ADVANCED BATCH - 2025

Environment
Science and Technology
Class-2
Class-2
Topic
Quantum
Lorem ipsum
Technology Space Nuclear Technology

Class Handout
 QUANTUM TECHNOLOGY

“Quantum has been around for 100 years. It's been around for a long time. We’re just now manifesting it
in the hardware and software necessary to deploy it.” –Paul Terry, CEO of Photonic Inc.

Quantum technology leverages principles from quantum mechanics, including phenomena such as
quantum entanglement and superposition, to develop advanced computational methods. Unlike
classical computing, which relies on binary states (0s and 1s), quantum computing uses qubits that
can exist in multiple states simultaneously, potentially transforming the way we handle data, solve
complex problems, and understand the universe at a subatomic level.

Key Data Points

Data (McKinsey Digital)
● $173 Billion potential quantum technology market size by 2040
○ Quantum Computing $45 Bn - $131 Bn estimated
○ Quantum Communication $24 Bn - $36 Bn estimated
○ Quantum Sensing $1 Bn - $6 Bn estimated
○ ~$42Bn Total Government Investment announced
● Quantum Capable Talent
○ 55 QT master’s degree programs
○ 195 universities with QT research groups
● Scientific Progress
○ 4763 QT related patents granted in 2022
○ 42155 QT related publications in 2023

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Working of Quantum Technology
Quantum mechanics, with its probabilistic approach, has provided deeper insights into the unique
behaviours of quantum particles, such as 'superposition' and 'entanglement.' These foundational
principles form the basis for the development and functioning of quantum technologies.

Key Concepts:
Quantum Superposition
● Quantum superposition is the ability of particles to exist in multiple quantum states simultaneously.
● This phenomenon occurs because particles, such as atoms and electrons, can also exhibit wave-
like behavior.
● It is similar to the ripples in a pond, where waves overlap and combine, creating a new pattern.
Quantum Entanglement
● Quantum entanglement describes a scenario where two or more particles become interlinked in
such a way that their states cannot be described independently.
● Any change in the quantum state of one particle will instantly affect the other, regardless of the
distance between them.
● Quantum algorithms leverage this entanglement to tackle complex computational problems.
Quantum Teleportation
● Quantum teleportation involves transmitting an unknown quantum state across long distances.
Quantum Interference
● Quantum interference is a phenomenon where two or more overlapping waves create a new
wave pattern.
● This interference can be constructive or destructive; constructive interference is used to amplify
the desired outcome from multiple possible results.
Observance
● Observance refers to the process of measuring and observing quantum states.
● When quantum states are observed, their superposition collapses into a definite state.

Nobel Prize in Physics 2022

● The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022 was awarded jointly to Alain Aspect, John F. Clauser,
and Anton Zeilinger for their pioneering experiments with entangled photons, which
demonstrated the violation of Bell inequalities and advanced the field of quantum
information science.
○ Entanglement, a key phenomenon in quantum mechanics, occurs when two particles
become interconnected in such a manner that their properties are correlated regardless
of the distance between them.
○ This intriguing connection has significant implications for our understanding of reality
and has spurred the development of emerging technologies like quantum computers
and quantum cryptography.

Key Applications of Quantum Technology

● Scientific Research: Quantum technology can solve fundamental questions in physics, such as
those related to gravity and black holes.
○ Example: The technology can significantly enhance initiatives like the Genome India
project.
● Space and Communications: Quantum technology is transforming secure communication,
offering possibilities for ultra-fast data transmission and unbreakable security protocols.
○ Example: China's demonstration of secure quantum communication.
● Disaster Management: Quantum applications can improve the prediction and management of
natural disasters like tsunamis, droughts, earthquakes, and floods.
○ By enhancing data collection related to climate change, quantum technology can positively
impact agricultural planning, food supply chains, and reduce wastage.

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● Pharmaceutical Industry: Quantum computing can drastically reduce the time required for
drug discovery, making the process more efficient.
○ Example: Instead of taking years, tracking protein behavior or modelling new proteins
for treating diseases like cancer, Alzheimer's, and heart ailments can be made faster and
more accurate with quantum computing.
● Advancing Industry 4.0: Quantum technology will significantly benefit other technologies from
the fourth industrial revolution, such as IoT, machine learning, robotics, and AI.
○ This integration can help establish a foundation for a knowledge-based economy, driving
progress across various sectors.
● Space Technology: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) offers secure communication methods
essential for space communication.
○ Example: Chinese space agency's recent demonstration of QKD proves the
technology's potential for providing secure communication.

Challenges Facing Quantum Technology

● Fragility of Qubits: Qubits are highly sensitive and can lose their quantum properties if not
managed properly.
● Algorithm Development: Creating algorithms and applications specifically designed for
quantum computing remains a significant challenge.
● Infrastructure Overhaul: Quantum computing demands new IT-based security infrastructure,
given its unparalleled speed and data processing capabilities.
● Strategic and Security Implications: Quantum technology's potential applications in defence
and intelligence pose new tactical challenges.
● High Costs: The setup and operational costs for quantum technology are substantial, often
amounting to millions of dollars.
● Cryptographic Vulnerabilities: Quantum computing's ability to break traditional cryptographic
encryption presents a risk to current digital security frameworks.

