Index

Unit & Chapter Name of the Chapter Page No.

I-01 Living World 02 – 03
I-02 Biological Classification 04 – 07
I-03 Plant Kingdom 08 – 11
I-04 Animal Kingdom 12 – 18
II-05 Morphology of Flowering Plants 19 – 21
II-06 Anatomy of Flowering Plants 22 – 25
II-07 Structural Organisation in Animals 26 – 27
III-08 Cell : The Unit of Life 28 – 30
III-09 Biomolecules 31 – 34
III-10 Cell cycle and Cell division 35 – 37
IV-11 Transport in Plants 38 – 41
IV-12 Mineral Nutrition 42 – 44
IV-13 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 45 – 49
IV-14 Respiration in Plants 50 – 55
IV-15 Plant Growth and Development 56 – 57
V-16 Digestion and Absorption 58 – 62
V-17 Breathing and Exchange of Gases 63 – 68
V-18 Body Fluids and Circulation 69 – 75
V-19 Excretory Products and their Elimination 76 – 82
V-20 Locomotion and Movement 83 – 87
V-21 Neural Control and Coordination 88 – 93
V-22 Chemical Coordination and Integration 94 – 100

Mr. P. K. Singh (PGT Bio) prshttmsngh@[Link] KV Muzaffarpur (F/S)

 UNIT – 01
CHAPTER – 01 : LIVING WORLD

 Biology is the science of life forms and non-living processes. The living world comprises an
amazing diversity of living organisms. In order to facilitate the study of kinds and diversity of
organisms, biologists have evolved certain rules and principles for identification, nomenclature and
classification of organisms. The branch of biology dealing with these aspects is referred to as
Taxonomy.
 Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signalling and self-sustaining processes
from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased (death) or else because they lack
such functions and are classified as inanimate. Biology is the science concerned with the study of
life.

Characteristics features of Living things : Growth, Reproduction, Metabolism, Response to

stimuli.

 Biodiversity : Range of organisms present on earth (1.7 – 1.8 million).

 Identification : Comparing similarities and differences with already known ones.
 Nomenclature : Naming of organisms. The names are unique and universal.
 Rules for nomenclature are provided by :
 ICBN – International Code for Botanical Nomenclature.
 ICZN – International Code for Zoological Nomenclature.
 Binomial Nomenclature was given by Carolous Linnaeus (Father of Taxonomy).

Guidelines and Principles for Nomenclature :

 It should be in Latin / derived from Latin.
 If it is written in Italics when types and underlined when handwritten.
 It contains two parts, first word is Genus and second word is Species.
 Genus name starts with Capital while species name starts with small letters.
 Name should be short, precise & easy to pronounce.
 Name of the author is written is an abbreviated form after the species name.
Ex.- Mangifera indica (Mango), Homo sapiens (Human), Panthera pardus (Leopard),
Felis domestica (Cat).

 Classification – Grouping of organisms into categories (taxa) based on observable characters.

 Taxonomy – Characterization, identification , classification and nomenclature are the process of
taxonomy.
 Systematics – Different kinds of organisms and their evolutionary relationships (Systema Naturae).

 Taxonomical Hierarchy – Similarities decreases/ Differences increases :

Kingdom
Phylum / Divisions
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Species – Panthera leo, Panthera pardus, Panthera tigris.
Genus – Panthera (Lion, Leopad, Tiger).
Family – Panthera and Felis together into Felidae.
Order – Felidae (Cat family) and Canidae (Dog family) together into Carnivora.
Class – Carnivora (Tiger, Cat, Dog) and Primates (Monkeys) together into Mammalia.
Phylum – Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves & Mammalia together into Chordata.
Kingdom – Chordata, Annelida, Porifera etc. together Animalia.

Taxonomical Aids :
 These are the procedures and techniques used to store and preserve information as well as specimens
of various plants and animals.
 These help in identification, naming and classification of organisms.
 Herbarium :
 It is the storehouse of collected plant specimens.
 Collected plant specimens are dried, pressed and preserved on sheets and then arranged
systematically according to the universally accepted system of classification.
 Herbarium sheet contains label regarding date, place of the collection, scientific name,
family, collector’s name etc. of the specimen.
 Botanical gardens :
 It has the collection of living plant species that are grown for identification and reference.
 Each plant contains labels indicating their scientific name and family.
 Some famous botanical gardens are Indian Botanical Garden (Kolkata - largest in India),
Royal Botanical Garden (Kew - largest in world till date) and National Botanical Research
Institute (Lucknow).
 Museum :
 It is the repository that has a collection of various plant and animal specimens that are
preserved for study and reference.
 The organisms are preserved either in preservative solution or in the form of dry specimen.
 It often has a collection of skeletons of animals also.
 Zoological parks :
 Wild animals are kept in protected environments.
 Provides opportunity for studying the behaviour and food habits of the animals.
 Key :
 Keys (analytical in nature) are used for identification of plants and animals based on
similarities and dissimilarities.
 Manuals (particular area, family/genus/species), monographs and catalogues are other means
of recording descriptions.
 Manuals help in the identification of names of various species of organisms in a given area.
 Monograph (one family/genera at a time) is a detailed and well-documented work on any
particular taxon.
 Flora : The habitat & description of plants in a given area.

Organisms with their Taxonomic categories :

Man : Homo sapiens – Homo – Hominidae – Primate – Chordate – Mammalia.
Housefly : Musca domestica – Musca – Muscidae – Diptera – Insecta – Arthropoda.
Mango : Mangifera indica – Mangifera – Anacardiaceae – Sapindales – Dicotyledonae – Angiospermae.
Wheat : Triticum aestivum – Triticum – Poaceae – Poales – Monocotyledonae – Angiospermae.
 UNIT – 01
CHAPTER – 02 : BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

 The process of grouping living organisms into convenient categories based on simple characters is
known as Biological classification.

