10/9/24 21:15

RINGS CHAR POLYNOMIAL RINGS FACTORIZATION

Terms and Definition Remarks and Theorems Terms and Definition Remarks and Theorems Terms and Definition Remarks and Theorems Terms and Definition Remarks and Theorems

Group: Let f be a ring homomorphism. Characteristic of R Let R be ring with 1. Polynomial Ring The set R[x] of all polynomials in an indeterminate x with coefficients Let D be an ID. In an integral domain, every prime is irreducible.
i. A nonempty set G i. 𝑓(00 ) = 01 If there exist a smallest positive integer 𝑛 s.t. for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑛𝑎 = 0, then n is If 1 has an infinite order under addition, then 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 (𝑅) = 0. Let R be a ring. A polynomial f with coefficients in R is an infinite formal sum in a ring R is a ring under polynomial addition and multiplication. a and b of D are called associates if 𝑎 = 𝑢𝑏 where u is a In a principal ideal domain, an element is irreducible iif it is
ii. With a binary operation * s.t. ii. 𝑓(−𝑎) = −𝑓(𝑎)∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 is the characteristic of R If 1 has order 𝑛 under addition, then 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 (𝑅) = 𝑛. Let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑅[𝑥 ]. unit of D. In notation, 𝑎~𝑏. prime.
iii. * is associative Prime Field The characteristic of an integral domain is 0 or prime. i. deg(𝑓 + 𝑔) ≤ max{deg 𝑓, deg 𝑔} i. Nonzero element a of D is called irreducible if a is not
{𝟎} 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑭 are the only ideals of a field F L. In a PID, any strictly increasing chain of ideals 𝐼, ⊂ 𝐼/ ⊂
iv. identity element: ∃𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 A field F is a prime field if F has no proper subfield Where 𝑎& = 0 for all but a finite number of values of i. The 𝑎& are coefficients ii. deg(𝑓𝑔) ≤ deg 𝑓 + deg 𝑔 unit, whenever 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐷 with 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑐, then b or c is a unit.
v. Inverse element: ∃𝑎! ∈ 𝐺 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎! = 𝑒 = 𝑎! ∗ 𝑎 A field is an ID. The characteristic of a field is 0 or prime. ii. Nonzero element a of D is called prime if a is not unit and . . .must be finite in length.
Prime Subfield of f. iii. If R has no zero divisors, then deg(𝑓𝑔) = deg 𝑓 + deg 𝑔
Ring Quotient Rings. Let F be a field and K be a prime subfield of F. 𝑎|𝑏𝑐 imples a|b or a|c Every PID is UFD.
R is a ring and I is an ideal of R. Then, Let F be a field. A subfield K of F is called a prime subfield of F if K has no i. If the 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 (𝐹) = 0, then 𝐾 ≅ 𝑄. If 𝑓 = ∑'&() 𝑎& 𝑥 &
s.t. 𝑎' ≠ 0, then 𝑎' is the leading coefficient of f and i. If R is commutative with unity, then R[x] is commutative with
i. A ring is a triple (𝑅, +,⋅) s.t. proper subfield. Unique Factorization Domain cor. Let F be a field. Then F[x] is a UFD.
R/I= {𝒓 + 𝑰 |𝒓 ∈ 𝑹} ii. If the 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 (𝐹 ) = 𝑝 for prime 𝑝 > 0, then 𝐾 ≅ 𝑍$ . degree of f is n: 𝒅𝒆𝒈 𝒇 = 𝒏 unity
ii. R is a nonempty set An ID D is a UFD if
Prime ii. If R is an ID, then so is R[x]. If F is a field, the polynomial ring F[x] is a Euclidean domain.
iii. (R,+) is an abelian group First Isomorphism Theorem i. If 𝑃 is an ideal in ring 𝑅 s.t. 𝑃 ≠ 𝑅 and for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, Monic polynomial --- If R has an identity and 𝑎' = 1 i. Every nonzero element D that is not a unit can be written
An ideal P of a ring R is called prime if iii. If R is a field, then R[x] is an ID. Every ID is a PID.
+ is associative Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑆 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚. 𝒊𝒇 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑷, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂 ∈ 𝑷 𝒐𝒓 𝒃 ∈ 𝑷 (∗), then 𝑃 is prime. as a product of irreducibles of D, and
i. 𝑃 ≠ 𝑅 Zero polynomial --- If 𝑓 = ∑'&() 𝑎& 𝑥 & s.t. 𝑎& = 0 for all i Division Algorithm for F[x]
Identity exist
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 ii. Conversely, if P is prime and 𝑅 is commutative, then P ii. The factorization into irreducibles is unique up to cor. Every ED is a UFD.
Inverse exist ii. For any ideals 𝐴 and 𝐵 of 𝑅, 𝐴𝐵 ⊆ 𝑃 implies 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑃 or 𝐵 ⊆ 𝑃 Constant polynomial --- If 𝑓 = ∑'&() 𝑎& 𝑥 & s.t. 𝑎& = 0 for all 𝑖 ≠ 0 Let F be a field and let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] with 𝑔 ≠ 0. Then there exists associates and the order in which the factors appear
The set is commutative 𝑅/ ker 𝑓 ≅ 𝐼𝑚 𝑓 satisfies (∗). ℤ[𝒊] is an ID.
iv. ⋅ is associative Principal ideal generated by a The ring R[x] is called a ring of polynomials/ polynomial ring over R in unique polynomials q and r in F[x] s.t. Euclidean Domain