Indian Initiatives in Quantum Technology

● IBM-Academia Collaborations:
IBM’s global Quantum Educators
program provides Indian universities
access to advanced quantum systems.
● National Mission on Quantum
Technologies & Applications
(NMQTA): aims to promote research,
development, and
commercialisation of quantum
technologies, was announced in the
Union Budget 2020-21 with a five-year outlay of Rs. 8000 crore.
● Bilateral Agreements: India collaborates with Finland to develop quantum computing
technology.
● Quantum-Enabled Science & Technology (QuEST): Launched in 2018, QuEST allocates
₹780 crore over three years to advance quantum research.

National Quantum Mission

● Approved by the government in 2023, the National Quantum Mission aims to initiate, support,
and expand scientific and industrial research in quantum technology.
● The mission seeks to create a dynamic and innovative ecosystem to drive economic growth
powered by Quantum Technology (QT), positioning India as a global leader in Quantum
Technologies and Applications (QTA).

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Objectives
● Develop quantum computers with capacities ranging from 50 to 1000 qubits over the next eight
years using various platforms, including superconducting and photonic technologies.
● Establish secure satellite-based quantum communication between ground stations within
India, spanning distances of up to 2000 kilometres.
● Enable secure long-distance quantum communication with other countries.
● Develop inter-city quantum key distribution networks covering 2000 kilometres and multi-
node quantum networks.

Focus Areas:
● The mission will prioritize the development of highly sensitive magnetometers, atomic clocks,
and atomic systems for precision timing, communication, and navigation.
● It will also focus on designing and synthesising advanced quantum materials such as
superconductors, topological materials, and novel semiconductor structures.
● Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs): The mission will establish Thematic Hubs in leading academic and
national institutes focused on key areas such as quantum computing, quantum communication,
quantum sensing and metrology, and quantum materials and devices.

Global Practices
● United States:
○ The National Quantum Initiative Act (2018) allocated $1.2 billion to quantum tech
development and established a coordinated national strategy.
○ In 2022, a memorandum was issued to enhance leadership in quantum computing and
secure cryptographic systems against quantum risks, supported by the Quantum
Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act.
○ Emphasis on R&D, workforce development, and international collaboration.
● China:
○ Quantum technology is a priority in its 14th Five-Year Plan with significant
government investment (~$4 billion) in quantum R&D, particularly in military
applications.
○ A National Laboratory for Quantum Science was established to lead efforts in quantum
research.
● United Kingdom:
○ Launched a National Quantum Strategy in 2023 with a £2.5 billion ($3 billion)
commitment over the next decade to advance quantum R&D, private investment, and
market development.
● Japan:
○ The Quantum Technology and Innovation Strategy (2020) focuses on innovation, basic
research, and international collaboration.
○ In 2022, the "Vision of Quantum Future Society" was launched to integrate
quantum tech into societal solutions and promote quantum testbeds.
● European Union:
○ Initiated the Quantum Technologies Flagship in 2018 with a €1 billion ($1.1 billion)
budget for quantum research in computing, communication, and sensing.
○ EuroHPC JU (2021) aims to invest €7 billion ($7.5 billion) in high-performance and
quantum computing by 2025.

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Analyzing the Progress of Quantum Technology in India
India lagging behind other nations
● Reports show that countries like China
and the US are significantly ahead of
India in quantum technologies.
● These countries have invested much
more in research, have a larger number
of professionals in the field, publish
more scientific papers, and register
more patents.

India still in the Race

● Indian scientists are at the forefront in
areas such as quantum communications
and quantum sensing.
● In fields like quantum computing and
quantum materials, the gap with leading nations is not so wide that it can't be bridged.
● Outside the European Union, India has the largest number of graduate students (over 82,000)
in disciplines related to quantum technologies (e.g., biochemistry, electronics, statistics, ICT),
more than in China or the US.

Way Forward
● Developing a Regulatory Framework: Establishing comprehensive regulations for quantum
computing and its applications is essential.
● Building a Quantum-Enabled Economy: In the next 10 to 20 years, leveraging quantum
technology can help India create a new economic framework. This transition is crucial for India to
remain competitive globally and harness the transformative potential of quantum technologies.
● Global Collaboration: Technical assistance and technology transfer from global partners are
vital for the growth of quantum technology in India.
● Identifying and Nurturing Quantum Talent: The National Quantum Mission (NQM) should
prioritize identifying young and promising talent in quantum research. By fostering a specialized
cadre of quantum scientists, India can ensure a robust and sustainable talent pool to advance
its ambitions in the field of quantum technology.
● Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborative efforts between the government and private sector
are crucial for funding and advancing quantum research and development.

Quantum Computing is poised to become the next major tool for solving complex problems across
various domains. For India, exploring and enabling quantum technology is not just an opportunity but
a necessity for future technological and economic growth.

