Chapter 4

Permeability

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Introduction ☞ Coefficient of absolute permeability (ko)

☞ Hydraulic head (h) ☞ General expression for coefficient of
☞ Darcy’s law permeability of soil
☞ Seepage velocity (vs) ☞ Factors affecting permeability of soils
☞ Determination of coefficient of permeability

IntroDuction Darcy’s Law

This chapter outlines the concept of permeability of soil. • Water flowing through soil is governed by Darcy’s law.
The various methods used for determination of permeability • For laminar flow in a homogeneous soil, the velocity of
of soil are also discussed. Several factors affecting perme- flow (v) is given by:
ability and, also a general expression for permeability of
soils is explained. The expressions for permeability of soil V = k ⋅i
in stratified soil deposits are also discussed.
• Important engineering property of soils. Where
• The property of soil which permits flow of water (or any k = Coefficient of permeability
other liquid) through it, is known as permeability. i = Hydraulic gradient
v = Velocity of flow. It is also known as discharge
HyDraulic HeaD (h) velocity or superficial velocity.
• The discharge q is obtained by multiplying velocity of
• Total head at any point in a flowing fluid is equal to the flow (V) by the total cross-sectional area of soil (A) nor-
elevation (or datum) head, the pressure head and the mal to the direction of flow.
velocity head.
• Velocity head is neglected in case of water flowing q = V ⋅ A = k ⋅i ⋅ A
through soils.
• The loss of head per unit length of flow through the soil is
equal to the hydraulic gradient (i). NOTE
If the hydraulic gradient is unity, the coefficient of perme-
h
i= ability is equal to velocity of flow.
L
Where • Units: mm/s, cm/s, m/day
h = Hydraulic head The typical values of coefficient of permeability of differ-
L = Length of soil specimen ent soils are given as follows:

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Coefficient of Where
Permeability Drainage D = Effective grain size = D10
Soil Type (mm/s) Properties γ w = Unit weight of percolating fluid
Clean gravel 10+1 to 10+2 Very good m = Viscosity of percolating fluid
Coarse and medium sands 10−2 to 10+1 Good e = Void ratio
Fine sands, loose silt 10−4 to 10−2 Fair
 C = Shape constant depends upon type of soil, shape of
soil particle and packing.
Dense silt, clayey silt 10−5 to 10−4 Poor
10−8 to 10−5
Silty clay, clay Very poor
Factors Affecting Permeability
Validity of Darcy’s law: of Soils
•• Darcy’s law is valid if the flow through soils is laminar. 1. Particle size: k is proportional to the square of
•• Flow will be laminar only if Reynolds number is less than particle size (D).
unity.
k ∝ D10
2
•• For flow through soils, the characteristic length in the
Reynolds number is taken as average particle diameter. 2. Shape of particles: For the same void ratio, the soils
•• Darcy’s law is valid for flow in clays, silts and fine sands. with the angular particles are less permeable than
those with rounded particles, as the permeability is
Seepage Velocity (vs) inversely proportional to the specific surface.
e3
3. Void ratio: k varies as . But, the soils with the
V 1+ e
Vs =
n largest void ratio are the least pervious. This is due to
the fact that the individual void passages in clays are
Where extremely small through which water cannot flow.
n = Porosity
V = Discharge velocity 4. Properties of water
ki γw
Vs = k∝
n µ
Vs = k P i •• Due to temperature variation, there is a large varia-
k tion in the value of coefficient of viscosity (m).
k P : Coefficient of percolation = •• The coefficient of permeability increases with
n
an increase in temperature due to reduction in
kP is always greater than k. viscosity.
•• As per IS:2720; the coefficient of permeability is to
Coefficient of Absolute be reported at 27°C.
•• If k is measured at other temperature, the following
Permeability (ko) equation to be used:
It is independent of properties of water. It depends only on
µt
the characteristics of soil. k27 = kt
µ27
µ Where
ko = k
γw k27 = Coefficient of permeability at 27°C
 
when viscosity is m27.
Units: mm2, cm2, m2 or darcy. kt = Coefficient of permeability at t°C when
 
viscosity is mt.
1 darcy = 0.987 × 10 −8 cm 2 5. Degree of saturation: The permeability of a partially
saturated soil is considerably smaller than that of
General Expression for a fully saturated soil due to pressure of air, which
causes blockage of passage.
Coefficient of Permeability of Soil 6. Adsorbed water: It reduces the permeability of soil as
it causes an obstruction to flow of water in the pores.
γ   e3 
k = CD 2  w   7. Impurities in water: It reduces the permeability of
 µ 1+ e  soil.