Two kingdom classification (Carolus Linnaeus) :

 Plants (autotrophs, cell wall, do not move).
 Animals (heterotrophs, no cell wall, can move).
 Later found two kingdom classification was not sufficient because in that :
 Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes were grouped together.
 Heterotrophs & Autotrophs were together.
 No difference between unicellular and multicellular.
 Simple organisms were placed along with higher organism.

Five kingdom classification (R. H. Whittaker in 1969) :

 Complexity of cell structure (prokaryotes/eukaryote).
 Body organization (unicellular/multicellular).
 Mode of nutrition (autotrophic/heterotrophic/holozoic).
 Life style (producers/consumers/decomposers).
 Phylogenic relationships (evolutionary history).
 Five kingdoms are :
 Kingdom Monera (Bacteria) – prokaryotic unicellular.
 Kingdom Protista (Amoeba) – eukaryotic unicellular.
 Kingdom Fungi – multicellular eukaryotic.
 Kingdom Plantae – multicellular eukaryotic.
 Kingdom Animalia – multicellular eukaryotic.

Kingdom Monera :
Habitats – omnipresent.
Monera divides into four groups on the basis of their shape as Cocus (spherical), Bacillus
(rod), Vibrio (comma) and Spirillum (spiral).
 Mode of nutrition – autotrophs and heterotrophs.
 Kingdom Monera includes Archaebacteria, Eubacteria (Cyanobacteria, Chemosynthetic and
Heterotrophic) and Mycoplasma.
 Archaebacteria –
 Harsh habitats.
 Halophiles (saline), Thermoacidophiles (hot spring), Methanogens (gut of ruminants).
 Eubacteria –
 True bacteria.
 Rigid cell wall.
 Motile flagellum.
 Autotrophic bacteria – Cyanobacteria (BGA) have chlorophyll, unicellular, colonial/
filamentous. Marine/terrestrial habitat/gelatinous sheath. Form blooms, can fix nitrogen in
heterocysts. E.g.- Nostoc, Anabaena.
 Chemosynthetic bacteria – Oxidise nitrates, nitrites and ammonia release energy (ATP).
Help in Recycling of nutrients. E.g.- Pseudomonas, Nitrobacter.
 
Heterotrophic bacteria – Decomposers, making curd from milk, antibiotics, nitrogen fixing
(Rhizobium), some are pathogenic (cause diseases - cholera, T.B, diarrhoea).
 Reproduction by binary fission, spore/sexual reproduction.
 Mycoplasma –
 No cell wall.
 Smallest living cell.
 Anaerobic – pathogenic in animals and plants.

Kingdom Protista :
 Unicellular, Eukaryotic, Aquatic.
 Flagella/cilia.
 Reproduce sexually/asexually.
 Chrysophyta :
 Planktons diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
 Fresh water/marine.
 Microscopic, photosynthetic.
 In diatoms, cell wall is indestructible (silica) form diatomaceous earth, its being gritty used
for polishing, fitration of oil and syrups.
 Chief producers in oceans.
 Dinoflagellates :
 Marine, photosynthetic.
 Yellow, green, blue or red pigments.
 Cell wall is cellulosic.
 Have two flagella.
 Red dinoflagellate (Gonyaulax) forms red tides and toxins are released.
 Euglenoid :
 Fresh water, stagnant water.
 No cell wall but protein rich layer is present called pellicle. Pellicle is flexible with flagella.
 They are Myxotrophic because Photosynthetic in presence of light and Heterotrophs in
absence of light.
 Myxotrophs is the mixture of both autotrophs and heterotrophs. E.g.- Euglena.
 Slime moulds :
 Saprophytic (body moves on decaying twigs and leaves).
 During suitable conditions from aggregation called plasmodium (mass of slime moulds).
 Unfavourable conditions form spores and survive for many years.
 Protozoans :
 Heterotrophs (predators/parasites).
 There are 4 major groups :
a) Amoeboid protozoans – Fresh water, sea and moist soil.
– Pseudopodia, marine forms.
– Have silica shells.
– Entamoeba (parasite) causes Amoebic dysentery.
b) Flagellated protozoans – Free living/parasites.
– Have flagella.
– Parasites cause diseases.
– Sleeping sickness (Trypanoroma) is a parasite of flagellated protozoans.
c) Ciliated protozoans – Aquatic, cilia, cavity (gullet like). E.g.- Paramoecium.
d) Sporozoans – Spore stage in their life cycle. Plasmodium causes malarial fever.
Kingdom Fungi :
 Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic, cosmopolitan, grow in warm and humid places.
 Fungi are filamentous with long, slender thread like Hyphae and the network of hyphae is
known as Mycelium. Mycelium can be septate or non-septate (aseptate).
 Multinucleated cytoplasm (coenocytic hyphae).
 Cell wall is chitin.
 Parasitic/symbionts (Lichens and Mycorrhizae).
 Symbionts of algae and fungi (Lichens) and Pine trees roots and fungi (Mycorrhizae) on
roots to absorb water.
 Reproduction by fragmentation, fission, budding.
 Asexual reproduction by oospores, ascospores, basidiospores.
 Sexual reproduction steps are :
Plasmogamy
Karyogamy and
Meiosis in zygote result in haploid spores (dikaryon).
 Dikaryophase (Zygote – diploid and Spores – haploid).
 There are four classes on the basis of morphology of mycelium, mode of spore formation and
fruiting bodies – Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes.
 Phycomycetes :
 Aquatic, decaying wood, mycelium is aseptate, coenocytic.
 Asexual reproduction by zoospores (motile)/aplanospores (non-motile).
E.g.- Rhizopus, Mucor.
 Ascomycetes (Sac fungi) :
 Multicellular (penicillium)/Unicellular (yeast).
 Saprophytic/Decomposers/Parasitic/Coprophilous.
 Mycelium is branched and septate.
 Asexual spores are called conidia.
 Sexual spores are called ascospores.
E.g.- Aspergillus, Neurospora.
 Basidiomycetes (Bracket fungi) :
 Looks like puffballs.
 Grow in soil, logs, tree stumps, in plant bodies as parasitic (as rust and smuts).
 Mycelium is branched and septate.
 Reproduction by fragmentation.
 Dikaryon, Basidium, Karyogamy.
E.g.- Agaricus (mushroom).
 Deuteromycetes (Imperfect fungi) :
 Mycelium is septate and branched.
 Only asexual reproduction by conidial spores.
 Saprophytes/parasitic/decomposers.
 Help in Mineral cycling.
E.g.- Trichoderma, Alternaria.