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 NUCLEAR ENERGY
● Definition
○ Energy released from the nucleus (core) of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons.
○ Produced via two processes: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
● Nuclear Fission
○ Occurs when a neutron hits a large atom, causing it to split into smaller atoms (fission
products) and release energy.
○ Chain reactions occur as additional neutrons are released.
○ Fuels: Uranium and Plutonium are commonly used due to ease of control.
○ Energy produced heats water into steam, driving turbines to generate carbon-free
electricity.
● Nuclear Fusion
○ Happens when two lighter atoms collide and fuse to form a heavier atom (e.g., hydrogen
atoms fusing into helium).
○ Same process powers the sun and releases significantly more energy than fission.

NUCLEAR REACTORS
● Function: Large systems that heat water to produce low-carbon electricity.
● Mechanism: Generates energy by splitting atoms (nuclear fission) to release heat, which is used
to produce steam and drive turbines for electricity generation.
● Fuel Variety: Can operate on different types of fuel, including uranium and plutonium.

KEY COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

● Fuel:Contains fissile atoms, commonly Uranium-235, used to extract energy through fission.
● Control Rods:Made from neutron-absorbing materials. Adjust fission rate by being inserted or
withdrawn from the reactor.

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● Moderator:Slows down high-energy neutrons released during fission, ensuring efficient reactions.
Example: Heavy water (D2O).
● Coolant: Transfers heat from the reactor core to the turbine. Common coolants include water,
liquid metal, and molten salt.
● Steam Generator: Heat exchanger that transfers heat from the reactor's primary circuit to the
secondary, generating steam to turn turbines.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

PRESSURIZED HEAVY WATER REACTOR (PHWR)
● Fuel: Natural uranium (0.7% U-235).
● Moderator & Coolant: Heavy water (D2O).
● Efficiency: Produces more energy per kg of uranium but more used fuel.
● Development: Originated in Canada (CANDU) and developed further in India.

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LIGHT WATER REACTORS (LWRS)
● Fuel: Enriched uranium (3% U-235).
● Moderator & Coolant: Ordinary water.
● Types:
○ Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR):
■ Makes up 70% of global reactors.
■ Developed in the Former USSR (VVER).
○ Boiling Water Reactor (BWR):
■ Second most common, 15% of global fleet.
■ Found in the US, Japan, Sweden, and Taiwan.
■ Water boils in the core, leading to higher efficiency due to steam in the upper
part.

FAST REACTORS
● Fuel: Uses Uranium-238 and Plutonium.
● Function: Converts nuclear waste into fissile material.
● Breeder Reactor: Fast reactors can produce more fuel than they consume (Fast Breeder
Reactors).
● Moderator: No moderator used; relies on fast neutrons for fission.

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INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY MECHANISMS FOR NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
● International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
○ Global center for cooperation in the nuclear field.
○ Promotes the safe, secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technology.
○ Known as the "Atoms for Peace and Development" organization within the UN.
● Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT):
○ Adopted in 1968 and effective since 1970, with 191 member states (India is not a member).
○ Focuses on preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.
○ Aims to promote peaceful nuclear energy use and global disarmament.
○ Five Nuclear Weapon States (NWS) Recognized by the NPT:
■ China: Became a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in
1992.
■ France: Signed the NPT in 1992.
■ Russian Federation: Inherited the obligations and rights of the Soviet Union,
which signed the NPT in 1968.
■ United Kingdom: Joined the NPT in 1968.
■ United States: Signed the NPT in 1968.
● Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG):
○ Established in 1975, includes countries that supply nuclear materials and technology.
○ Aims to prevent nuclear weapons proliferation through guidelines for nuclear exports.
○ Members have access to advanced nuclear technologies for peaceful purposes (India is not
a member).

APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

● Agriculture:
○ Radiation is used to control harmful insects by preventing their reproduction.
○ SAMPADA Scheme: Provides subsidies for gamma radiation processing plants to
improve food processing through irradiation.
● Food Safety:
○ Irradiation sterilizes food by eliminating bacteria and harmful organisms.
○ This process does not make food radioactive or significantly alter its nutritional value,
ensuring safety in raw and frozen products.
● Medical Applications:
○ Nuclear technology aids in diagnostic imaging and precise cancer treatments.
○ Helps doctors calculate the exact radiation required to target cancer cells without
damaging healthy tissue.
● Space Exploration:
○ Nuclear power enables long-term deep space exploration.
○ Unmanned spacecraft use plutonium heat to generate electricity for extended missions.
○ Example: Voyager 1, launched in 1977, continues transmitting data using nuclear energy.
● Water Desalination:
○ Nuclear energy powers desalination plants that remove salt from seawater to produce
fresh drinking water.
○ These facilities meet the high energy demand for the desalination process efficiently.

