bulbs and tubers; these are food storage organs from which
budding can occur, producing new plants which are genetically identical to the parent plant:

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Some plants develop underground food storage organs that will develop into next year’s plants –
they can take different forms, such as bulbs or tubers
• Some plants grow side shoots called runners that contain tiny plantlets on them (a good example
of this are strawberry plants. These will grow roots and develop into separate plants, again being
genetically identical to the parent plant:

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Some plants grow side shoots called runners that contain tiny plantlets on them. These will grow
roots and develop into separate plants

Advantages & Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

• Specifically in crop plants, asexual reproduction can be advantageous as it means that a plant that
has good characteristics (high yield, disease-resistant, hardy) can be made to reproduce asexually,
and the entire crop will show the same characteristics.

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Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to
form a zygote (fertilized egg cell) and the production of offspring that are genetically different
from each other
• Fertilization is defined as the fusion of gamete nuclei, and as each gamete comes from a different
parent, there is variation in the offspring.

Gametes & Zygotes

• A gamete is a sex cell (in animals: sperm and ovum; in plants pollen nucleus and ovum)
• Gametes differ from normal cells as they contain half the number of chromosomes found in other
body cells – we say they have a haploid nucleus
• This is because they only contain one copy of each chromosome, rather than the two copies found
in other body cells
• In human beings, a normal body cell contains 46 chromosomes, but each gamete contains 23
chromosomes
• When the male and female gametes fuse, they become a zygote (fertilized egg cell)
• This contains the full 46 chromosomes, half of which came from the father and half from the
mother – we say the zygote has a diploid nucleus.

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

• Most crop plants reproduce sexually, and this is an advantage as it means variation is increased
and a genetic variant may be produced which is better able to cope with weather changes, or
produces significantly higher yield.
• The disadvantage is that the variation may lead to offspring that are less successful than the
parent plant at growing well or producing a good harvest.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

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Flowers & Pollination

• Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant
• They usually contain both male and female reproductive parts
• Plants produce pollen which contains a nucleus inside that is the male gamete
• Unlike the male gamete in humans (sperm), pollen is not capable of locomotion (moving from
one place to another)
• This means plants must have mechanisms in place to transfer pollen from the anther to the
stigma
• This process is known as pollination and there are two main mechanisms by which it occurs:
transferred by insects (or other animals like birds) or transferred by wind
• The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are slightly different as each is adapted for
their specific function

Parts of the flower

General flower structure

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Adaptations for Pollination

Features of an insect-pollinated flower

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Features of a wind-pollinated flower

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The pollen produced by insect and wind-pollinated flowers is also different:

• Insect pollinated flowers produce smaller amounts of larger, heavier pollen grains that often
contain spikes or hooks on the outside so they are better able to stick to insects
• Wind pollinated flowers produce large amounts of small, lightweight pollen grains that are usually
smooth.

Self & Cross-Pollination

In the above diagram, A and B represent self-pollination. C represents cross pollination

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• Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of another
plant of the same species
• This is the way most plants carry out pollination as it improves genetic variation
• Occasionally, the pollen from a flower can land on its own stigma or on the stigma of another
flower on the same plant – this is known as self-pollination
• Self-pollination reduces genetic variety of the offspring as all the gametes come from the same
parent (and are therefore genetically identical)
• Lack of variation in the offspring is a disadvantage if environmental conditions change, as it is less
likely that any offspring will have adaptations that suit the new conditions well
• On the other hand, cross-pollination relies completely on the presence of pollinators and this can
be a problem if those pollinators are missing (e.g. the reduction in bee numbers is of great
importance to humans as bees pollinate a large number of food crops) – this doesn’t apply to
wind-pollinated plants

Fertilisation:
• Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with an ovum nucleus in the ovule
• As the pollen has no ‘tail’ to swim to the ovary of a plant, in order to reach the ‘female’ nucleus in
the ovary it has to grow a pollen tube
• This only happens if the pollen grain has landed on the right kind of stigma (i.e. of the same species
as the flower the pollen came from)
• The nucleus inside the pollen grain slips down the tube as it grows down the style towards the
ovary
• The ovary contains one or more ovules which each contain an ovum with a female nucleus that a
male pollen nucleus can fuse with
• Once the nuclei (pl) have joined together, that ovule has been fertilised and a zygote has been
formed
• The zygote will start to divide and eventually form a seed within the ovule
• As different plants have different numbers of ovules, this explains why different fruits (which
develop from the ovary) have different numbers of seeds (which develop from the ovules)

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Growth of a pollen tube Fertilization in a flowering plant

Germination
Factors Affecting Germination
• Germination is the start of growth in the seed
• Three factors are required for successful germination:
• Water – allows the seed to swell up and the enzymes in the embryo to start working so that
growth can occur
• Oxygen – so that energy can be released for germination
• Warmth – germination improves as temperature rises (up to a maximum) as the reactions which
take place are controlled by enzymes
• As carbon dioxide is not necessary for germination but also does not inhibit it, it makes no
difference whether it is present or not.