Kingdom Plantae :
 Autotrophs.
 Size varies from herbs to tall trees.
 There are different groups – Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms (Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons).
Kingdom Animalia :
 Heterotrophs, locomotory.
 Holozoic/saprophytic/parasitic.
 Cosmopolitans.
 It consists of two sub-kingdom : Invertebrates with 9 Phylum and Vertebrata with one
phylum Chordata (having five classes).

Virus :
 Pasteur coined the term virus which means Venom/poison.
 It is made of an outer protein coat and a centre genetic material (RNA/DNA). A virus is a
nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious.
 Virus that infect plants have single stand RNA and those infect animals have either single or double
RNA or double stranded DNA.
 Bacteriophages are viruses that infect the bacteria.
 Viruses cause disease like mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza and AIDS.
 In plants the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling, and curling, yellowing, dwarfing and
stunted growth.

Viroids :
 T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller than viruses and caused potato
spindle tuber disease.
 It has only a free RNA and lacked the protein coat, so named as viroid.

Lichens :
 Symbiotic association between algae and fungi.
 Phycobiont is algal component which prepare food for fungi and Mycobiont is a fungal component
which provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner.
 UNIT – 01
CHAPTER – 03 : PLANT KINGDOM
Artificial classification – Oldest classification and it is based on few vegetative and sexual characters.

Natural classification system – It is based on natural affinities among the organisms in their external and
internal features.

Phylogenetic classification system – It is based on evolutionary relationship.

Numerical taxonomy – By using computers numbers and codes are assigned to all the characters and data
are processed.

Cytotaxonomy – It is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure and behaviour.

Chemotaxonomy – It is based chemical constituents of the plants.

ALGAE :
 Simple, thalloid, autotrophic, aquatic organisms.
 Habitats – grow in moist soil and wood.
 Symbiotic (Lichens) grow on other animals (Sloth bear).
 Colonial (volvox), Filamentous (spirogyra) and Massive bodies (kelp).
 Reproduce – vegetative, asexual and sexual.
 Spores are Zoospores (male gamete) and Oospores (egg).
 Sexual reproduction through isogamous/anisogamous.

 Economic importance of Algae :

 Porphyra, Laminaria, Sargassum are used as food.
 Marine brown algae (Algin) and red algae (Carrageen) are used as Hydrocolloids which is a
fibrous structure holds water and used to transport seedling.
 Gelidium, Gracilaria are used to grow microbes; make ice-creams and jellies.
 Chlorella and Spirullina are rich in proteins and used as food supplements.

 Alage is divided into 3 main classes as Chlorophyceae (green algae), Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
and Rhodophyceae (red algae).

(a) Chlorophyceae (Green algae) :

 Colonial/filamentous/unicellular.
 Possess chlorophyll a & b.
 Stored with proteins/starch.
 Some store oil forms.
 Cell wall is rigid and made of inner cellulose and outer pectose.
 Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation/spores.
 Asexual reproduction is by flagellated Zoospores.
 Sexual reproduction is by isogamous/anisogamous/oogamous.
Examples : Volvox, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas.
 (b) Phaeophyceae (Brown algae) :
 Marine habitats – vary in size and form from simple branched to filamentous form, Kelp
(100m).
 Possess chlorophyll a & c, carotenoid, Xanthophylls and Fucoxanthin.
 Food is stored as carbohydrates in the form of Laminarin/Mannitol.
 They have cellulosic wall with gelatinous coating of algin.
 They are attached to substratum by Holdfast (root like), Stalk (stipe) and leaf (frond).
 Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.
 Asexual reproduction is by biflagellated zoospores.
 Sexual reproduction is by Isogamous/Anisogamous/Oogamous.
Examples : Laminaria, Sargassum, Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Fucus.

(c) Rhodophyceae (Red algae) :

 They have red pigment called “r-phycoerythrin”.
 They are marine.
 Food is stored as Floridean starch which is similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure.
 Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation.
 Asexually by non-motile spores.
 Sexually by non-motile gametes.
Examples : Porphyra, Gracilaria, Gelidium.

BRYOPHYTES :
 They live in moist shaded areas in the hill.
 It is known as “amphibians of plant kingdom”.
 They occur in damp soil, humid and shaded places.
 Plant body lacks true roots, stem and leaves.
 They are attached to the substratum by unicellular/multicellular Rhizoids.
 The main plant is haploid and they produce gametes (Gametophyte – dominant).
 The male sex organ is Antheridium (antherozoids).
 The female sex organ is Archegonium (single egg).
 Antherozoids are released in water which comes into contact with Archegonium to form
Zygote.
 Zygote develops into Sporophyte (diploid) undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores which
germinate to produce Gametophyte.
 Economic importance :
 Provide food for herbaceous mammals/birds.
 Sphagnum species (mosses) provide peat which is used as a fuel.
 Due to its water holding capacity it is used as packing material for trans-shipment of living
materials.
 Mosses and Lichens form Pioneer community on bare rocks.
 Form dense mats on soil, so reduce the impact of rain and soil erosion.

 There are two classes – Liverworts and Mosses.

(a) Liverworts :
 Moist, shady habitats, damp soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods.
 Plant body is thalloid (a tiny leaf structures).
 Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation. They form gemmae (green, multicellular, asexual
bodies) which detach from parent body and form a new individual.
  Sexual reproduction (form male & female sex organs). Sporophyte is differentiated into a
foot, setae and capsule.
 Spore germinates to form gametophyte.
Example : Marchantia.