CHALLENGES OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

● High Operating Costs: Strict maintenance, staffing, training, and regular inspections drive up
costs, making it difficult for nuclear energy to compete economically.
● Risk of Accidents: Accidents caused by human error or natural disasters, such as Fukushima and
Chernobyl, highlight the challenges in fully preventing nuclear incidents.
● Nuclear Waste: Disposal of radioactive waste, containing hazardous materials like plutonium
and uranium, requires meticulous, long-term management to avoid environmental contamination.
● Nuclear Proliferation: The spread of nuclear energy programs raises concerns about the
increased risk of nuclear weapons development and misuse of nuclear materials.

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● Radiation Exposure: Nuclear explosions release radiation that can damage human cells, leading
to severe illnesses or death, with effects that may manifest years after exposure.

Space Technology
Communication Satellites

● Purpose: Facilitate communication such as telecommunication and broadcasting.

● Example: GSAT series for global communication services.

Orbits of Communication Satellites

● Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO): Positioned 35,786 kilometers above Earth's surface, ideal
for stable telecommunication. Example: GSAT series of ISRO.
● Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Positioned 160 km to 1,000 km from Earth, suitable for high-speed
internet. Example: Starlink Project with over 4,200 satellites.

Applications of Communication Satellites

● Communication and Broadcasting: INSAT system for extensive communication services in
Asia-Pacific.
● Meteorology: Transponders for weather forecasting and disaster warnings. Example: GSAT31.
● High-Speed Internet: Projects like Starlink and OneWeb for global high-speed internet access.

Earth Observation Satellites

● Purpose: Monitor Earth's atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and oceans.
● Example: Landsat series for land and resource mapping.

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Orbits of Earth Observation Satellites
● Earth observation satellites mainly follow a synchronous sub-recurrent orbit, a type of poLar
orbit.

● A synchronous sub-recurrent orbit is a combination of a sun-synchronous orbit and sub-

recurrent orbit.

○ sun-synchronous orbit: The angle between an orbit plane and the Sun seen from the
Earth is always constant at the same local solar time

○ Sub-recurrent orbit: Flying at the same local solar time and the same location at a fixed
period).

Applications of Earth Observation Satellites

General Uses:
● Land and Forest Mapping: Monitoring and mapping land use and forest cover.
● Resource Mapping: Identifying and assessing resources like water and minerals.
● Weather and Climate Observations: Gathering data for weather forecasting and climate
studies.
● Soil Assessment: Evaluating soil health and conditions.
● Geospatial Contour Mapping: Creating detailed maps for geographical analysis.

Mechanism:
● Remote Sensing: Detecting and monitoring physical characteristics from a distance by
measuring reflected and emitted radiation.
● Geographical Information System (GIS) Satellites: Providing images for GIS mapping and
spatial analysis to support town planning and land use.

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Examples of Earth Observation Satellites:
● Cartosat Series (ISRO): Provides detailed land topography data and map development.
● Oceansat Satellites: Used for oceanography, including ocean topography mapping.
● Resourcesat Series (ISRO): Dedicated to resource management; for instance, EOS-04 (Radar
Imaging Satellite) offers high-quality images for monitoring minerals and forestry.
● EUMETSAT (European Space Agency): Provides comprehensive data for weather, climate,
and environmental monitoring.

Navigational Satellites
● Purpose: Provide geospatial services through satellite constellations.
● Example: GPS satellites for global positioning.

Orbits of Navigational Satellites

● Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): For GPS satellites at about 20,200 km.
● Geostationary and Geosynchronous Orbits: Used by NavIC with a mix of geostationary and
inclined geosynchronous satellites.

Major Navigation Satellite Systems

● Global Systems: GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (Europe), BeiDou (China).
● Regional Systems: NavIC (India).

Applications of Navigation Satellites

● Traffic Management: Enhances civil aviation and navigation services.
● Search Operations: Provides positioning and navigation support.

Astronomical Satellites
● Purpose: Observe celestial objects using advanced imaging technology.
● Examples:
○ Hubble Space Telescope: Observes distant galaxies and stars.
○ James Webb Space Telescope (JWST): Largest and most powerful telescope for
deep space observation.
○ AstroSat: India's first astronomy mission for studying celestial sources in multiple
spectral bands.

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LAUNCH VEHICLE
Definition: A launch vehicle is a rocket-powered vehicle designed to transport spacecraft beyond
Earth's atmosphere, either into Earth orbit or to other destinations in space.
Launch Vehicle Functions: Equipped with powerful propulsion systems to generate the necessary
energy to overcome Earth's gravity and transport payloads, including satellites, into space.

ISRO'S LAUNCH VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT:

● SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle): Launched in 1980 as India's first experimental satellite launch
vehicle.
● Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV): Advanced version developed for improved
performance.
● PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle): First launched in 1994, known for its versatility and
reliability.
● GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle): Introduced in 2001, capable of carrying
heavier satellites into Geosynchronous and Geostationary Orbits.

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SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLES OF ISRO
Sounding Rockets
● Purpose:
○ Used to explore the upper atmosphere and conduct space research.
○ Enable rocket-borne instrumentation to probe the atmosphere in situ.
● ISRO's Initiatives:
○ ISRO started launching its own sounding rockets in 1965.
○ The first Indian sounding rocket was launched in 1963 from Thumba, near
Thiruvananthapuram, marking the beginning of the Indian Space Programme.
○ The Rohini Sounding Rocket (RSR) Programme was established in 1975 to consolidate all
sounding rocket activities.

