PRE IG Biology Biological Molecules
Biological Molecules
Most molecules in living organisms belong to three main categories:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• These molecules contain carbon and are classified as organic molecules.
Chemical Elements in Biomolecules
Molecule Chemical Elements Present
Carbohydrate Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Protein Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen (some also contain Sulfur)
Lipid Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Carbohydrates
• Composed of long chains of simple sugars.
• Glucose is a simple sugar (monosaccharide).
• When two glucose molecules combine, they form maltose (disaccharide).
• Multiple glucose molecules link to form starch, glycogen, or cellulose
(polysaccharides).
Lipids (Fats and Oils)
• Most body fats are made up of triglycerides.
• Basic units: one glycerol and three fatty acids.
• Fatty acids differ in size and structure.
• Types of lipids:
o Fats → Solid at room temperature.
o Oils → Liquid at room temperature.
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PRE IG Biology Biological Molecules
Proteins
• Made of long chains of amino acids.
• About 20 different amino acids exist.
• Each amino acid has the same basic structure but differs in the ‘R’ group.
• Proteins form when amino acids join together.
• The sequence of amino acids determines the type of protein.
• Small changes in amino acid order create different proteins.
• Proteins have diverse shapes, which influence their function in organisms.
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PRE IG Biology Biological Molecules
Food Tests for Nutrients
Solution
Test for Process Positive Result Negative Result
Used
Add Benedict’s solution to
Glucose Benedict’s the sample and heat in a
Blue → Orange/Brick Red Remains Blue
(Reducing Sugar) solution water bath at 60–70°C for 5
minutes
Biuret Add a few drops of Biuret
Protein Blue → Violet/Purple Remains Blue
solution solution to the food sample
Iodine Add a few drops of iodine Orange-Brown → Blue- Remains
Starch
solution solution to the food sample Black Orange-Brown
Mix food sample with 2 cm³
Lipids (Fats and
Ethanol ethanol, shake, then add an Cloudy emulsion forms Remains Clear
Oils)
equal volume of cold water
Add 1 cm³ DCPIP solution to
DCPIP
Vitamin C test tube, then add food Blue color disappears Remains Blue
solution
sample
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PRE IG Biology Biological Molecules
DNA Structure
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) contains the genetic instructions for growth and
development.
• Composed of two strands forming a double helix.
• Basic units: Nucleotides, each containing:
o Phosphate group
o Deoxyribose sugar
o Nitrogenous base
• Four nitrogenous bases:
o Adenine (A)
o Thymine (T)
o Cytosine (C)
o Guanine (G)
• Base-pairing rule:
o A pairs with T (A-T)
o C pairs with G (C-G)
• Phosphate and sugar form the DNA backbone, while bases pair to form the
“rungs” of the ladder.
• The sequence of bases acts as a code for protein synthesis.
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PRE IG Biology Biological Molecules
Importance of Water as a Solvent in Organisms
• Transport: Helps move dissolved substances around the body (e.g., xylem, phloem,
blood).
• Digestion: Dissolves digested food molecules for absorption into cells.
• Excretion:
o Dissolves toxic waste (urea) for removal in urine.
o Helps remove excess salts from the body.
• Cellular Reactions:
o Major part of cytoplasm.
o Essential for metabolic reactions in cells.
(Cellular Reactions and the Role of Water
Major Part of Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm is the jelly-like fluid inside cells where many biological processes take place.
• It is mostly made of water, which provides a medium for organelles to function properly.
• Water in cytoplasm helps maintain cell shape and structure by exerting pressure against the cell membrane.
• It allows for the transport of molecules within the cell, ensuring efficient movement of nutrients, waste, and
enzymes.
Essential for Metabolic Reactions in Cells
• Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur within cells to maintain life.
• Many of these reactions occur in an aqueous (water-based) environment because:
o Enzymes (which speed up chemical reactions) function best in water.
o Dissolved reactants can easily move and interact with each other.
• Examples of metabolic reactions requiring water:
o Respiration: Water is a byproduct of energy production in cells.
o Photosynthesis: Water molecules split to provide hydrogen and oxygen.
o Protein synthesis: Water helps in the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids.
o Digestion and absorption: Large molecules break down into smaller ones with the help of water
(hydrolysis).
Water is vital for cellular reactions, ensuring cells function properly and life processes continue smoothly.)
(Water Helps Move Dissolved Substances Around the Body
Water is an important transport medium in both plants and animals because many substances dissolve in it. This allows them to be easily
carried to different parts of the organism.
In Plants (Xylem & Phloem)
• Xylem:
o Transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
o Water moves through the plant via transpiration, helping to keep it hydrated and cool.
• Phloem:
o Transports dissolved sugars (sucrose) and nutrients from the leaves (where they are made during photosynthesis)
to other parts of the plant.
o This process is called translocation, and it ensures that energy reaches growing tissues, roots, and storage organs.
In Animals (Blood & Other Fluids)
• Water is a major component of blood plasma, which carries:
o Nutrients (e.g., glucose, amino acids) to cells.
o Waste products (e.g., carbon dioxide, urea) to be removed.
o Hormones to regulate body functions.
• In the digestive system, water helps transport digested food molecules from the intestines into the bloodstream so they can be
delivered to cells.)
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