(b) Mosses :
 Gametophyte shows two stages – Protonema (spores) and Leafy stage (Secondary
protonema).
 Attached to the soil by Rhizoids.
 Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation/budding.
 Sexual reproduction is by antheridia and archegonia.
 Zygote develops into sporophyte and form capsule and it contains spores (haploid).
Example : Sphagnum, Funaria.

PTERIDOPHYTES :
 They are used for medical purpose, ornamental and as soil binders and first terrestrial plants.
 They grow in cool, damp, shady places.
 Possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
 Main plant body is Sporophytes.
 The body is differentiated into true roots, stem and leaves.
 Leaves may be small (microphylls – selaginella) or large (macrophylls – ferns) and bear
sporangia and form sporophylls (leaf carrying spores).
 Sporangia produce spores by meiosis.
 Spore germinates to form gametophyte called Prothallus.
 They need water for fertilization.
 Gametophyte bear male & female sex organs called Antheridia and Archaegonia
respectively.
 Gamete fusion results in zygote formation. Zygote develops into sporophytes (dominant
phase).
 If all the spores are similar kind, it is called Homospores.
 Selaginella produce two kinds of spores - Macro and micro spores, it is called
Heterosporous.
 Macro and micro spores develop into female and male gametophytes respectively.
 Female gametophyte retained on sporophyte. It leads to the development of seed habit.

 There are four classes in Pteridophytes – Psilopsida (E.g.- Psilotum), Lycopsida (E.g.- Selaginella),
Sphenopsida (E.g.- Equisetum) and Pteropsida (E.g.- Pteris).

GYMNOSPERMS :
 They are seed bearing plants.
 The ovules are not enclosed in an ovary (naked seeds), so no fruits.
 Tallest gymnosperm is Sequoia (red wood tree).
 Plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves.
 Roots are tap root – associated with other organisms like Pinus roots with Mycorrhizae and
Cycas roots with Cyanobacteria (like Nostoc and Anabaena - nitrogen fixing microbes).
 Stem can be branched/unbranched.
 Leaves are simple/needle like – leaves show Xerophytic adaptation.
 Gymnosperms are heterosporous, produce microspores and megaspores.
 They form male cones & female cones.
  Both cones can occur on same plant/different.
 Fertilization results in formation of Zygote which develops into embryo.
 Ovules form seeds.
 Gymnosperms show diplontic life cycle.
 They show Alternation of generation.
 Examples : Pinus, Cycas, Cedrus.

ANGIOSPERMS :
 They are flowering plants.
 Seeds are covered by fruits.
 Live in wide range of habitats.
 Size varies from tiny microscopic (Wolfia) to tall trees (Eucalyptus).
 Provide food, fodder, fuel and medicine.
 There are two classes - Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.
 Male sex organ is Stamen and female is Pistil.
 Ovules have embryo sac. It undergoes meiosis and form egg apparatus with one egg and 2
synergids, 3 antipodal cells and 2 polar nuclei).
 Polar nuclei fuse to form secondary polar nucleus.
 Pollen dispersal is by pollination (pollen tube grows into stigma and style of pistil).
 One male gamete fuses with egg to form zygote and other male gamete fuses with secondary
polar nucleus (2n) to form Primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN – 3n).
 Due to two fusions, it is called Double fertilization.
 Zygote develops into Embryo.
 PEN develops into Endosperm which nourishes the developing embryo.
 Synergids and antipodal cells are degenerate.
 Ovules develop into seeds.
 Ovary forms Fruits.
 UNIT – 01
CHAPTER – 04 : ANIMAL KINGDOM
Level of organization :
 Cellular level - organ level.
 Tissue level – organ system level (open and closed circulation).
 Complete/incomplete digestive system (hydra).

Body symmetry :
 Asymmetrical (E.g.- Sponges).
 Symmetrical - Bilatral symmetry (Annelids and Arthropods) and Radial symmetry (Ctenophora,
Coelenterate and Echinoderms).

Nature of Coelom (Body cavity) :

 Coelomate – body cavity with ecto, endo and mesoderms. E.g.- Annelids, Molluscs, Arthropods,
Echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates.
 Pseudocoelomate – no mesoderm, have only ectoderm and endoderm layers. E.g.- Aschelminthes
(round worms).
 Acoelomate – no body cavity. E.g.- Platyhelminthes (flat worms).

Body plan :
 Cell aggregate plan.
 Blind sac body plan.

Embryonic germinal layers (Pattern of development) :

 Diploblastic (Coelenterates) – only ectoderm and endoderm.
 Triploblastic organization (Platyhelminthes to Chordates) – ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.

Segmentation of the body : Metameric segmentation – true segmentation (metamerism). E.g.– Earthworm.

Notochord :
 It is a mesodermal origin.
 Rod like structure.
 Animals with notochord are chordates and without notochord are non-chordates.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL KINGDOM INTO DIFFERENT PHYLUM :

1. Porifera :
 Commonly called Sponges.
 Marine, asymmetrical, cellular level of organization.
 Have water canal system - Ostia (entry opening), Spongocoel (central canal) and Osculum
exit opening).
 Choanocytes/collar cells line in the spongocoel.
 Digestion is intracellular.
 Skeleton made up of spicules/sponging fibres.
 Hermaphrodite (male and female organs present on the same body).
 Reproduce asexually by fragmentation.
 Sexually by gametes formation.
 Fragmentation is internal and development is indirect.
E.g.- Sycon, Spongilla.
2. Coelenterata :
 Commonly called Cnidaria.
 Aquatic/marine.
 Sessile (fixed)/free swimming.
 Radially symmetrical.
 Have cnidoblasts/cnidocytes (stinging capsule on tentacles).
 Used for defence, anchorage and to capture the prey.
 Tissue level of organization, diploblastic.
 Mouth on hypostome.
 Digestion – extracellular and intracellular.
 Corals have skeleton made of calcium carbonate.
 Exhibit 2 basic forms called polyp and medusa.
 Polyp is sessile cylindrical (hydra).
 Medusa is umbrella shaped free living (jelly fish).
 They show alternation of generation (metagenesis) where polyp forms medusa asexually and
medusa forms polyp sexually. (E.g.- Obelia).
E.g.- Hydra, Physalia, Sea anemone, Sea pen, Sea fan, Brain coral.