• Investigating Germination
• Set up 4 boiling tubes each containing 10 cress seeds on cotton wool
• Set each test tube as shown in diagram below
• Leave tubes in set environment for a period: A, B and C incubated at 20°C; D placed in a fridge at 4°C
• Compare results and see which tube has the greatest number of germinated seeds.

Conditions required for germination

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Conditions required for germination – results:

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Male reproductive system:

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Male reproductive structures and their function:

Female reproductive system:

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Female reproductive structures and their function:

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Gametes & Fertilization

• Fertilization is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm cell) and a female gamete (egg
cell)
• It occurs in the oviducts
• Gametes have adaptations to increase the chances of fertilization and successful development of an
embryo.

Comparing sperm and egg cells

Adaptations of Gametes

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Comparison of Male & Female Gametes

Growth & Development of the Fetus

• After fertilization in the oviduct, the zygote travels towards the uterus.
After fertilisation:
• The zygote travels down the oviduct dividing by mitosis to form a ball of
cells (embryo).
• When the embryo reaches the uterus, implantation occurs. This is when the embryo
attaches to the thick uterus lining to receive nourishment.
• The placenta, umbilical cord, amnion and amniotic fluid form.
• The embryo differentiates to produce a variety of tissues and organs.
• The embryo is referred to as a foetus when it begins to look more like a baby.
• This takes about 3 days, during which time the zygote will divide several times to form a ball of cells
known as an embryo
• In the uterus, the embryo embeds itself in the thick lining (implantation) and continues to grow and
develop
• The gestation period (time the foetus develops inside the mother’s body) for humans is 9 months
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• Major development of organs takes place within the first 12 weeks, during which time the embryo
gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion through the uterus lining
• After this point the organs are all in place, the placenta has formed, and the embryo is now called a
foetus
• The remaining gestation time (time the foetus develops inside the mother’s body) is used by the
foetus to grow bigger in size.

The foetus in the uterus

• The foetus is surrounded by an amniotic sac which contains amniotic fluid (made from the mother’s
blood plasma)
• This protects the foetus during development by cushioning it from bumps to the mother’s abdomen
• The umbilical cord joins the foetus’s blood supply to the placenta for exchange of nutrients and
removal of waste products.
• The umbilical cord attaches the placenta to the foetus. It contains the umbilical artery and the
umbilical vein.
• The umbilical artery carries urea and carbon dioxide from the foetus to the mother’s blood.
• The umbilical vein carries oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood to the foetus.
• Maternal blood and foetal blood systems are close together but not joined. They are
separated by thin membranes that allow diffusion to occur.

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The Placenta & Umbilical cord

• During the gestation period the foetus develops and grows by gaining the glucose, amino acids, fats,
water, and oxygen it needs from the mother’s blood
• The bloods run opposite each other, never mixing, in the placenta
• The foetus’s blood connects to and from the placenta by the umbilical cord
• The mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the foetus’s blood in the placenta; substances like
carbon dioxide and urea are removed from the foetus’s blood so that they do not build up to
dangerous levels
• Movement of all molecules across the placenta occurs by diffusion due to difference in
concentration gradients
• The placenta is adapted for this diffusion by having a large surface area and a thin wall for efficient
diffusion
• The placenta acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens getting into the foetus’s blood
• Not all toxin molecules or pathogenic organisms (such as viruses, e.g., rubella) are stopped from
passing through the placenta (this usually depends on the size of the molecule)
• This is why pregnant women are advised not to smoke during pregnancy as molecules like nicotine
can pass across the placenta
• After the baby has been born, the umbilical cord is cut – this does not hurt as there are no nerves in
it, just two blood vessels
• It is tied off to prevent bleeding and shrivels up and falls off after a few days leaving the belly button
behind
• The placenta detaches from the uterus wall shortly after birth and is pushed out due to contractions
in the muscular wall of the uterus – known as the afterbirth.
• The amnion is a membrane that forms around the embryo.