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

● Overview:
○ India's third-generation launch vehicle, first launched successfully in October 1994.
○ The first Indian launch vehicle with liquid stages.
● Stages:
○ First Stage: Solid rocket motor S139.
○ Second Stage: Earth-storable liquid rocket engine (Vikas engine).
○ Third Stage: Solid rocket motor S7, provides high thrust to upper stages.
○ Fourth Stage: Two Earth-storable liquid engines.
● Variants:
○ PSLV-XL, QL, and DL: Use 6, 4, or 2 solid rocket strap-on motors to boost first-stage
thrust.
○ PSLV-CA (Core Alone): Does not use strap-ons.
● Capabilities:
○ Renowned for reliability, used for launching numerous satellites, including IRNSS
constellation satellites into geosynchronous and GEO.
○ Considered the "workhorse of ISRO" for Low Earth Orbits (LEO).
○ Payload capacity: Up to 1,750 kg to 600 km Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits.
○ Notable launches: Chandrayaan-1 (2008) and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft (2013).

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

● Overview:
○ Fourth-generation launch vehicle designed for placing communication satellites in
geostationary transfer orbit using a cryogenic third stage.
○ Used for launching Chandrayaan-2.
● Stages:
○ First Stage: Solid rocket motor S139, augmented by 4 liquid strap-ons.

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 ○ Second Stage: Vikas engine.
○ Third Stage: Cryogenic Upper Stage Project.
● Capabilities:
○ Payload capacity: Up to 6 tonnes in Low Earth Orbits; up to 2,250 kg into Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbit (GTO).
○ Capable of launching communication satellites up to 2 tonnes.
○ Cryogenic stages provide higher efficiency and more thrust per kilogram of propellant.

GSLV Mk III (LVM3)

● Overview:
○ LVM3 is next-generation ISRO launch vehicle, previously known as GSLV Mk III.
○ Three-stage vehicle with advanced features.
● Stages:
○ Core Stage: S200 solid motor.
○ Liquid Stage: Two Vikas engines.
○ Cryogenic Upper Stage: Indigenous high-thrust cryogenic engine (CE20).
● Capabilities:
○ Payload capacity: Up to 4-tonne satellites into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits.
○ Can place payloads up to 8,000 kg into 600 km Low Earth Orbits.
○ Recently used for the Chandrayaan-3 mission.

ISRO SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLES UNDER DEVELOPMENT

● Human Rated Launch Vehicle (HRLV):
○ A modified version of the current LVM-3 heavy-lift launch vehicle.
○ Capabilities:
■ Designed to launch the Orbital Module into a 400 km Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
■ Features a Crew Escape System (CES) with quick-acting, high-burn rate solid
motors.
● Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV):
○ Three-stage vehicle with three solid propulsion stages and a terminal stage utilizing liquid
propulsion (Velocity Trimming Module).
○ Capabilities: Can launch nano, micro, and mini satellites up to 500 kg into a 500 km
planar orbit.
● Reusable Launch Vehicle - Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD):
○ Design:
■ Aircraft-like configuration with a nose cap, fuselage, two delta wings, and two
vertical tails.
■ Includes elevons and rudder as active control surfaces.
○ Future Plans:
■ To be scaled up as the first stage of India's reusable two-stage orbital launch
vehicle.
■ Comparable to SpaceX’s Falcon 9, a major reusable launch vehicle.
● Scramjet Engine - TD:
○ Operates at hypersonic speeds with supersonic combustion, using hydrogen as fuel and
atmospheric oxygen as the oxidizer.
○ Achievements:
■ First experimental mission successfully conducted in 2016.
■ India is the fourth country to test a scramjet engine.

NOTABLE FOREIGN LAUNCH VEHICLES

● Ariane 5:
○ Operator: European Space Agency (ESA).
○ Capabilities:
■ Carries payloads over 20 metric tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

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 ■ Transports more than 10 metric tons to Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO).
○ Usage by India: Launched communication and Earth observation satellites such as
INSAT-3D and GSAT-30.
● Falcon 9:
○ Manufacturer: SpaceX.
○ Capabilities:
■ First orbital-class reusable rocket with a two-stage design.
■ Launches payloads up to 22 metric tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
■ Capable of placing 8 metric tons into Geostationary Orbit (GEO).
● Space Launch System (SLS):
○ Developer: NASA.
○ Capabilities:
■ Super heavy-lift rocket with a payload capacity of 70 metric tons to LEO.
■ Only rocket able to transport the Orion spacecraft, crew of four astronauts, and
substantial cargo to the Moon in one mission.
■ Features crew and service modules along with a launch abort system.
● Soyuz 5:
○ Operator: Russian Space Agency.
○ Capabilities: Heavy-lift rocket capable of launching 17 metric tons to Low Earth Orbit
(LEO).