3. Ctenophora :
 Commonly called sea walnuts/comb jellies.
 Marine, radially symmetrical diploblastic.
 Tissue level of organization.
 Body bears 8 rows ciliated comb plates help in locomotion.
 Digestion by intra and extracellular.
 Bioluminescence is well developed.
 Sexes are not separate (monoecious).
 Reproduce by sexual reproduction.
 Fertilization is external and indirect development.
 E.g.- Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.

4. Platyhelminthes :
 Commonly called flat worms.
 Dorso-ventrally flattened body.
 Endoparasites, bilaterally symmetrical.
 Organ level of organization.
 Triploblastic, Acoelomate.
 Hooks and suckers are present.
 Flame cells for excretions.
 Sexes are not separate.
 Fertilization is internal and development is through many larval stages.
 Have high regeneration capacity.
E.g.- Tape worm, Planaria, Liver fluke.

5. Aschelminthes :
 Commonly called round worms.
 Free living, aquatic, terrestrial, parasitic.
 Organ system level of body organization.
 Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
  Pseudocoelomate.
 Digestive system is complete (mouth and anus).
 Sexes are separate (dioecious).
 Fertilization is internal and development is direct.
E.g.- Ascaris, Wuchereria (filarial worm) and Ancylostoma (hookworm).

6. Annelida :
 Aquatic/terrestrial.
 Free living/parasites.
 Organ system level of body organization.
 Bilaterally symmetrical.
 Triploblastic.
 Coelomate.
 Body divides into segments/metameres (annulus - little ring).
 Marine Nereis possesses parapodia.
 Possess longitudinal and circular muscles help in locomotion.
 Closed circulatory system.
 Nephridia help in osmoregulation and excretion.
 Dioecious (sexes are separate).
 Earthworm and leeches are monoecious.
 Reproduction is sexual.
E.g.- Nereis, Pheretima (earth worm) and Hirudinaria (blood sucking leech).

7. Arthropoda :
 Largest phylum 2/3 is insects.
 Organ system level of body organization.
 Bilaterally symmetrical.
 Segmented and coelomate.
 Chitinous exoskeleton.
 Body has head, thorax and abdomen.
 Have jointed appendages (organs for locomotion) respiratory organs are Gills/Book
gills/Book lungs/Tracheal system.
 Open circulatory system.
 Sense organs are antennae, eye, statocysts (balance organs).
 Fertilization is internal.
 Excretion by malpighian tubules.
 Sexes are separate (dioecious).
 Oviparous.
 Development may be direct/indirect.
 Economic importance – Honey bees (Apis), Silkworm (Bombyx).
 Vectors – Mosquito, Housefly.
 Aquatic – Crab, Prawn, Lobster.

8. Mollusca :
 Second largest phylum.
 Terrestrial and aquatic.
 Organ system level of body organization.
 Bilaterally symmetrical.
 Triploblastic and Coelomate.
  Calcareous shell and unsegmented body with head muscular foot and visceral hump.
 Soft spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral hump.
 Gills for respiration and excretion.
 Head has sensory tentacles.
 Mouth has file like rasping organ for feeding radula.
 Sexes are separate (dioecious).
 Oviparous.
 Indirect development.
 E.g.- Oyster, Snail, Squid, Devil fish.

9. Echinodermata :
 Spiny skin has exoskeleton which is calcarious ossicles.
 Marine; organ level of body organization.
 Radially symmetrical.
 Coelomate.
 Triploblastic.
 Mouth of the lower side and anus on the upper side.
 Have water vascular system, help in locomotion, to capture and transport of food and for
respiration.
 Excretory system is absent.
 Dioecious.
 Fertilization is external; development is indirect with free swimming larva.
E.g.- Starfish, Sea urchin, Sea lily, Sea cucumber.

10. Hemichordata :
 Under non-chordate.
 Worm like marine animals.
 Organ system level of organization.
 Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic.
 Coelomate – body has anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk.
 Circulatory system is open type.
 Respiration is through gills.
 Excretory organ is proboscis gland.
 Sexes are separate.
 Fertilization is external.
 Development is indirect.
E.g.- Balanoglossus.

11. Chordata :
 Presence of notochord.
 Dorsal hollow spinal cord.
 Nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits.
 Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 Coelomate.
 Organ system level of organization.
 Have post anal tail.
 Closed circulatory system.
 Difference between Chordates and Non-chordates :
 Chordates :
 Notochord present.
 Central nervous system is dorsal, hollow and single.
 Gills are present.
 Heart is ventral.
 Tail is present.
 Non-chordates :
 Notochord is absent.
 Central nervous system is ventral, solid and double.
 Gills are absent.
 Heart is dorsal.
 Tail is absent.

 Phylum Chordata is divided into three sub-phylum – Urochordata, Cephalochordata and

Vertebrata.
 Urochordata and Cephalochordata are commonly called Protochordates.
 Urochordata – notochord is present in larval tail. E.g.- Ascidia, Salpa.
 Cephalochordate – notochord extends from head to tail. E.g.- Amphioxus.

(a) Vertebrata :
 Possess notochord (replaced by vertebral column).
 All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates because all
vertebrates have vertebral column but all chordates do not have vertebral column.
 Ventral muscular heart.
 Excretion by kidneys.
 Fins/limbs for locomotion.
 There are two groups – Agnatha and Gnathostomata.

(i) Agnatha :
 Jaws are absent.
 Includes class Cyclostomata.
 Cyclostomata :
 Ectoparasites on some fishes.
 Elongated body with 6-15 pairs of gill slits.
 Sucking circular mouth without jaw.
 Body is devoid of scales – paired fins.
 Cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
 Circulation is closed – marine but migrate to fresh water for spawning.
 After spawning they die.
 After metamorphosis of larva it returns to the ocean.
E.g.- Lamprey, Hagfish.