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• Amniotic fluid surrounds the embryo inside the amnion, cushioning and protecting the
developing embryo.

The placenta

Before birth, the baby obtains all dietary requirements from the mother via the placenta. It is
therefore very important that the mother’s diet is well balanced with:

• Amino acids/proteins for growth

• Calcium for bone development
• Iron for RBC formation

Sex hormones
• The testes produce testosterone.
• The ovaries produce oestrogen.
• These hormones cause secondary sexual characteristics to develop at puberty.

Male Female Both

Testes enlarge. Sexual organs enlarge and breasts develop. Body and pubic hair grows.
Body becomes Sexual awareness and
more muscular. Pelvis and hips widen. sex drive increase.
Voice deepens. Menstruation begins.

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Menstrual cycle:
• Starts in early adolescence in girls (around age 12) and is controlled by hormones
• The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long
• Ovulation (the release of an egg) occurs about halfway through the cycle (day 14) and the egg then
travels down the oviduct to the uterus
• Failure to fertilize the egg causes menstruation (commonly called a period) to occur – this is caused
by the breakdown of the thickened lining of the uterus
• Menstruation lasts around 5 – 7 days and signals the beginning of the next cycle
• After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken again in preparation for
possible implantation in the next cycle.

• The menstrual cycle occurs from puberty until the end of reproductive life.
• The purpose of the cycle is to prepare the female reproductive system for pregnancy.
• It is controlled by the hormones oestrogen and progesterone.

A 28-day cycle:

Days 1-5
• Menstruation occurs – the uterus lining breaks down and is released through
the vagina.
• Oestrogen levels are low.
• Progesterone levels are low.
Days 6-13
• The uterus lining begins to renew itself in preparation for the release of an egg.
• Oestrogen increases causing the initial repair of the uterus lining and its buildup.
Day 14
• The egg is released and this is called ovulation. It happens after oestrogen levels
peak.
Days 15-28
• Progesterone levels peak after ovulation.
• Progesterone ensures the thickness of the uterus lining is maintained or the placenta
and other pregnancy structures form if fertilisation has occurred.
• If pregnancy has not occurred the egg passes out of the vagina and the levels of both
hormones drop, causing the cycle to begin again.

DAYS: 1 - 5

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DAYS: 6 - 12

DAY: 11 - 12

DAYS: 13 – 15

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DAYS: 11 – 17

DAYS: 18 – 28

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Changes in the lining of the uterus during the menstrual cycle

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle

[Link] [video Link]

• The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones released from the ovary and the pituitary gland in
the brain
• Estrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14
• This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature
• The peak in estrogen occurs just before the egg is released
• Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has occurred
• The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in progesterone levels causes
the uterine lining to break down (menstruation / ‘period’)

1. Eestrogen – Builds the uterus lining

2. Progesterone – Maintains the uterus lining
3. FSH – Causes a single follicle in the ovary to mature (a mature follicle contains the egg, along
with other surrounding cells)
4. LH – Secreted from pituitary glands which stimulate ovulation

The roles of FSH and LH

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Changes in the levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in the blood during the menstrual cycle

• FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) is released by the pituitary gland and causes an egg to start
maturing in the ovary
• It also stimulates the ovaries to start releasing estrogen
• The pituitary gland is stimulated to release luteinizing hormone (LH) when estrogen levels have
reached their peak
• LH causes ovulation to occur and stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone

The roles of estrogen and progesterone

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Changes in the levels of estrogen and progesterone in the blood during the menstrual cycle

• Estrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14

• This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature
• The peak in estrogen occurs just before the egg is released
• Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has occurred
• The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in progesterone levels causes
the uterine lining to break down (menstruation / ‘period’)

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Interaction between all four of the menstrual cycle hormones

• The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulates the development of a follicle in the ovary
• An egg develops inside the follicle and the follicle produces the hormone estrogen
• Estrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall and inhibits production of FSH
• When estrogen rises to a high enough level it stimulates the release of LH from the pituitary gland
which causes ovulation (usually around day 14 of the cycle)
• The follicle becomes the corpus luteum and starts producing progesterone
• Progesterone maintains the uterus lining (the thickness of the uterus wall)
• If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone levels drop
• This causes menstruation, where the uterus lining breaks down and is removed through the vagina
– commonly known as having a period
• If pregnancy does occur the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone, preventing the
uterus lining from breaking down and aborting the pregnancy
• It does this until the placenta has developed, at which point it starts secreting progesterone and
continues to do so throughout the pregnancy.