Let R be a commutative wing with 1% . An ideal P is prime iff 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒙)𝒒(𝒙) + 𝒓(𝒙) and either 𝑟(𝑥 ) = 0 or the deg 𝑟 < deg 𝑔. ℤ[𝒊] with the φ(𝑥 ) = 𝑁(𝑥) is an ED.
v. Left and right distribution laws hold: If R is a commutative with unity and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, the ideal {𝑟𝑎 |𝑟 ∈ 𝑅} of all the indeterminate x.
R/P is an ID. (PS)
𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 multiples of a is the principal ideal generated by a: ⟨𝑎⟩ = {𝑟𝑎 |𝑟 ∈ 𝑅} cor. The Remainder Theorem If D is an Id with multiplicative norm N, then N(1) = 1 and
Let R be a commutative with unity. Then every maximal ideal D is an integral domain.
(𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐 Maximal Let f be a field, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, and 𝑓 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]. Then 𝑓(𝑎) is the remainder in the |N(u)| = 1 for every unit u in D.
in R is prime. i. If 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐷[𝑥], we say that g|f if there exists ℎ ∈ 𝐷[𝑥] s.t. 𝑓 = 𝑔ℎ. In this,
Multiplicative Identity A left/right ideal M in R is maximal if division of f by 𝑥 − 𝑎.
g is a factor of f.
i. 𝑀 ≠ 𝑅 Suppose R has 1% and M is an ideal in R. ii. An element 𝑎 is a zero (root) of a polynomial f if 𝑓(𝑎) = 0. cor. Factor Theorem
Subring
ii. For all left/right ideal 𝑁 s.t. 𝑀 ⊆ 𝑁 ⊆ 𝑅, either 𝑀 = 𝑁 or 𝑁 = 𝑅. i. If R is commutative and M is maximal, then R/M is a An element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹 is a zero of 𝑓 ∈ 𝐹 [𝑥 ] if and only if 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor
A nonempty subset of a ring R is a subring of R if it Let F be a field, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, and 𝑓 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]. Then we say 𝑎 is zero of multiplicity 𝑘 if
field. of 𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝐹[𝑥]
itself is a ring under the binary operations of R. (𝑥 − 𝑎)* is a factor of 𝑓 but (𝑥 − 𝑎)*+, is not a factor of f . Gaussian Integers
ii. If R/M is a division ring, then M is maximal.
Subring Test cor. Polynomials of Degree 𝒏 have at most 𝒏 zeros
Principal Ideal Domain
i. 𝑆 ≠ ∅ A polynomial of degree 𝑛 over a field has at most n zeros counting
A PID is an integral domain R in which every ideal is principal.
ii. 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑅 multiplicity.
Let D be an ID. (not true for arbitrary polynomial rings)
iii. 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆
i. A polynomial f from D[x] that is neither the zero polynomial nor a unit
iv. 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 Let F be a field. The F[x] is a PID.
in D[x] is said to be irreducible over D if, whenever f is expressed as a
Ring Homomorphism product 𝑓 = 𝑔ℎ with g and h from D[x], then g or h is unit in D[x]. Let F be a field, I an ideal in F[x], and 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]. Then 𝐼 = ⟨𝑔⟩ iif g is a
Let f is a ring homomorphism. Then ii. A nonzero, nonunit element of D[x] that is not irreducible over D is nonzero poluynomial of minimum degree in I.
called reducible over D.
𝐤𝐞𝐫 𝒇 = {𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 | 𝑓(𝑎) = 0𝑠} R. Let D be a field. A nonconstant f ∈ D[x] is irreducible
𝑰𝒎 𝒇 = {𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 | 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏, ∃𝑎 ∈ 𝑅} i. The content of a polynomial 𝑎) + 𝑎, 𝑥 + … + 𝑎' 𝑥 where '
𝑎&! 𝑠
are integers over D if and only if f cannot be expressed as a product of two Multiplicative Norm
𝐼𝑓 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑹, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒇(𝑨) = {𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 |𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 ∃ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} is the greatest common divisor of the integers 𝑎), 𝑎, , … , 𝑎' . polynomial in D[x] of lower degree. Let D be an ID. Multiplicative norm on D is a function 𝑁: 𝐷 → ℤ
𝐼𝑓 𝑱 ⊆ 𝑺, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒇"𝟏 (𝑱) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴|𝑓(𝑎)] ∈ 𝐽} ii. A primitive polynomial is an element of ℤ[𝑥] with content 1. s.t.
Reducibility Test for Degrees 2 and 3 i. N(𝑥) = 0 iif x=0
Ring Monomorphism Let F be a field. If 𝑓 ∈ 𝐹 [𝑥 ] and deg 𝑓 = 2 𝑜𝑟 3, then f is reducible ii. N(𝑥𝑦)= N(x)N(y) for all 𝑥, 𝑦, ∈ 𝐷
Ring Epimorphism over F iif f has a zero in F.
Ring Isomorphism Note: Polynomials of degree larger than 3 may be reducible
Ideals
over a field, even though they do not have zeros in the field.
A subring I of R is Gauss' Lemma
i. Left ideal of R ∀𝑟 ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑟𝑎 ∈ 𝐼 The product of two primitive polynomials is primitive.
ii. Right ideal of R if ∀𝑟 ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑎𝑟 ∈ 𝐼
iii. Ideal of R if both a left and right ideal of R
If 𝑓 ∈ ℤ[𝑥 ]. If f is reducible over ℚ, then it is reducible over ℤ.

