Colonial Cities

In a Nutshell
 With the decline to the Mughal Empire in the 18th century, many old lords lost their
importance.

 18th century marks the emergences of many new kingdoms like Lucknow, Hyderabad,
Poona, Baroda, Nagpur, etc,

 The port towns/cities swat, Masulipatnam, and Dhaka which developed in the 17th century
declined during the mid-18th century with the emergence of new cities like Madras, Calcutta
and Bombay.

 The colonial rule was based on many kinds of data and compilation of information. Its
purpose was to keep an eye on the city life and trading activities so the statistical data, maps,
census and official records of municipalities were prepared.

 The survey of India was constituted in 1878 to prepare the survey map of India.

 Railway was introduced in India in 1853. The introduction of railway brought many changes
in the life of urban life.

 In the 19th century East India Company established many stations likes, Shimla, Mount Abu
and Darjeeling. These hill stations were set up for stationing army, for guarding frontiers and
for launching invasion against enemy.

 In 1864, the Viceroy John Lahilence, officially shifted his capital at ‘Shimla’ and the official
residence of the commander-in-chief was also set up in Shimla.

 The social life of new cities was bewildering. It had rich and poorest of the poor people.

 The development in the means of the transportation brought many new changes in the
social life of the people.

 The importance of middle class began to increase in new cities. Here, they got many new job
opportunities which brought a great change in their perception and outlook.

 New identities and new social groups came into existence in these towns.

 Many new changes occurred in the life of the people. Important changes were witnessed in
the lives of the woman living in the cities. Here they got many new opportunities of job,
which brought new changes in their perception and outlook.

 The British East India company had first set up its trading activities in Surat.

 The buildings and architectural style threw an invaluable light at many things and provided
us an important information about the ideal building.

 These buildings also explain the perspective and viewpoints of those who constructed these
building.
  Architectural style does not represent and reflect the prevalent taste. It moulded tastes,
popularised styles, shapes, contours of cultures.

Company agents initially settled in the Madras, Calcutta and Bombay which were originally fishing
and weaving villages. They gradually developed these villages into the cities. These cities had the
mark of colonial government institutions which were set up to regulate economic activity and
demonstrate the authority of new rule.

Towns and Cities in Pre-colonial Times:

 Towns and cities before the advent of the British can be discussed under the following heads:

Nature of Towns:
 Towns represent unique form of economic activities and cultures. In town ruler
administrator, artisans, inansabdars and jagirdars, traders, etc were living. Towns were
surrounded by the fortified wall and thrived on the surplus and taxes derived from
agriculture.

 Peasants from the countryside came to the town for pilgrimage or selling their produce
during the lime of famine etc. There are also evidences of people going to village to sell their
goods, crafts etc. People migrated to villages when towns were attacked.

 The presence of emperor, nobles and other affluent powerful persons in town and centres
meant that a wide variety of service had to be provided and these towns were seat of power
from where administration of empire works. In the medieval times, Delhi, Agra, Lahore,
Madurai and Kanchipuram etc were famous, towns and cities.

Changes in the 18th Century:

 In the 18th century with decline of Mughal empire, old towns also lost their grandeur and
new towns like Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringpatnam, Pune, Nagpur, Baroda, Tanjore, etc were
developed and these towns were seat of local authority. Traders, artisans, administrators and
mercenaries migrated from old Mughal centres to these towns in search of work and
patronage. Many new qasbah (small town in the country side) and garij (small fixed market)
came into existence, but effect of political decentralisation was uneven (Puducherry).

 European commercial companies had set up their base in different towns, e.g., Portuguese in
Panji, Dutch in Masulipatnam, British in Madras and French in Pondicherry.

 With expansion in commercial activity towns grew further, gradually by the end of 18th
century land-based empires in Asia were replaced by the powerful sea-based European
empires. Forces of international trade, mercantilism and capitalism defined the nature of
society.

 As British took over political control in India from 1757, trade of East India Company
expanded and colonial port cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras emerged as economic
and political power.

Development of Town and Cities in Colonial Times:

 A number of records and data were collected by the British as well as Indian officials which
provide information about the colonial cities. However, according to historians, the figures
can be misleading, some may have correct information and some may have ambiguity.
Colonial Records of Urban History:
 British government kept detailed records, carried regular survey, gathered statistical data and
published official records of their trading activities to regulate their commercial affairs.
British also started mapping as they believed maps help in understanding landscape
topography, planning development, maintaining security and to gauge possibilities of
commercial activities.