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Diagram showing where hormones involved in the menstrual cycle are made and act.

Treatments for infertility

Fertility drugs
Hormones are given to the female to increase the production of eggs.
This may solve the problem but only if low egg production was the issue.

IVF – in vitro fertilisation

Process
1. Female is given fertility drugs to increase egg production.
2. Eggs are surgically collected from the ovaries.
3. Sperm is collected.
4. Sperm and egg cells are mixed in the lab.
5. Female is given hormones to ensure the uterus lining is thick.
6. Embryos are placed into the uterus.
7. If successful an embryo/embryos will implant into the uterus lining – the female is
pregnant.

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Usually only one or two embryos are placed into the uterus to give a balance between ensuring
success and avoiding multiple births.
Before placing the embryos into the uterus, it is possible to genetically screen them for abnormalities
or check their gender.

STIs & HIV/AIDS

• Unprotected sexual intercourse can lead to the transfer of pathogens via exchange of body fluids
• Infections passed on in this way are known as sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
• An example of an STI is HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), the virus that usually leads to the
development of acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS)
• HIV can also be spread via sharing needles with an infected person, blood transfusions with
infected blood and from mother to fetus through the placenta and mother to baby via breastfeeding.
• unprotected sexual intercourse with infected person.
• drug use involving sharing needle used by infected person.
• transfusion of infected blood
• infected mother to fetus
• feeding a baby with milk from an infected mother
• unsterilized surgical instruments

Controlling the Spread of STIs

• The spread of STIs such as HIV are best controlled by:
• Limiting the number of sexual partners an individual has
• Not having unprotected sex, but making sure to always use a condom
• Getting tested if unprotected sex or sex with multiple partners has occurred
• Raising awareness by education programs
• screen blood (for transfusion)
• use sterilized needles.
• feed baby with bottled powdered milk (if mom has HIV)
• use serialized surgical instruments.

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SUMMARY
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent.
• Bacteria:
o Reproduced by binary fission, each bacterium divides into two.
o The generation time is the time taken for a cell to divide into 2

Advantages Disadvantages

Fast: no need to find a mate, fertilise, etc. No variation/biodiversity

Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred

Do not need to carry offspring Overcrowding- fighting for food

Prone to extinction

You must be able to identify examples of asexual reproduction in diagrams, images and
information provided

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells)
to form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each
other
• Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei
• The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a zygote is diploid
• Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes
• Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes

Advantages Disadvantages

Produces genetically
It takes lots of time and energy
different offspring

Reduced risk of extinction Mate required

Energy on improving appearances or pollen volume

for pollination (plants)

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Insect Pollinated Flowers
• Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant

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Wind Pollinated Flowers

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Functions
• Sepal: protect the flower bud.
• Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have nectarines, which are all used
to attract insects petals in wind-pollinated flowers are tiny and used for pushing
the bracts (leaf-like structures) apart from exposing stamens and stigma.
• Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains that contain the male nucleus (male
gamete).
• Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land
• Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls.

You must be able to identify in diagrams and images and draw the following parts of an
insect-pollinated flower: sepals, petals, stamens, filaments, anthers, carpels, style, stigma,
ovary and ovules, together with its function.
Pollination

Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant (anther of stamen) to
the female part of the plant (stigma).
• Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and wind
• Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated

Bright, colourful petals – attract Dull petals

Sweetly scented No scent

Contains nectar No nectaries

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Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated

A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen

Pollen is spiky/sticky Pollen round and smooth

Anther & stigma inside the flower Anther and Stigma hang out

Sticky stigma Feathery stigma

• Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on the stigma and creates a tunnel down the style,
through the micropyle, to the ovules.
• Ovule - seed
• Ovary – fruit

Self-Pollination
Self-Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
the same flower or a different flower on the same plant.

Advantages Disadvantages

Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation

High chance of successful pollination Increases competition between plants

Fast and saves time Susceptible to the same disease

Cross-Pollination
Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
a flower on a different plant of the same species.

Advantages Disadvantages

Increases variation Reliance on pollinators

Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen

Less susceptible to diseases More energy required

Germination

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Germination: A process controlled by enzymes

• Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores into soluble substances,
and makes tissues swell so that the testa splits
• Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with water), and is used in
aerobic respiration.
• Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at optimum temperature).

Sexual Reproduction In Humans

Male Reproductive System
• Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and the cells between tubes
produce testosterone.
• Scrotum: holds testicles
• Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
• Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
• Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of the penis
• Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the female.

