Chapter 1

Computer System

Introduction to computer System:

 A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it
and generate result (output). A computer along with additional hardware and software together
is called a computer system.
 The computer hardware is the physical components of computer which we can see and touch.
The computer hardware comprises a Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, peripherals, input
and output devices.
 A software is sequence of instructions or set of commands designed for making device to
function and automation of tasks. Initially a computer was invented for the purpose of
numerical calculations.

“A computer is an electronic device designed to accept the input automatically, process them and
generate the output according to the instructions by the user.”

1. Input Devices:

 The devices through which control signals are sent to a computer are termed as input devices.
 Devices convert the input data into a digital form that is acceptable by the computer system.
 Some examples of input devices include keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen, etc.

2. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 The CPU can be called the brain of a computer system.
 The central processing unit (CPU) is where the majority of the important calculations and
comparisons are performed. In addition, the CPU is in charge of turning on and controlling the
operation of the other units.
  The arithmetic logic unit, also known as the ALU, and the control unit (CU) are the two primary
elements that make up this unit. First, let's take a moment to briefly define these two different
units of CPU.

3. Control Unit (CU)

 In addition, the control unit of a central processing unit is responsible for directing the overall
operation of a computer. In addition to this, it exercises control over all devices connected to
the CPU, including memory and input/output devices.
 The CU is responsible for retrieving instructions from memory, decoding those instructions,
interpreting those instructions to determine what tasks are to be carried out, and then sending
appropriate control signals to the other components so that they can carry out the steps
necessary to execute the instruction.

4. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 The arithmetic logic unit is responsible for carrying out all of the mathematical operations,
including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. In addition to that, a logical
operation is used for the comparison.

5. Output Devices:
 The device that receives data from a computer system for display, physical production, etc., is
called output device.
 It converts digital information into human understandable form.
 For example, monitor r, projector, headphone, speaker, printer, etc.

6. Memory Unit
 Memory units are an integral part of any modern digital computer. It is the repository for all of
the results, both intermediate and final.
 The data that are read from the primary storage or an input unit are moved to the memory of
the computer so that they can be processed. These data can come from either the main storage
or an input unit.
 The data that needs to be processed and the instructions that need to be carried out are both
stored in this memory unit so they can be accessed quickly.
2. Evolution of computer:
The history of computers dates back several millennia, when ancient civilizations used counting tools like
the abacus. Over time, various machines were invented to assist with mathematical computations. Here
is a brief visual timeline of the major milestones in the evolution of computers:

Abacus: One of the oldest known counting devices, the abacus was invented in ancient Mesopotamia
around 2400 BC. It consists of beads that slide along rods, allowing users to perform addition,
subtraction, and multiplication.

Antikythera Mechanism: Discovered in 1901, the Antikythera Mechanism is a bronze device believed
to have been built in ancient Greece around 100 BC. It is considered the world’s first analog computer
and was used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses.

Pascaline: Invented by French mathematician Blaise Pascal in 1642, the Pascaline was a mechanical
calculator that could perform addition and subtraction. It used a series of gears and wheels to represent
the digits.
Analytical Engine: Designed by British mathematician Charles Babbage in the early 19th century, the
Analytical Engine was a mechanical general-purpose computer that could perform any calculation. It used
punched cards to input data and had a memory that could store up to 1,000 numbers.

ENIAC: The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was the world’s first general-purpose
electronic computer, built in the United States in 1945. It used vacuum tubes to perform calculations and
was initially used to calculate artillery firing tables.

UNIVAC: Built by the same team that created ENIAC, the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was
the first commercially available computer. It was introduced in 1951 and was used by the US Census
Bureau and other organizations.
IBM Personal Computer: Int roduced in 1981, the IBM Personal Computer (PC) was the first mass-
produced computer for home and business use. It was powered by an Intel 8088 processor and ran on
the Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS).

In conclusion, the history of computers spans several millennia and has been marked by numerous
groundbreaking inventions and innovations. From ancient counting tools to the development of
electronic and personal computers, humans have continually sought to improve and automate
computational processes. Today, computers are integral to many aspects of modern life, from
communication and entertainment to science and industry. As technology continues to advance, it will be
exciting to see how computers and their capabilities will continue to evolve and shape our world.
4. Computer memory:

“A physical device that stores data or information temporarily or permanently in it is called memory”.
Memory is a device where data is stored and processed. In common, a computer has primary and
secondary memories. Auxiliary (secondary) memory stores data and programs for long-term storage or
until the time a user wants to keep them in memory, while main memory stores instructions and data
during programme execution; hence, any programme or file that is currently running or executing on a
computer is stored in primary memory.