PROPULSION TECHNOLOGY
RAMJET ENGINE
● Overview:
○ Utilizes exhaust velocity from combustion to generate thrust.
○ Operates without external compressors or turbines, relying on high-speed airflow.
● Operation:
○ Ignites fuel in the combustion chamber using the speed of incoming air.
○ Functions efficiently at supersonic speeds (Mach 3 to 6).
○ No moving parts, making it lighter and more compact compared to turbojets.
● Advantages:
○ Compact and lightweight design.
○ No need for external compressors or turbines.
○ More efficient for high-speed applications.
● Disadvantages:
○ Inefficient at low airspeeds, requiring large intakes for operation.
○ Higher fuel consumption compared to traditional turbojets, leading to increased
operational costs.

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SCRAMJET ENGINE
● Overview:
○ An advanced version of the ramjet engine where combustion occurs in supersonic airflow.
○ Achieves higher speeds than ramjets by not requiring airflow to be slowed for combustion.
○ Uses liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen as an oxidizer.
● Operation:
○ No moving parts, similar to ramjets.
○ Operates efficiently at very high speeds (Mach 12 to 24).
○ Relies on supersonic airflow for combustion, eliminating the need for air compression.
● Advantages:
○ Higher speed potential due to combustion in supersonic airflow.
○ Greater fuel efficiency compared to traditional turbojets and ramjets.
○ Potentially better performance during acceleration.
● Disadvantages:
○ Inefficient at lower speeds; requires high-speed operation for effective thrust.
○ Complex to manage due to precise supersonic airflow requirements.
○ More expensive and challenging to handle compared to other jet engines.
○ May sacrifice some thrust compared to traditional engines.

CRYOGENIC ENGINE
● Overview:
○ A cryogenic engine, also called a cryogenic stage, is the final stage of a space launch vehicle
using cryogenics for propulsion.
○ It uses propellants at extremely low temperatures, making it more complex than solid or
liquid propellant stages.
● Working:
○ Uses Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) as propellants, which liquefy at -
183°C and -253°C, respectively.
● Components:

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 ○ Key components include the combustion chamber, igniter, fuel and oxidizer cryo pumps,
gas turbine, cryo valves, regulators, fuel tanks, and rocket engine nozzle.

India and Cryogenic Technology

● Development:
○ The Indian government approved the Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) project in 1994. ISRO
developed its first 7.5-tonne cryogenic engine in 2000.
○ India is now among the six nations that have developed cryogenic engines, alongside the
USA, France (ESA), Russia, China, and Japan.
● First Tests:
○ ISRO tested its first cryogenic engine in 2003, and the first successful flight took place in
2014 with the GSLV-DF rocket.
● CE-20 Engine:
○ For the Chandrayaan-3 mission, ISRO used the CE-20 engine, its largest cryogenic engine,
developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
○ CE-20 is India's first cryogenic engine with a gas-generator cycle.
● Semi-Cryogenic Engine:
○ In 2023, ISRO conducted the first hot test of the Semi-cryogenic Engine (Power Head
Test Article), which uses refined kerosene instead of liquid hydrogen, making storage and
handling easier.
● ICMF Facility:
○ Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) established the Integrated Cryogenic Engine
Manufacturing Facility (ICMF) for manufacturing cryogenic and semi-cryogenic engines for
India's space program.

OPENING UP THE INDIAN SPACE SECTOR FOR PRIVATE SECTOR

Growth of Space Start-ups:
● Subsequent years witnessed the establishment of several other space start-ups:
○ Bellatrix Aerospace (2015)
○ Manastu Space (2017)

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 ○ Skyroot Aerospace (2018)
● As of now, over 200 space start-ups are registered in India.
INDIAN REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR PRIVATE SPACE COMPANIES
● NewSpace India Limited (NSIL):
○ Establishment: NSIL is a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) of the Government of India,
set up in 2019 under the Companies Act, 2013.
○ Objective: It aims to enhance private sector involvement in Indian space programs by
producing, assembling, and integrating launch vehicles with industry partners.
● Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Center (IN-SPACe):
○ Formation: Created in 2020 as part of the ‘Aatma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’ stimulus
package.
○ Role: IN-SPACe serves as an independent, single-window agency to authorize, promote,
and oversee private sector space activities.
● National Geospatial Policy:
○ Guidelines Issued: In 2021, guidelines were issued allowing private companies to obtain
geospatial data and maps from government agencies without licenses.
○ Policy Rollout: In 2022, the National Geospatial Policy was introduced to further
encourage private sector participation in geospatial data collection.
● Amended FDI Policy (2024):
○ Satellite Manufacturing and Operation: Allows up to 74% Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI).
○ Launch Vehicles, Spaceports, and Associated Systems: Permits up to 49% FDI.
○ Components and Systems/Subsystems: 100% FDI allowed for manufacturing satellite
components, ground, and user segments.