Female Reproductive System

• Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and produces progesterone and
oestrogen
• Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
• Uterus (womb): where the foetus develops.
• Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle, moist by mucus with a small
opening
• Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way out for baby at birth. Moist
tube of muscle, flexible and secretes mucus

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Fertilisation and Early Development

Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete
(egg cell).
• Development of a Zygote:
o One sperm penetrates
o The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against sperm
o The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches and then fuses with the
nucleus of the ovum.
o The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of cells called an embryo.
o It implants itself in the nucleus's (implantation) wall, followed by
conception.

• Development of foetus: The zygote is changed through growth (mitosis) and

development (organisation of cells into tissues and organs)
• Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which carries deoxygenated blood
and waste products from the foetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which
carries oxygenated blood and soluble food from the placenta to the foetus.
(Contains foetus’ blood)
• Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as foods, wastes and
oxygen between mother and foetus; physical attachment between uterus and
foetus. (Contains mother’s blood)

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• Amniotic Sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid, broken at birth.

• Amniotic Fluid: protects the foetus against mechanical shock, drying out and
temperature fluctuations
• Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta and affect the foetus.

Adaptive Features of Gametes

Sperm (Male Gamete)
1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes

Features Functions

Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim

Mitochondria Respiration to release energy for swimming

Enzymes in the acrosome Release digestive enzymes to digest the jelly coat

Egg Cell (Female Gamete)

1. Larger in size
2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm
3. Moved with the help of Cilia
4. Released once per month containing 23
chromosomes

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Features Functions

Energy storage Development of zygote

Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation

Sex Hormones in Humans

The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development and regulation of secondary
sexual characteristics during puberty
• Primary sexual characteristics: present during development in the uterus and are
the differences in reproductive organs etc., between males and females
• Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes that occur during puberty as
children become adolescents
• At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the primary sex organs; the
testes in males and the ovaries in females.
• They only affect the target organs, which have receptors which can recognize
them.
• Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the growth of pubic hair and
maturation of sexual organs.

Menstrual Cycle
Day 1 to 5:
• In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to stimulate the maturation of
ONE follicle in the ovary.
• In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down; menstruation
• Day 5 to 12:
o In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
o In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the ovarian tissues to
prepare the endometrium
• Day 13/14/15:
o In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary Gland to trigger the release
of the egg from the follicle into the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens
on Day 14.
• Day 15 to 28:
o In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus Luteum
o In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus Luteum to
keep endometrium thick, waiting for possible embryo implants.
• Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
o No implantation takes place, and the Corpus Luteum degenerates, causing a
lack of progesterone.
o This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back to Day 1
• Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised
o Implantation occurs.
o This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum maintained, which
means that progesterone is high.
o This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy

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Hormones in Menstrual Cycle

• Oestrogen: secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from being produced - so that only one egg matures in a
cycle, and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the hormone LH.
• Progesterone: secreted by the placenta during pregnancy. It maintains the lining of the uterus during the
middle part of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): secreted by the pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary
and stimulates ovaries to release oestrogen hormone.
• Luteinizing hormone (LH): secreted by the pituitary gland and causes mature eggs to be released from the
ovary.

Sexually Transmitted Infections

Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a sexually transmitted infection.
• Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person
• How it affects the immune system:
o Infects and destroys lymphocytes
o Decreases the efficiency of the immune system
o The body becomes liable to infection by other pathogens
o This may lead to AIDS and death from infection

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While Cambridge does not publish fixed mark allocations per chapter, past paper trends
and exam structure give us a reasonable estimate.

🌱 Reproduction Chapter – Estimated Mark Breakdown

Estimated Approx. Marks (out of 120 Paper
Subtopic
% 2/4 & Paper 6)
🔹 Asexual & Sexual Reproduction 5–8% 6–10 marks
🔹 Flower Reproduction (Pollination,
6–10% 7–12 marks
Fertilization, Germination)
🔹 Human Reproduction (structure,
10–14% 12–17 marks
fertilization, pregnancy)
🔹 Menstrual Cycle & Hormones (FSH, LH,
4–7% 5–8 marks
etc.)
🔹 STIs & HIV/AIDS 2–4% 2–5 marks
🔹 Practical-related (e.g., seed
2–5% 2–6 marks (mostly in Paper 6)
germination)

🧮 Estimated Total: 34–58 marks out of 120 ➡️ So, Reproduction contributes roughly 1/4
to nearly 1/2 of the marks depending on the exam paper.

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