 British government from late nineteenth century started giving responsibilities to elect
Indian representatives to administrate basic services to towns and it started a systematic
annual collection of municipal taxes.

 First all-India census was carried in 1872 and after 1881 it was carried decennial (conducted
every ten years). But the data record generated and kept by British government cannot be
trusted blindly as it has ambiguities. People during that time gave evasive answers to officials
due to suspicion and fear.

 Many times, false information was given by the locals about mortality, disease, illness.
Always these were not reported. Sometimes the reports and records kept by British
government was also biased. However, in spite of ambiguity and biasness, these records and
data helped in studying about colonial cities.

Trends of Change:
 Urban population of India remained stagnant during 1800s. In the forty years between 1900
and 1940 the urban population increased from about 10 percent of the total population to
about 13 percent.

 Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay were becoming sprawling cities. They were entry and exit
points of goods from the country. Smaller towns had little opportunity to grow. Few towns
which were situated on the bank of river like Mirzapur (which specialised in collecting cotton
and cotton goods from Deccan) were growing but with introduction of railways its
development stopped.

 Expansion of railway led to the formation of railway workshops and railway colonies. Towns
like Jamalpur, Waltair and Bareilly developed due to railways.

Towns: A Unique Identity:

 Colonial towns reflect a number of features These were important in terms of economic,
political and also cultural point of view, which showed a unique identity. They also tell how
power was shifted from Indian rulers to the European elites.

Ports, Forts and Centra for Services:

 By 18th century Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, all had important ports and became the
economic centre.

 Company built its factories and fortified these settlements for protection. Fort St. George in
Madras, Fort Wiliam in Calcutta, and the fort in Bombay were famous settlement of that
time.
  Indian traders, merchants, artisans who worked with the European merchant lived outside
these forts in their own settlement. Settlement of European was called ‘White Town’ and
settlement of Indians was known as ‘Black Town’.

 Expansion of railways connected the hinterland to these port cities. So, it became convenient
to transport raw material and labour to the cities.

 In 19th century, there was expansion of cotton and jute mills in region of Bombay and
Calcutta.

 There were only two proper industrial cities. Kanpur, which was specialised in leather,
woollen and textiles and second city was Jamshedpur, which was specialised in steel.
However, Industrial development was lagging behind in India due to discriminatory policies
of the British.

A New Urban Milieu:

 Colonial cities reflected the mercantile culture of English. Political power and patronage
shifted from Indian rulers to the merchants of the East India company.

 Indian traders, merchants, middlemen and interpreter who worked with company also
enjoyed important place in cities.

 Ghats and docks were developed. Along the ports, godowns, mercantile office, insurance
agencies, transport depots and banking developed. Racially exclusive clubs, racecourses and
theatres were built for ruling elite.

 European merchants and agents lived in palatial house in white town while Indian

 merchants, middlemen, agents had traditional courtyard houses in Black town.

 The labouring poor provided service to European and Indian master as cook, palanquin
bearer, coachmen, guard, porters and construction and dock worker. They lived in huts in
different parts of the city.

 After revolt the British felt the need that town needed to be more secure of and better
defended. So, pastureland and agricultural fields around older town were cleared and new
urban space called Civil Lines were set up and white people used to live in it. Cantonment
were developed as safe enclaves and here Indian troops lived under European command.

 British considered black town as area characterised by chaos, anarchy, filth and disease.

 When epidemics of Cholera and Plague spread, they decided to take stringent measure for
sanitation, public health, hygiene and cleanliness

The Development of Hill Stations:

 British Government started developing hill stations initially because of need of British army.
Simla (present day Shimla) founded during Gurkha war (1815-16). Anglo-Maratha war led to
development of Mount Abu (1818). Darjeeling was taken from the ruler of Sikkim in 1835.

 The temperate and cool climate of hills were seen as sanatorium (places where soldiers
could be sent for rest and recovery from illness) because these areas were free from diseases
like cholera, malaria, etc.
  Hilly regions and stations became attractive place for European rulers and other elites.
During summer season, for recreation they visited these places regularly. Many houses,
buildings, and Churches were designed according to European style.

 Later introduction of railway made these places more accessible and upper- and middle-class
Indians like maharajas, lawyers and merchants also started visiting these places regularly.

 Hilly regions were also important regarding economy as tea plantation, coffee plantation
flourished in the region.

Social Life in the New Cities:

 In cities life seemed always in a flux, there was a great inequality between rich and poor.

 New transport facilities like horse drawn carriage, trains, buses had been developed. People
now started travelling, from home to work place using the new mode of transportation.