(ii) Gnathostomata :
 Jaws are present.
 Paired lateral appendages.
 There are six classes – Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and
Mammalia.
 Chondrichthyes :
 Cartilaginous fish, endoskeleton is cartilage.
 Body is stream lined.
 Pelvic fins in male with claspers.
 5-7 pairs of gills.
 No operculum.
 Mouth in ventral with teeth.
 Jaws are powerful.
 Air bladder is absent.
 Heart is 2 chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
 Some possess electric/poison stings.
 Poikilothermous (cold blooded).
 Body has placoid scales.
 Unisexual.
 Viviparous and fertilization is internal.
E.g.- Shark, Sting rays.

 Osteichthyes :
 Bony fish, endoskeleton is bone.
 Skin is covered by cycloid scales.
 Four pairs of gill slits with operculum, mouth is terminal, air bladder is present and
help in buoyancy.
 Heart is two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
 Poikilothermous (cold blooded).
 Sexes are separate.
 Fertilization is external and oviparous.
E.g.- Angel fish, Clown fish, Rohu, Katla, Hippocampus.

 Amphibia :
 Live on land and move to water for breeding (dual life).
 Body has head and trunk.
 Tail is in larval stage.
 Two pairs of limbs.
 Digits without claws.
 Poikilothermous.
 Eyes are with nictitating membranes.
 Skin is smooth and moist with mucous glands.
 Ear started with tympanum.
 Heart is three chambered (two auricle and one ventricle).
 Respiration by gills in larva and by lungs & skin in adults.
 Digestive system is complete.
 Urinary tract and reproductive tract open into a common cloacal chambers and the
opening is called cloacal aperture.
 Sexes are separate.
 Oviparous.
 Fertilization is external and development is indirect with tadpole larva.
E.g.- Toad, Frog.
 Reptilia :
 Skin is dry due to absence of glands.
 Covered by horny epidermal scales (scutes).
 Tympanum is small, no external opening.
 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
 Trunk bears two pairs of pentadactyl limbs with claws.
 Heart with three and half chambered (two auricles and one which is incompletely
partitioned ventricle).
 Only Crocodiles have four chambered heart.
 Respiration is by lungs.
 Fertilization is internal.
 Oviparous and egg is covered by hard calcareous shells.
E.g.- Snake, Tortoise, Turtle, Viper, Lizard.

 Aves :
 Streamlined body and covered with feathers.
 Jaws are modified into beaks, teeth absent, various shapes and sizes of beak.
 Digestive system has two structures – crop and gizzard (grinding the food).
 Forelimbs form wings.
 Hind limbs modified for perching, swimming, running, etc.
 Voice box (syrinx) is present.
 Respiration by lungs.
 Skin is dry, oil glands is present at the base of tail.
 Bones are pneumatic (air cavities) which helps to make the body light.
 Homoiothermous.
 Heart is 4 chambered.
 Oviparous and egg is covered with calcareous shells.
 Fertilization is internal.
E.g.- Pigeon, Crow, Sparrow, Ostrich.

 Mammalia :
 Aquatic/aerial/terrestrial.
 Body has head, neck, trunk and tail.
 Have mammary glands (functional in adult female).
 External ear (pinna) is present.
 Skin has sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
 Heart is 4 chambered.
 Respiration is by lungs.
 Body is covered with hairs.
 Excretion by kidneys (ureotelic – urea is the waste material).
 Sexes are separate.
 Viviparous (give birth of young ones).
 Few are ovo-viviparous like marsupials (pouched mammals with brood pouches -
Kangaroo).
 Few are oviparous (egg laying mammals - Platypus).
E.g.- Canis, Macaca, Camelus, Dolphin.
 UNIT – 02
CHAPTER - 05 : MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
 On germination of Seed, Plumule forms stem while Radical forms root.

 Types of roots – Taproot, Fibrous root, Adventitious root.

 Regions of root – Region of maturation, Region of elongation, Region of meristematic tissues and
Root cap.

 Modification of roots :
 Storage – carrot, turnip
 Prop root – banyan tree (support).
 Stilt root – maize, sugarcane.
 Pneumatophores – rhizophora (mangroves).

1. Stem :
 Plumule have nodes and internodes bears with axillary/terminal buds.
 Modification of stems :
 Storage – potato, ginger, turmeric (perennation).
 Tendrils – axillary buds –coils - support (watermelon)
 Thorns - axillary buds – citrus (protection)
 Flattened stem – opuntia (do photosynthesis)
 Vegetative propagation (grass, jasmine, banana)

2. Leaf :
 Short apical meristem gives rise to leaves arranged in acropetal order.
 Do photosynthesis.
 Three main parts are leaf base, petiole and lamina (leaf blade).
 Have stipules.
 Leguminous petioles have pulvinus (midrib).
 Venation – arrangement of veins and veinlets on a leaf.

 Types of venation :
 Parallel – monocot leaves.
 Reticulate – dicot leaves.

 Types of leaves :
 Simple leaves.
 Compound leaves – Pinnately compound (e.g.– Neem) and
- Palmately compound (e.g.– Silk, cotton).

 Phyllotaxy :
 Pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem/branch.
 Alternate – china rose.
 Opposite – guava.
 Whorled- alstonia.
 Modification of leaves :
 Tendrils – pea (support).
 Spines – cacti (protection, prevent from water loss).
 Storage – onion/garlic.
 Petiole leaves – acacia.
 Pitcher leaves – insectivorous plant (venus fly trap).

3. Inflorescence :
 Arrangement of flowers on the floral axis.
 Depending on whether the apex gets converted into a flower/continues to grow. There are
two major types of inflorescence :
(a) Racemose – Main axis continues to grow laterally (in an acropetal succession).
(b) Cymose – Main axis terminates in a flower so there is limited growth (basipetal order).