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Determination of Coefficient Solution

Given:
of Permeability Sample length, L = 120 mm, Diameter, D = 80 mm,
‘k’ can be determined by the following methods.
π
1. Laboratory methods: A = (80) 2 = 5026.54 mm2, h1 = 1200 mm,
4
(a) Constant head permeability test h2 = 400 mm; t = 6 minutes = 6 × 60 second = 360 second.
(b) Variable head permeability test π
a = Area of stand pipe = ( 4) 2 = 12.566 mm2
⋅

2. Field methods: 4
aL h 
(a) Pumping out tests K= log e  1 
At  h2 
(b) Pumping in tests
12.566 × 120 1200 
3. Indirect methods = log e 
5026.54 × 360  400 
4. Capillary-permeability test.
k = 9.16 × 10−4 mm/s
Constant Head Permeability Test Hence, the answer is 9.16 × 10−4 mm/s.
•• Test is conducted in an instrument known as constant Pumping Out Tests
head permeameter.
•• This test is suitable for cleaning sand and gravel with •• These are the most accurate tests.
k > 10−2 mm/s. •• This test is conducted to measure permeability of soils for
•• In this test, k is calculated by using the formula, large engineering projects.
•• In a pumping out test, soil deposit over a large area is
q=k.i.A influenced and represents an overall coefficient of perme-
ability of a large mass of soil.
q qL
=
k = •• Pumping out tests are expensive.
iA Ah •• For unconfined aquifer, the coefficient of permeability ‘k’
is given by:
•• The discharge ‘q’ is equal to the volume of water col-
lected divided by time. q r2
k= loge
π( Z 22 − Z12 ) r1
Variable-head Permeability Test
Where
•• This test is suitable for very fine sand and silt with k =
 Z1 = Height of water level in observation well (1) at a
10−2 to 10−5 mm/s.
radial distance of r1.
•• The instruments used are known as permeameters.
 Z2 = Height of water level in observation well (2) at a
•• In this test, k is calculated by using the formula,
radial distance of r2.
aL h •• For confined aquifer, the coefficient of permeability is
k= loge 1
At h2 given by:
q r
Where k= loge 2
a = Area of stand pipe 2π b( Z 2 − Z1 ) r1
A = Cross-sectional area of soil specimen b = Thickness of confined aquifer.
L = Length of soil specimen
t = Time interval in which head drops from h1 to h2. Pumping-in Tests
•• This test is conducted to determine the coefficient of per-
meability of an individual stratum.
SOLVED EXAMPLE •• There are two types of pumping-in tests:
(a) Open-end test
Example 1 (b) Packer test.
In a falling head permeameter test on a silty clay sample,
i= i1= i2
the following results were obtained; sample length 120 mm;
sample diameter 80 mm; initial head 1200 mm, final head •• In an open-end test, water flows out of the test hole
400 mm; time for fall in head 6 minutes, stand pipe diam- through its bottom ends, whereas in packer test, water
eter 4 mm. Find the coefficient of permeability of soil in flows out through sides.
mm/s. [GATE, 1998] •• Packer test are commonly used for testing of rocks.

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Indirect Methods Overall coefficient of permeability,

1. Allen Hazen’s formula: ( kh )1 × H1 + ( kh ) 2 × H 2 + .....
kh =
k = CD10
2 H1 + H 2 + ....

k = Coefficient of permeability (cm/s) (b) Flow normal to the plane of stratification:

D10 = Effective size (cm) •• Discharge per unit width is the same for each layer.
C = A constant with a value between 100–150. •• Total loss of head (h) or hydraulic gradient (i)
over the entire deposit is equal to the sum of loss
2 Consolidation test data: This method is suitable
of heads or the sum of hydraulic gradients in the
for very fine-grained soils (e.g., clays) with k < 10−5
individual layer.
mm/s.
Capillary–permeability Test q=
1 q=
2 q
h= h=
1 h2
•• This is suitable for unsaturated or partially saturated soils.
Permeability of Stratified Soil Deposits
•• Stratified soil: Soil consisting number of layers having q h1
different permeabilities.
h
(a) Flow parallel to plane of stratification: h2
H1 Layer (1) q
•• For flow parallel to plane of stratification, loss of
head (h) over a length (L) is same for all layers.
•• Hydraulic gradient is same for all layers. H2 Layer (2) q
•• Total discharge (q) per unit width is equal to the
sum of discharges in the individual layers. L

q = q1 + q2
Overall coefficient of permeability,
h H1 + H 2 + 
Kv =
H1 H2
H1 + +
q1, Layer (1) ( KV )1 ( KV ) 2

H2 q2, Layer (2)