 Many public places were created, e.g. public parks, theatres, dubs, and cinema halls in 20th
century. These places provided entertainment and opportunity for social interaction.

 People started migrating to cities. There were demands of clerks, teachers, lawyers, doctors,
engineers and accountants. There were schools, colleges and libraries.

 A new public sphere of debate and discussion emerged. Social norms, customs and practices
came to be questioned.

 They provided new. opportunities for women. It provided women avenues to get out of their
house and become more visible in public life.

 They entered new profession as teacher, theatre and film actress, domestic worker, factory
worker, etc.

 Middle class women started to express themselves through the medium of autobiographies,
journals and books.

 Conservatives feared these reforms, they feared breaking existing rule of society, and
patriarchal order.

 Women who went out of the household had to face opposition and they became object of
social censure in those years.

 In cities, there were a class of labourers or the working class. Poor came to cities looking for
opportunity, few came to cities to live a new way of life and desire to see the new things.

 Life in cities were expensive; jobs were uncertain and sometimes migrants leave their family
at native place to save money. Migrants also participated in the Tamashas (folk theatre) and
Swangs (satires) and in that way they tried to integrate with the life of cities.

Settlement and Segregation in Madras:

 Company first set up its centre at Surat and then tried to occupy east coast. British and
French were engaged in Battle in South India, but with defeat of France in 1761, Madras
became secure and started to grow as commercial centre.

 Fort St. George became the important centre where Europeans lived and it was reserved for
English men.
  Officials were not permitted to marry Indians. However, other than English Dutch,
Portuguese were allowed to live in the fort as they were European and Christian.

 Development of Madras was done according to the need of whites. Black town, settlement
of Indians, earlier it was outside the fort but later it was shifted.

 New Black town resembled traditional Indian town with living quarter around temple and
bazaar. There were caste specific neighbourhoods.

 Madras was developed by incorporating many nearby villages. City of Madras provided
numerous opportunities for local communities.

 Different communities perform their specific job in the Madras city, people of different
communities started competing for British Government job.

 Transport system gradually started to develop. Urbanisation of Madras meant areas between
the villages were brought within the city.

Town Planning in Calcutta:

 Town planning required preparation of a layout of entire urban space and urban land use.

 City of Calcutta had been developed from three villages called Sutanati, Kolkata and
Govindpur. The company cleared a site of Govindpur village for building a fort there.

 Town planning in Calcutta gradually spread from Fort William to other parts. Lord Wellesley
played very important role in town planning of Calcutta. Further work of town planning was
carried by Lottery committee with the help of government. Funds for town planning were
raised by Lotteries.

 Committee made a new map for Calcutta, made roads in the city and cleared riverbank of
encroachment. Many huts ‘bustis’ and poor were displaced to make Calcutta cleaner and
disease free and these people were shifted to outskirt of Calcutta.

 Frequent fires in the city led to making of stricter building regulation. Thatched roof was
banned and tiled roofs were made mandatory.

 By the late nineteenth century official intervention in the city became more stringent.

 British removed more huts and developed British portion of town at the expense of other
areas.

 These policies further deepened the racial divide of white town and black town and new
division of healthy and unhealthy further rise. Gradually public protest against these policies

 strengthened anti-imperialistic feeling and nationalism among Indians.

 British wanted the cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras to represent the grandeur and
authority of the British Empire. Town planning was aimed to represent their meticulous and
rational planning and execution along with Western aesthetic ideas.

Architecture in Bombay:
 Although, government building primarily serving functional needs like defence,
administration and commerce but they often meant to showcase ideas of nationalism,
religious glory and power.
  Bombay has initially seven islands, later it become commercial capital of colonial India and
also a centre of international trade.

 Bombay port led to the development of Malwa, Sind and Rajasthan and many Indian
merchants also become rich.

 Bombay led to development of Indian capitalist class which came from diverse communities
like Parsi, Marwari, Konkani, Muslim, Gujarati, Bania, Bohra, Jew and Armenian.

 Increased demand of cotton, during the time of American civil war and opening of Suez
Canal in 1869 led to further economic development of Bombay.

 Bombay was declared one of the most important cities of India. Indian merchants in Bombay
started investing in cotton mills and in building activities.

 Many new buildings were built but they were built in European style. It was thought that it
would:

 give familiar landscape in alien country to European, thus to feel at home in the
colony.

 give them a symbol of superiority, authority and power.

 help in creating distinction between Indian subjects and colonial masters.

 For public building, three broad architectural styles were used. These included neo-classical,
neo-Gothic and Indo-Saracenic styles.