Ideal Test ∗! Let p be a prime and suppose 𝑓 ∈ ℤ with deg 𝑓 ≥ 1. Let 𝑓 ̅ ∈ ℤ

i. 𝐼 ≠ ∅ obtained from f by reducing all the coefficients of f modulo p. If
ii. 𝐼 ⊆ 𝑅 𝑓 ̅ is irreducible over ℤ" and deg 𝑓 = deg 𝑓 ̅ , then f is irreducible
iii. 𝑎 − 𝑏, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼, over ℚ.
iv. 𝑟𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐼, ∀𝑟 ∈ 𝑅
R. 𝑀𝑜𝑑 𝑝 Irreducibility Test may fail for some p and work for
v. 𝑎𝑟, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐼, ∀𝑟 ∈ 𝑅
others.
Multiplicative Inverse
R. The converse of ∗! is not true in general.
Unit element
If a has a left and right multiplicative inverse and are Einstein Criterion
equal Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎) + 𝑎, 𝑥 + … + 𝑎' 𝑥 ' ∈ ℤ[𝑥]. If there is prime p such
that 𝑝 ∤ 𝑎# , 𝑝 |𝑎$ , and 𝑝% ∤ 𝑎& , then f is irreducible over ℚ.
Division Ring
A ring R with unity is called a division ring if every cor. For any prime 𝑝, the 𝑝𝑡ℎ cyclotomic polynomial
nonzero element of R is a unit.
Field
Commutative division ring is irreducible over ℚ.
Zero Divisors Let F be a field and let 𝑝 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]. Then ⟨𝑝(𝑥 )⟩ is a maximal ideal
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 are zero divisors if 𝑎𝑏 = 0 implies 𝑎 ≠ 0 or in F[x] iif p(x) is irreducible over F.
𝑏≠0
cor. Let F be a field and p an irreducible polynomial over F.
Integral Domain (ID) Then 𝐹[𝑥]/⟨𝑝⟩ is a field.
If R is commutative with 1 and has no zero divisors