Exercises

1. A soil mass has coefficient of horizontal and verti- The pressure heads at two locations are shown in the
cal permeability as 9 × 10−7 cm/s and 4 × 10−7 cm/s, figure. The internal diameter of the pipe is 1 m and the
respectively. The transformed coefficient of permeabil- coefficient of permeability of the soil is 1 × 10−5 m/s.
ity of an equivalent isotropic soil mass is 10 m
(A) 9 × 10−7 cm/s. (B) 4 × 10−7 cm/s.
(C) 13 × 10−7 cm/s. (D) 6 × 10−7 cm/s. 2m
2. According to Darcy’s law for flow through porous 1.5 m
media, the velocity is proportional to
(not to scale)
(A) effective stress. Soil

(B) hydraulic gradient.
4. In a falling head permeability test the initial head of
(C) cohesion.
1.0 m dropped to 0.35 m in 3 hours, the diameter of
(D) stability number. the stand pipe being 5 mm. The soil specimen was 200
3. Estimate the flow quantity (in liters per second) through mm long and of 100 mm diameter. The coefficient of
the soil in the pipe is shown in the following figure. permeability of the soil is

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(A) 4.86 × 10−5 cm/s (A) 2 × 10−4 cm/s

(B) 4.86 × 10−6 cm/s (B) 3 × 10−4 cm/s
(C) 4.86 × 10−7 cm/s (C) 4 × 10−4 cm/s
(D) 4.86 × 10−8 cm/s (D) 5 × 10−4 cm/s
5. In a constant head permeameter with cross-sectional 11. In a falling head permeability test the initial head of 1.2
area of 10 cm2, when the flow was taking place under a m dropped to 0.4 m in 4 hours, the diameter of the stand
hydraulic gradient of 0.5, the amount of water collected pipe being 5 mm. The soil specimen was 300 mm long
in 60 seconds is 600 cc. The permeability of the soil is and of 150 mm diameter. The coefficient of permeabil-
(A) 0.002 cm/s (B) 0.02 cm/s ity of the soil is _______.
(C) 0.2 cm/s (D) 2.0 cm/s (A) 2.54 × 10−5 cm/s
(B) 2.54 × 10−6 cm/s
6. A soil has a discharge velocity of 6 × 10−7 m/s and a
(C) 2.54 × 10−4 cm/s
void ratio of 0.5. Its seepage velocity is
(D) 2.54 × 10−7 cm/s
(A) 18 × 10−7 m/s (B) 12 × 10−7 m/s
−7
(C) 6 × 10 m/s (D) 3 × 10−7 m/s 12. In a constant head permeameter with cross-sectional
area of 10 cm2, when the flow was taking place under a
7. If during a permeability test on a soil sample with a hydraulic gradient of 0.6 the amount of water collected
falling head permeameter, equal time intervals are in 60 seconds is 720 cc. The permeability of the soil is
noted for drop of head from ‘h1’ to ‘h2’ and again from _______.
‘h2’ to ‘h1’, then which one of the following relations (A) 0.2 cm/s
would hold good? (B) 0.02 cm/s
(A) h32 = h1h2 (C) 0.002 cm/s
(B) h12 = h2h3 (D) 2 cm/s
(C) h22 = h1h3 13. The coefficient of permeability increases when,
(D) (h1 – h2) = (h2 – h3) (A) viscosity of fluid increases.
(B) viscosity of fluid decreases.
8. Consider the following statements: (C) temperature condition decreases.
I. Constant head permeameter is best suited for (D) None of these
determination of coefficient of permeability of
14. In a constant head permeameter with cross-sectional
highly impermeable soils.
area of 10 cm2, when the flow was taking place under a
II. Coefficient of permeability of a soil mass decreases
hydraulic gradient of 0.7, the amount of water collected
with increase in viscosity of the pore fluid.
in 60 seconds is 480 cc. The permeability of the soil is
III. Coefficient of permeability of soil mass increases
_______.
with increase in temperature of the pore fluid.
(A) 2.4 cm/s
Which of these statements are correct? (B) 1.2 cm/s
(A) I and II (B) I and III (C) 0.6 cm/s
(C) II and III (D) I, II and III (D) 0.88 cm/s
9. Consider the following statements: 15. In a Darcian flow, flow velocity is _______.
I. Coarse sand is more than a million times permeable (A) actual velocity
than a high plasticity clay. (B) seepage velocity
II. The permeability depends on the nature of soil and (C) discharge velocity
not on properties of liquid flowing through soil. (D) boundary velocity
III. If a sample of sand and a sample of clay have the
16. Two soil specimens with identical geometric dimen-
same void ratio, both samples will exhibit the same
sions were subjected to falling head permeability tests
permeability.
in the laboratory under identical conditions. The fall
IV. Permeability of soil decreases as the effective stress
of water head was measured after an identical time
acting on the soil increases.
interval. The ratio of initial to final water heads for the
Which of these statements are correct? test involving the first specimen was 1.25. If the coeffi-
(A) I and II (B) I and III cient of permeability of the second specimen is 5 times
(C) I and IV (D) II and III that of the first, the ratio of initial to final water heads
10. A stratum of soil consists of three layers of equal in the test involving the second specimen is _______.
thickness. The permeability of both the top and the bot- (A) 3.05
tom layers is 10−4 cm/s; and that of the middle layer is (B) 3.80
10−3 cm/s; then the value of the horizontal coefficient of (C) 4.00
permeability for the entire composite of the soil layers is (D) 6.25