Building and Architectural Styles:

 Architecture reflected the aesthetic idea prevalent at that time, building also expressed
vision of those who build them. Architectural styles also mould taste, popularise styles and
shape the contours of culture.

 From the late nineteenth century, regional and national tastes were developed to counter
colonial ideal. Style has changed and developed through wider processes of cultural conflict.

Important Terms:
 Kasbah: A small town in the countryside.

 Ganj: Small size fixed market.

 Census: Counting of population

 White Towns: Towns where only European could live.

 Black Towns: Towns where only Indian could live.

 Civil lines: Urban areas where only white people could settle and live.

 Pet: A Tamil word, which means settlement.

 Purim: A Tamil word stands for a village.

 Dubhasia: Those people who speak English as well as local language.

 Vellars: A local rural community in Madras.

  Garermath: The east India company built the Fort William in Calcutta. From the prospective
of its security, a vast open space was left around it. It was locally known as a garer math or
maiden.

Time line:
 1688 – Bombay was handed over to East India company by the Butanes Empire.

 1673 – French established trading centre at Pondichhery.

 1757 – Battle of Placey

 1798 – Lord Welleseley appointed as the 1st General of Bangal

 1807 – Lottery commission was setup at Calcutta.

 1814 -16 – Shimla was established.

 1836 – That shed huts were banned in Calcutta.

 1872 – Attempts were made for 1st census.

 1878 – Organisation of survey of India

 1881 – Madras harbour was completed.

 1896 – Plague began to spread in India cities.

 1911 – British transfer their capital from Calcutta to Delhi.

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

1. To what extent are census data useful in reconstructing patterns of urbanisation in the colonial
context? (or)
“A careful study of census reveals some fascinating trends of urbanisation in 19th century.”
Support the statement with facts.
Ans: A careful study of the data collected through the census provides us a lot of information in
understanding the trend of urbanisation. It can be examined as under:
(a) The process of urbanisation was sluggish in India after 1800.
(b) In the nineteenth century and in first two decades of the twentieth century the proportion of the
urban population was very low and stagnant.
(c) Which recorded between 1900 and 1940, A 13% increase in the urban population which recorded
between whereas during the same period, these was a overall 10% increase in the population of the
whole country.
(d) The data, thus, collected helps us in the enumeration of people according to their age, sex, caste,
religion, occupation, etc.

2. What do the terms “White” and “Black” Town signify?

Ans: The White Town was the area where Europeans lived. These areas were separate. They had
broad streets, bungalows set amidst large gardens, barracks, parade ground and church. They were
safe haven for the Europeans. For example, in Madras Fort St. George was the nucleus of the White
Town where most of the Europeans lived. Walls and bastions made this a distinct enclave.
The Black Town on the other hand, were meant for Indians – the Indian agents, middlemen, weavers,
artisans and interpreters. In Madras, the Black Town was developed outside the Fort. A Black Town
generally resembled traditional Indian town, with living quarters built around its own temple and
bazaar. There were narrow lanes and distinct caste-specific neighbourhoods.

3. How did prominent Indian merchants establish themselves in the colonial city?
Ans: The prominent Indian merchants and traders settled in colonial cities like Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras. They served as agents or middlemen for the British and lived traditionally built courtyard
houses in the Black Town. They centred over large tracts of land in these cities and heavily made
investments for the future. They wanted to impress their British masters or colonial ruler or white
people living in white towns by giving lavish parties during festivals seasons and built temples to
establish their supremacy and prestige in society.

4. Examine how concerns of defence and health gave shape to Calcutta.

Ans: Concerns of defence and health gave shape to Calcutta in the following ways:

1. Defence: In 1756, Sirajudaula had attacked Calcutta and sacked the small fort of British traders.
Subsequently, when in 1757 Nawab was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, the British decided to build
a new fort that could not be attacked easily. So, when the new Fort William was built, they left a vast
open space known as the Maidan or garer-math. This was done from the defence point of view to
ensure that there would be no obstructions to a straight line of fire from the Fort against an
advancing army.

2. Health: Health too played an important role in giving shape to Calcutta. When Lord Wellesley
became the Governor General, he found that the condition of the Indian part of the city was bad.
There was overcrowding, the excessive vegetation, the dirty tanks, the smells and the poor drainage.
The British worried that such conditions were the cause of most diseases. The tropical climate itself
was seen as unhealthy. They thought that there should be open spaces in the city. Lord Wellesley felt
the need for town planning and set up various committees for the purpose. Many bazaars, ghats,
burial grounds, and tanneries were cleared or removed. From then on the notion of ‘public health’
became an important factor in shaping the development of Calcutta.