EXTENSION FIELDS ALGEBRAIC EXTENSION

Terms and Definition Remarks and Theorems Terms and Definition Remarks and Theorems

Extension Field Fundamental Theorem of Field Theory (Kronecker's Theorem- 1887) Types of Extensions Charcterization of Extension
A field E is an extension field of a field F if F ⊆ E and the Let F be field and f(x) a nonconstant polynomial in F[x]. Then there is an Let E be an extension field of a field F and let a ∈ 𝐸.
operations of F are those of E restricted to F. extension field E of F in which f(x) has a zero.
▫ 𝑎 is algebraic over F if 𝑎 is the zero of some polynomial in F[x]
Splitting Field Existence of Splitting Fields ▫ If 𝑎 is not algebraic over F, then its transcendental over F
Let E be an extension field of F and let 𝑓(𝑥 ) ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]. Let F be a field and let f(x) be a nonconstant element of F[x]. Then there ▫ An extension E of F is an algebraic extension of F if every element of E is algebraic over F.
▫ f(x) splits in E if f(x) can be factored as a product of exists a splitting E for f(x) over F. ▫ If E is not an algebraic extension of F, it is called a transcendental extension of F. Uniqueness Property
linear factors in E[x]. 𝐅(𝐚) ≈ 𝐅[𝐱]/⟨𝐩(𝐱)⟩ ▫ An extension of F of the form F(a) is called a simple extension of F. If a is algebraic over a field F, then there is a unique monic irreducible
▫ E is a splitting field for f(x) over F if f(x) splits in E Let F be a field and let p(x) ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] be irrudicible over F. If a is a zero of p(x) polynomial p(x) in F[x] such that p(a)=0.
but in no proper subfield of E. Degree of an Extension
in some extension E of F then F(a) is isomorphic to 𝐹[𝑥]/⟨𝑝(𝑥 )⟩. Futhermore,
Divisibility Property
if deg p(x) =n, then every member of F(a) can be uniquely expressed in the Let a be algebraic over F, and let p(x) be the minimal polynomial for a over F. If
form 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] and f(a)=0, then p(x) divides f(x) in F[x].
Finite Implies Algebraic
} The thm shows how fields F(a) and 𝐹[𝑥]/⟨𝑝(𝑥 )⟩ are related in the case that p(x) is If E is a finite extension of F, then E is an algebraic extension of F.
irreducible over F and a is a zero of p(x) in some extension of F. [K:F]=[K:E][E:F]
Lem. Let F be a field, let p(x)∈ 𝐹[𝑥] be irreducible over F, and let a be a zero
of p(x) in some extension of F. If ϕ is a field isomorphism from F to F' and b
is a zero of p(x)ϕ in some extension of F', then there is an isomorphism from
F(a) to F'(b) that agrees with ϕ o F and carries a to b.
Primitive Element Theorem (Steinitz,1910)
If F is a field of characteristic 0, and a and b are algebraic over F, then there is
an element c in F(a,b) such that F(a,b)=F(c).
Algebraic over Algebraic Is Algebraic
notes: If K is an algebraic extension of E and E is an algebraic extension of F, then K is
▪ A linear factor is a polynomial factor of the first degree, which means it has a power of one. an algebraic extension of F.
▪ A proper subfield is a subfield that is strictly smaller than the field it is contained in. Cor. Subfield of Algebraic Elements
▪ A field that has no proper subfields is called a prime field. A proper subfield is a subfield that is Let E be an extension field of the field F. Then the set of all elements of E that
strictly smaller than the field it is contained in. are algebraic over F is a subfield of E.