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PreVious Years’ Questions

Direction for questions 1 and 2: test involving the first specimen was 1.25. If the coef-
Water is flowing through the permeability apparatus as ficient of permeability of the second specimen is 5
shown in the figure. The coefficient of permeability of the times that of the first, the ratio of initial to final water
soil is k m/s and the porosity of the soil sample is 0.50. heads in the test involving the second specimen is
[GATE, 2007] [GATE, 2012]
(A) 3.05
(B) 3.80
0.4 m (C) 4.00
(D) 6.25
0.8 m 5. Water is flowing at a steady rate through a homoge-
Soil
nous and saturated horizontal soil strip of 10 m length.
The strip is being subjected to a constant water head
0.4 m (H) of 5 m at the beginning and 1 m at the end. If the
d2H
governing equation of flow in the soil strip is =0
dX 2
(where X is the distance along the soil strip), the value
of H(in m) at the middle of the strip is _______.
[GATE, 2014]
1. The total head, elevation head and pressure head in
6. Which of the following statements is TRUE for the
meters of water at the point R shown in the figure are
relation between discharge velocity and seepage
(A) 0.8, 0.4, 0.4
velocity? [GATE, 2015]
(B) 1.2, 0.4, 0.8
(A) Seepage velocity is always smaller than dis-
(C) 0.4, 0, 0.4
charge velocity.
(D) 1.6, 0.4, 1.2
(B) Seepage velocity can never be smaller than dis-
2. What are the discharge velocity and seepage velocity charge velocity.
through soil sample? (C) Seepage velocity is equal to the discharge
(A) k, 2k velocity.
2 4 (D) No relation between seepage velocity and dis-
(B) k , k
3 3 charge velocity can be established.
(C) 2k, k 7. In an unconsolidated undrained tri-axial test, it is
4 2 observed that an increase in cell pressure from 150
(D) k , k
3 3 kPa to 250 kPa leads to a pore pressure increase of 80
3. An open ended steel barrel of 1 m height and 1 m kPa. It is further observed that, an increase of 50 kPa
diameter is filled with saturated fine sand, having in deviatoric stress results in an increase of 25 kPa in
coefficient of permeability of 10−2 m/s. The barrel the pore pressure. The value of Skempton’s pore pres-
stands on a saturated bed gravel. The time required sure parameter B is [GATE, 2015]
for the water level in the barrel to drop by 0.75 m is (A) 0.5 (B) 0.625
[GATE, 2010] (C) 0.8 (D) 1.0
(A) 58.9 s 8. A non-homogeneous soil deposit consists of a silt
(B) 75 s layer sandwiched between a fine-sand layer at top and
(C) 100 s a clay layer below. Permeability of the silt layer is 10
(D) 150 s times the permeability of the clay layer and one-tenth
4. Two soil specimens with identical geometric dimen- of the permeability of the sand layer. Thickness of the
sions were subjected to falling head permeability tests silt layer is 2 times the thickness of the sand layer and
in the laboratory under identical conditions. The fall two-third of the thickness of the clay layer. The ratio
of water head was measured after an identical time of equivalent horizontal and equivalent vertical per-
interval. The ratio of initial to final water heads for the meability of the deposit is _________. [GATE, 2015]

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9. Water flows from P to Q through two soil samples,

Soil 1 and Soil 2, having cross-sectional area of 80
cm2 as shown in the figure. Over a period of 15 min-
utes, 200 ml of water was observed to pass through

600 mm
any cross-section. The flow conditions can be assumed
to be steady state. If the coefficient of permeability of
Soil 1 is 0.02 mm/s, the coefficient of permeability of

300 mm
Soil 2 (expressed in mm/s) would be ________.
 [GATE, 2016]
P Soil 1 Soil 1 Q

150 mm 150 mm

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. D 2. B 3. 3.92 × 10–4 lit/s 4. B 5. D 6. A 7. C 8. C 9. C
10. C 11. B 12. D 13. B 14. B 15. C 16. A

Previous Years’ Questions

1. A or C 2. A 3. B 4. A 5. 3 6. B 7. C 8. 10.96 9. 0.0454

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