5. What is the different colonial architectural styles which can be seen in Bombay city?
Ans: In the past, buildings were at odds with the traditional Indian buildings. Gradually, Indians too
got used to European architecture and made it their own. The British in turn adapted some Indian
styles to suit their needs. One example is the bungalow which was used by government officers in
Bombay. The colonial bungalow was set on extensive grounds which ensured privacy. The traditional
pitched roof and surrounding veranda kept the bungalow cool in summer months. These bungalows
can still be seen in the city. Other than that traditional styles of decoration and building exist. The
lack of space in the city and crowding led to a type of building unique to Bombay, the chawl.

6. How were urban centres transformed during the eighteenth century?

Ans: Urban centres were transformed during the eighteenth century in the following ways:

1. With the decline of Mughal power, Delhi and Agra lost their importance. With the rise of
regional powers, importance of regional capitals: Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringapatam,
Poona, Nagpur, Baroda and Tanjore increased.

2. The changes in the networks of trade also affected the transformation of urban centres. The
European companies had set up trading centres at Panaji (Portuguese), Masulipatnam
(Dutch), Madras (British) and Pandicherry (French). As the trading activities
 increased, towns grew around these trading centres. By the end of the eighteenth century,
the land-based empires in Asia were replaced by the powerful sea based European empires.

3. Commercial centres such as Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka declined because due to
expansion of trade of the East India Company, colonial port cities Madras, Calcutta and
Bombay — emerged as the new economic capitals. They also became centres of colonial
administration and political power. These cities became the biggest cities in India in terms of
population.

4. Some local officials associated with Mughal rule in India created new urban settlements such
as the qasbah and ganj.

7. What were the new kinds of public places that emerged in the colonial city? What functions did
they serve?

Ans: The Indians found the new colonial cities as bewildering. They were surpassed the new
transport facilities available here. The means of transport facilities which included horse-drawn
carnages, tram11 and buses. Enabled the people to live at faraway places from the city centre. Now
they lived at some other places and served at some other places.

Emergence of new public places: The new colonial cities far away place witnessed new public places
such as the theatres, cinema-halls, gardens, public parks, etc. Besides these were clubs and Garden
Houses.

Functions: These newly created public places were very exciting. They were an important source of
entertainment and helped increasing social interaction. The people were able to express their
opinions on society and government. They could also question the practice of social customs.

8. What were the concerns that influenced town planning in the nineteenth century?
Ans: The concerns that influenced town planning in the nineteenth century were as given below:

1. Security: The security of the Britishers was an important factor due to the memory of 1857.
The vast open space, which is known as the Maidan or garer-math, around the Fort in
Calcutta was left so that there would be no obstructions to a straight line of fire from the Fort
against the enemy. The purpose of the Civil Lines was too the security of the Britishers.

2. Health: In Calcutta, the crowding, the dirty tanks and poor drainage and tropical climate
were seen a unhealthy. This led to creating open spaces in the city to make it healthier. Many
bazaars, ghats, burial grounds and tanneries were removed. Public health became an object
of town planning. Bustis were removed.

3. To reflect the authority of the imperial power: With the growth of their empire, the object
of town planning was to represent rational ordering, meticulous execution, and Western
aesthetic ideals. For example, in Bombay neo-classical or the new classical style was used to
express the glory of imperial India. The examples are Town Hall, Victoria Terminus and other
buildings.

4. Separation from the Indians on the basis of race: Black Town and White Town came into
existence on the basis of race i.e., Black Towns for the Indians and the White Town for the
Europeans. Similarly, later on, the bungalows in the civil lines became a racial exclusive
enclave in which the ruling classes could live self-sufficient lives without daily social contact
with Indians.
9. To what extent were social relations transformed in the new cities?
Ans: (i) There was a big contrast between extreme wealth and poverty in the new cities. New means
of transport facilities such as horse-drawn carriages, trams, buses, etc. made travelling from home to
work an interesting experience.

(ii) Creation of public places like theatres public parks and cinema halls provided new forms of
entertainment and social interaction.
(iii) New social groups were formed people of all classes started to migrate to the cities. With an
increased demand for lawyers and engineers the “middle class” increased. Debate and discussion
became popular and established social norms and practices were questioned.
(iv) Cities also offered new opportunities for women. They chose new professions in the city as
factory workers, teachers, film actresses, etc. for a long time so women remained objects of social
censure.