It is essential for the operation of a computer, as it allows for the temporary storage of information that
the CPU needs to execute tasks efficiently. Without memory, a computer would be unable to function
properly, as it would lack the ability to store and retrieve the necessary data for processing.

Units of Memory:
The units of memory are used to measure the amount of data that a storage device or memory module
can hold. In other words, Units of memory are standardized measurements used to quantify the amount
of data a computer system can store or process. These units are based on binary digits (bits) and their
groupings, reflecting how data is represented and handled in digital systems.

Basic Units of Memory

 Bit: The smallest unit of memory, representing a single binary digit, either 0 or 1. It is the
fundamental building block of all digital data.

 Nibble: A group of 4 bits, capable of representing 16 possible values (0–15). Nibbles are often
used in contexts like hexadecimal encoding.

 Byte: Consists of 8 bits. It is the primary unit of memory storage and can represent a single
character (letter, number, or symbol). Bytes are the smallest addressable unit in most computer
architectures17.

 Word: A group of bits processed as a unit by the CPU. Its size varies by system architecture,
commonly 16, 32, or 64 bits, and is fixed for each computer47.

Measurement units for digital data

Unit Equivalent in Bytes Common Usage

Bit (b) 1 bit Smallest data unit
Byte (B) 8 bits Individual character data
Kilobyte (KB) 1,024 Bytes (≈10^3 Bytes) Small files, memory sizes
Megabyte 1,024 KB Image, audio, small videos
(MB)
Gigabyte (GB) 1,024 MB Storage devices, RAM
Terabyte (TB) 1,024 GB Large storage devices
Petabyte (PB) 1,024 TB Data centers, big data
Types of Memory:
Types of Memory in computer systems refer to various forms of storage that are used for different
purposes such as temporary data holding, permanent data storage, or processing. Each type of memory
has distinct characteristics like speed, volatility, and capacity. The main types include primary memory,
secondary memory, and cache memory.

1. Primary memory:
Primary memory is also known as main memory or may also refer to "Internal memory." and primary
storage. Primary memory is an essential component of acomputer system. Program and data are loaded
into the primary memory before processing. The CPU interacts directly with the primary memory to
perform read or write operation. It is of two types viz. (i) Random Access Memory (RAM) and (ii) Read
Only Memory (ROM).

RAM (Random Access Memory)

The Word “RAM” stands for “random access memory” or may also refer to short-term memory. It’s
called “random” because you can read store data randomly at any time and from any physical location.
It is a temporal storage memory. RAM is volatile that only retains all the data as long as the computer
powered. It is the fastest type of memory. RAM stores the currently processed data from the CPU and
sends them to the graphics unit.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM is the long-term internal memory. ROM is “Non-Volatile Memory” that retains data without the
flow of electricity. ROM is an essential chip with permanently written data or programs. It is similar to
the RAM that is accessed by the CPU. ROM comes with pre-written by the computer manufacturer to
hold the instructions for booting-up the computer.

2. Cache Memory:
RAM is faster than secondary storage, but not as fast as a computer processor. So, because of RAM, a
CPU may have to slow down. To speed up the operations of the CPU, a very high speed memory is
placed between the CPU and the primary memory known as cache. It stores the copies of the data from
frequently accessed primary memory locations, thus, reducing the average time required to access data
from primary memory. When the CPU needs some data, it first examines the cache. In case the
requirement is met, it is read from the cache, otherwise the primary memory is accessed.
3. Secondary Memory:
Secondary memory is a permanent storage device that the CPU cannot access directly. Secondary
memory is also termed as external [Link] CPU accesses these devices through an input/output
channel. Data is first transferred to primary from secondary storage before its assessment. Modern
computers often use hard drives and optical storage devices (CDs, DVDs) as secondary storage devices.

A secondary storage device organizes data into files and directories based on a file system. It also allows
the user to access or use additional information like access permissions, owner, last access time, etc.
Also, secondary memory temporarily keeps less used data when primary memory is full.
Secondary memory devices are less expensive and can store vast amounts of data, audio, video, and
multimedia files. Organizations can store the equivalent of a roomful of data on disks that consume
dramatically and significantly less physical space.

Types of Secondary Memory

 Solid-state storage devices, such as USB memory sticks.
 Optical storage devices, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.
 Examples: Magnetic storage devices include zip, floppy, and hard disk drives.