4. Flower :
 Four whorls – Sepal, petal, androecium and gynoecium.
 Thalamus/receptacle.
 Trimerous/tetramerous/pentamerous/polymerous.
 Bracteate/ebracteate (Protective sheet around the flower).
 Bisexual/unisexual.
 Actinomorphic (mustard), zygomorphic (pea) and asymmetric (canna).

 Based on the position of ovary :

 Hypogynous – ovary superior (mustard).
 Perigynous – ovary half inferior (rose).
 Epigynous – ovary inferior (guava, cucumber).

 Parts of flower :
(a) Calyx – Made of sepals. Can be gamosepalous/polysepalous.
(b) Corolla – Made of petals. Gamopetalous/polypetalous.
Perianth : Fused petals and sepals.
Aestivation : Arrangement of sepals/petals in floral bud. Main types are Valvate (petunia
alba, calotropis), Twisted (china rose), Imbricate (gulmohur) and Vexillary (pea, bean).
(c) Androecium –
 Staminode – sterile stamen.
 Epipetalous – Attached to the petal.
 Epiphyllous – attached to the perianth.
 Polyandrous – Free stamens.
 Monoadelphous – united into one bunch (China rose).
 Diadelphous – united into two bundles (pea).
 Polyadelphous – many bundles (citrus).
(d) Gynoecium –
 one/more carpels.
 Ovules attached on the wall of ovary called placenta.
 Apocarpous – Free carpels (lotus, rose).
 Syncarpous – Carpels are fused (mustard, tomato).
 After fertilization ovules develops into seed.
 Ovary develops into fruit.
 Placentation : Arrangement of ovules within the ovary. Different types of placentation –
Marginal (pea), Axile (china rose, lemon, tomato), Parietal (mustard), Free central (primrose)
and Basal (sunflower).

5. Fruit :
 Parthenocarpic fruit : Formation of fruits without fertilization of ovary. E.g.- Seedless
grapes, seedless orange.
 Two parts of a fruit are pericarp and seeds.
 Pericarp has epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
 Both mango and coconut are known as drupe fruits (fruits formed from single ovary/carpel)

6. Seed :
 Fertilized ovules.
 Made up of seed coat and an embryo.
 Embryo with radical and plumule with one cotyledon or two cotyledon.

 Structure of a dicot seed :

 Seed coat, Testa and tegmen.
 Hilum – small pore (place where it is attached to fruit).
 Micropyle (water enters).
 Endosperm, cotyledons, embryonal axis (plumule and radicle).
 Mature seeds in dicot do not have endosperm called non-endospermic seeds (stored food is
utilized by embryo).

 Structure of monocot seed :

 Mostly endosperm except orchids.
 Endosperm is bulky and store food.
 Aleurone layer (produce enzymes to hydrolyse proteins for embryo).
 Cotyledon is scutellum.
 Protective coats – coleoptiles (plumule), coleorhizae (radical).

 Semi–technical description of a typical flowering plant :

 Scientific language.
 Floral diagram and floral formula.

 Floral formula by symbols :

 Br – Bracteate
 K – Calyx
 G – Inferior ovary
 C – Corolla
 P – Perianth
 A – Androecium
 G – Gynoecium
 G – Superior Ovary
 UNIT – 02
CHAPTER - 06 : ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

 Tissue is a group of similar cells performing same function.

 There are two types of plant tissues – Meristematic tissue and Permanent tissue.
Meristematic tissues : Have power of cell division. Growth in plants is largely restricted to
specialized regions of active cell division called meristem.
 Characteristics features :
 Cells are thin walled.
 No intercellular places.
 Abundant cytoplasm.
 Retains power of cell division.
 On the basis of position, meristematic tissues are of three types – Apical meristem, Lateral meristem
and Intercalary meristem.
 Apical meristems are the meristems which occur at the tips of roots and shoots and produce
primary tissues.
 Intercalary meristems are the ones which occur between mature tissues.
 Lateral meristems occur in mature regions of roots and shoots and appear later than primary
meristem.
 On the basis of origin, meristematic tissues are of three types – Promeristem (embryo/seedlings),
Primary meristem and Secondary meristem.