NEED FOR PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT IN INDIA’S SPACE INDUSTRY

● Increasing Demand:
○ The demand for space-based services in India surpasses ISRO’s capacity.
○ Private sector investment is crucial to meet this demand and requires a supportive policy
environment.
● Overall Growth of the Space Sector:
○ Private sector involvement is essential for the sector’s growth.
○ While ISRO collaborates with PSUs like Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and large private
entities like Larsen & Toubro, expanding the role of private industries is necessary.
● Country’s Security:
○ Distributing space capabilities across various satellites and spacecraft ensures continuity
even if some are disabled.
○ For example, the US maintains its space capabilities through a vast network of satellites,
allowing for resilience and adaptability.
● International Trends and Experience:
○ Companies like SpaceX have demonstrated the growing importance of private players in
space.
○ In India, a limited private ecosystem has formed around ISRO, despite various constraints.
● Greater Pool of Resources:
○ Private sector involvement will provide additional resources, including funding and talent.
○ It will help address limitations in public resources such as land, labor, and capital.
● Human Capital:
○ Restricting space activities to ISRO limits the utilization of nationwide talent.
○ Private sector participation can harness the demographic dividend and contribute
significantly to space exploration.
● Technological Advancement:
○ Commercialization will drive technological innovations and allow integration of
technologies like artificial intelligence.
○ Private sector experience can enhance technology use across other areas.

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● Risk Sharing:
○ Private sector participation helps distribute the risks associated with space launches.
○ Shared failure costs and increased human capital can reduce overall risk.
● Commercial Demand:
○ Increasing internet connectivity and potential for asteroid mining drive commercial
interest in space.
○ These factors can attract private investment and create new market opportunities.

Issues and Concerns of Private Sector Participation

● Data Risk: Sensitive ISRO data in private hands may be misused or improperly utilized.
● Regulation: Regulatory challenges include delays in clearances and unstable political
environments affecting investor decisions.
● Revenue Loss: ISRO might lose revenue from space activities due to increased private
involvement.
● Unfair Commercial Practices: Risk of lobbying, unfair practices, and leakage of sensitive
information by private entities.

WEAPONISATION OF SPACE
● Weaponisation: Refers to the deployment of weapons in space that could be used to target
objects in orbit or on Earth’s surface, potentially turning space into a conflict zone.
● Militarisation: Involves using space to support military operations on Earth, including ground,
sea, and air-based activities.
● Recent Event: Russia vetoed a United Nations Security Council (UNSC) draft resolution
proposed by the United States and Japan aimed at keeping outer space weapon-free.

Key Global Initiatives for Peace in Space

● Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS, 1959): Oversees space
exploration and use, aiming for the benefit of all humanity.
● Outer Space Treaty (1967): Prohibits nuclear and other WMDs in outer space.
● Rescue Agreement (1968): Covers the rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
● Space Liability Convention (1972): Holds the launching state liable for damages caused by its
space objects.
● Launch Registration Convention (1975): Requires states to register space objects and inform
the UN Secretary-General.
● Moon Agreement (1979): Bans military bases, installations, and weapon testing on the Moon.

India’s Involvement
● Treaties Ratified: India is a party to the Outer Space Treaty, the Rescue Agreement, the Liability
Convention, and the Registration Convention.
● Moon Treaty: India has signed but not ratified the Moon Agreement.
● Participation: India is an active participant in COPUOS.

Steps Taken by India to Enhance Space Capabilities

● Defence Space Agency (DSA): Established in 2018 to improve coordination among military
space activities.
● Mission Shakti: India conducted its first successful Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile test in 2019 to
protect its space assets.
● IndSpaceEx: In 2019, India held its inaugural simulated space warfare exercise to evaluate
potential threats and develop a joint space warfare doctrine.

Emerging Challenges with the Weaponisation of Space

● Arms Race and Deterrence:

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 ○ Major powers, including the US, China, and Russia, have established military units
specialized in space operations.
○ Space is increasingly becoming a domain for warfare and strategic deterrence.
● Debris and Congestion:
○ Conflicts in space could lead to a significant increase in space debris.
○ This debris poses long-term threats to the space environment and future missions.
● Dual-Use Technologies:
○ Many space technologies, such as launch vehicles, small satellites, GPS systems, and debris
removal tools, have both civilian and military uses.
○ This dual-use nature complicates the distinction between peaceful and military
applications.
● Outdated Outer Space Treaty (OST):
○ The OST, formulated under different geopolitical and technological contexts, may not
effectively address modern challenges related to space weaponisation.

Way Forward
● International Cooperation:
○ Initiate discussions for a legally-binding treaty to prohibit the weaponisation of outer
space.
○ The treaty should aim to ban all types of weapons, including Weapons of Mass Destruction
(WMD) and conventional hit-to-kill weapons.
● Space-Domain Awareness:
○ Invest in space-domain awareness and establish diplomatic agreements, such as the
Combined Space Operations Initiative (CSpO) involving the ‘five-eyes’ countries,
Germany, and France.
■ The Five Eyes is an intelligence alliance composed of Australia, Canada, New
Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States.
● Mitigating Space Debris:
○ Improve Space Situational Awareness (SSA) to monitor space debris, track rogue satellites,
and manage collision risks.
○ Develop measures to detect and prevent signs of weaponisation in space.
● Enforceable Space Law:
○ Implement laws that impose significant diplomatic, political, and economic penalties on
states violating responsible space behaviour.
○ Example: The proposed Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS) UN
resolution aims to ban the weaponization of space.

INDIAN SPACE POLICY 2023

Vision:
● Enable, encourage, and develop a thriving commercial presence in space.
● Recognizes the private sector as a key stakeholder in the space economy's value chain.
Key Highlights:
● Four Distinct Entities:
○ The policy establishes four entities to facilitate private sector participation in space
activities, traditionally dominated by ISRO.
● InSPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre):
○ Acts as a single-window clearance and authorization agency for space activities (e.g.,
launches, satellites, data dissemination).
○ Facilitates technology and knowledge sharing with non-government entities (NGEs) and
government companies.
○ Ensures a stable regulatory framework for a level playing field for NGEs.
○ Promotes industry clusters and regulates space activities with guidelines on liability issues.
● New Space India Limited (NSIL):

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 ○Responsible for commercializing space technologies and platforms developed through
public expenditure.
○ Engages in manufacturing, leasing, and procuring space components and assets from the
private and public sectors.
● Department of Space:
○ Provides overall policy direction and serves as the nodal department for implementing
space technologies.
○ Coordinates international cooperation in space governance with the Ministry of External
Affairs.
○ Establishes mechanisms for resolving disputes related to space activities.
● Rationalizing ISRO’s Role:
○ ISRO will transition out of manufacturing operational space systems.
○ Mature space systems will be transferred to industries for commercial use.
○ ISRO will focus on R&D in advanced technology and long-term projects like Chandrayaan
and Gaganyaan.
○ ISRO will share technologies, products, and best practices with government and private
companies to boost commercial space activities.

Gaps in the Indian Space Policy 2023

● Ambitious Role for IN-SPACe: The policy outlines a significant role for IN-SPACe but lacks a
specific time frame for its implementation.
● No Timeline for ISRO’s Transition: There is no indicative schedule for ISRO to transition
out of its current practices or for IN-SPACe to establish the regulatory framework.
● Unclear Rules and Regulations:
○ The policy does not provide clear rules for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), licensing,
government procurement, or liability for violations.
○ No appellate framework is mentioned for dispute resolution.
● Legislative Authority of IN-SPACe:
○ IN-SPACe is a regulatory body but lacks legislative authority.
● Ambiguity in IN-SPACe’s Role:
○ IN-SPACe is expected to authorize space activities for both government and non-
government entities but operates ambiguously under the Department of Space without
independent legislative power.

Recommendations to Address These Gaps

● Time Frame for Legal Framework:
○ A timeline is needed to create the necessary legal and regulatory framework to implement
the vision of the policy and propel India into the Second Space Age.
● Statutory Status for IN-SPACe:
○ The government should introduce a bill to give IN-SPACe statutory status and set clear
time limits for both ISRO’s transition and IN-SPACe’s regulatory functions.
● Clarification on FDI and Support for Startups:
○ The bill should address the ambiguity surrounding Foreign Investment and outline
government support for space startups.

SPACE FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

● Improved Agricultural Productivity:
○ Example: Satellite data from ISRO's CARTOSAT and RISAT missions help farmers
monitor crop health, predict weather patterns, and manage irrigation, resulting in more
efficient farming practices and improved yields.
● Disaster Management and Risk Reduction:
○ Example: The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) provides early warnings for
cyclones and floods, helping governments and communities prepare in advance, reducing
loss of life and property.

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● Enhanced Communication and Connectivity:
○ Example: GSAT satellites facilitate communication services, ensuring that rural and
remote areas have access to mobile and internet connectivity, bridging the digital divide
in India.
● Healthcare via Telemedicine:
○ Example: The use of EDUSAT and INSAT for telemedicine services enables doctors to
provide remote consultations and healthcare services to patients in rural or underserved
regions, improving health outcomes.
● Education through Satellite Technology:
○ Example: The EDUSAT satellite provides distance education services, allowing remote
and rural students to access high-quality educational content and participate in interactive
learning sessions.
● Employment Creation in the Space Sector:
○ Example: India's space sector, led by ISRO, has nurtured a growing space economy,
involvement of Private sector, creating jobs in areas such as satellite manufacturing, launch
services, and ground-based operations.
● Urban Planning and Infrastructure Development:
○ Example: Satellite data is used to map urban areas, assess land use, and plan
infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, and housing, ensuring better city planning
and sustainable growth.
● Environmental Monitoring and Natural Resource Management:
○ Example: ISRO's satellite imagery is used to monitor deforestation, water bodies, and
land degradation, helping the government design policies to manage natural resources
effectively.
● Navigation and Transportation:
○ Example: The NAVIC system supports accurate positioning for road, maritime, and air
transportation, improving navigation and reducing travel time and fuel consumption.
● Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation:
○ Example: Satellite technology helps monitor the progress of government schemes like
MGNREGA by providing real-time data on infrastructure projects, ensuring transparency
and effective implementation of rural development initiatives.

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