Permanent tissues :
 Mature tissue.
 The newly formed cells from primary and secondary meristems which become structurally
and functionally specialised and lose the ability to divide are permanent tissues.
 There are two types of permanent tissues - Simple permanent tissues and Compound
permanent tissues.
 Simple permanent tissues :
 Made up of only one type of cells.
 There are three types of tissues – Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.
 Parenchyma –
 Major component within organs.
 Living.
 Isodiametric, spherical, oval, round, polygonal, elongated in shape.
 Thin cell walls made of cellulose.
 Closely packed or have intercellular spaces.
 Function – Photosynthesis, storage, secretion.
 Collenchyma –
 Occurs in layers below epidermis, either in homogeneous layer or in patches.
 Living.
 Thickened at the corners due to pectin, cellulose.
 Oval, spherical, polygonal.
 Assimilate food when chloroplasts are present.
 Intercellular spaces absent.
 Function – Mechanical support.
 Sclerenchyma –
 Long narrow cells, lignified walls, with pits.
  Dead fibres having thick walled, elongated, pointed.
 Sclereids – spherical, dead, narrow cavity (lumen).
 Found in guava, pear, sapota.
 Function – Mechanical support.
 Compound permanent tissues :
 More than one type of cells.
 Complex tissues.
 There are two types Xylem and Phloem.
 Xylem –
 Xylem has four types of cells – xylem vessels, xylem tracheids, xylem parenchyma and
xylem fibres.
 Conducting tissue for water and minerals.
 Tracheids – Elongated or tube like cells, dead, main water transporting element.
 Vessels – Long cylindrical, lignin in cell walls, large central cavity, devoid of protoplasm.
 Xylem fibres – lumens present, septate/aseptate.
 Xylem parenchyma – living, thin walled cell walls, store food as starch or fat, tannins.
 Phloem –
 Transports food material.
 Phloem has four types of cells – sieve tubes, sieve cells, companion cells and phloem
parenchyma.
 Sieve tubes – Long, tube like, perforated, forms sieve plates.
 Companion cells – Pit is present, helps in maintenance of pressure gradient in the sieve
tubes.
 Phloem parenchyma – Elongated, tapering, dense cytoplasm, cell wall, with pits.
 Phloem fibres – Unbranched, pointed, quite thick.
Tissue system in plants :
Tissue system in plant has three types – Epidermal tissue system, Vascular tissue system and
Ground or Fundamental tissue system.
 Epidermal tissue system :
 Cuticle present.
 Guard cells, subsidiary cells, stomatal apparatus are present.
 Contains stomata.
 Trichomes are present on stem which is multicellular and secrete oils.
 Root hairs – single celled.
 Ground tissue system :
 Tissues except epidermal and vascular tissues.
 Mesophyll (collenchyma, sclerenchyma, parenchyma).
 Vascular tissue system :
 Cambium is present in lateral meristem.
 Radial vascular bundle is present in roots.
 Conjoint open vascular bundle is present in dicot stem and leaves.
 Conjoint closed vascular bundle is present in monocot stem and leaves.
Anatomy of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants :
 Dicotyledonous root :
 Epidermis bears root hair.
 Cortex has parenchymatous cells.
 Endodermis has suberin layer as casparian strips.
 Pericycle bears lateral roots.
  Pith is small.
 Conjuctive tissues between xylem and phloem.
 Cambium ring (2-4 between xylem and phloem).
 Stele contains endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundle and pith.
 Monocotyledonous root :
 No cambium in the vascular bundles.
 Six vascular bundles which are scattered.
 Polyarch.
 Pith is large.
 No cambium.
 No secondary growth.
 Dicotyledonous stem :
 Epidermis, cuticle, trichomes.
 Hypodermis has collenchymatous cells.
 Cortical layer below hypodermis is made up of parenchymatous cells and innermost layer is
called endodermis (starch sheath).
 Pericycle is present on innerside of the endodermis.
 Medullary rays are present in between the vascular bundles.
 Vascular bundles are in a ring, conjoint, open and endarch protoxylem.
 Pith is larger (parenchymatous cells) present centrally.
 Monocotyledonous stem :
 Stem has hypodermis (sclerenchymatous cells), scattered vascular bundles which are
surrounded by sclerenchymatous bundle sheath.
 Vascular bundles are conjoint, closed, no cambium.
 Peripheral vascular bundles are smaller than central.
 No secondary growth, no trichomes.
 Water containing cavities are present, no distinct pith.

Stem :
 Trichomes present/absent.
 Vascular bundle scattered/rings.
 Vascular bundles closed/open (cambium).
 Pith present/absent.

Leaves :
 Dorsiventral leaf (dicot leaf) :
 Epidermis are adaxial epidermis (upper) and abaxial epidermis (lower).
 Cuticle is present on upper surface.
 Stomata are more on lower epidermis than upper epidermis.
 Mesophyll has two types of cells - palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma.
 Vascular system includes vascular bundles which are present in vein and midrib.
 Reticulate venation.
 Vascular bundles are surrounded by bundle sheath cells.
 Isobilateral leaf (monocot leaf) :
 Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma.
 Stomata are present on both sides equally.
 Bulliform cells are present.
 Parallel venation.
Secondary growth :
 Primary growth by apical meristem (grows length wise).
 Secondary growth (increase in girth) by lateral meristem (vascular cambium and cork cambium).
 Vascular cambium :
 It helps in formation of cambial ring.
 Intrafacicular cambium and Interfascicular cambium are present.
 Activity of cambial ring helps in formation of secondary xylem secondary phloem.
 More active on the inner side so more secondary xylem are formed.
 Spring early wood – more active cambium and light coloured which forms more xylem.
 Autumn late wood – less active cambium and dark coloured which forms less xylem.
 The two kinds of wood that appear as alternate concentric rings constitute an annual ring.
 Heart wood – dead elements, highly lignified provides mechanical support.
 Sap wood – peripheral region, secondary xylem, light in colour, conduction of water and
minerals.

 Cork cambium :
 Cortical and epidermis layer get broken which is replaced to provide new protective cell
layers Cork cambium or phellogen.
 Cork cambium or phellogen develop in cortex region and produce new cells towards both
sides.
 Outer cells form cork or phellem and inner cells form secondary cortex or phelloderm.
 Soft early bark is formed early in the season and hard bark is formed late in the season.
 Lens shaped openings helps in exchange of gases called Lenticels.

 Secondary growth in roots :

 Vascular cambium forms wavy ring and later becomes circular.
 Secondary growth occurs in stems and roots of gymnosperms too.
 Secondary growth does not occur in stems and roots of monocots because monocots do not
have cambium.
 UNIT – 02
CHAPTER - 07 : STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS

 Tissue : A group of similar cells which perform same function together. There are different types
of tissues – Epithelial tissue, Connective tissues, Muscular tissues and Nervous tissues.

Epithelial tissue :
 Covers external surface and lines internal surface.
 Three specialized junctions are tight junction, adhering junction and gap junction.
 Non-cellular basement membrane is present.
 No blood vessels.
 Receives nutrients from underlying connective tissues.
 There are two types of epithelial tissue - Simple epithelial and Compound epithelium.

 Simple epithelium (one layer) :

 Squamous epithelium.
 Cuboidal epithelium.
 Columnar epithelium.
 Pseudo-stratified epithelium.

 Compound epithelium (many layer) :

 Stratified compound epithelium as squamous, cuboidal and columnar.
 Transitional epithelium which is found in urinary bladder.

Muscular tissue :
 Striated muscle or Skeletal muscle - Voluntary in nature.
 Unstriated muscle or Smooth muscle - Involuntary in nature.
 Cardiac muscle – Found in heart.

Nervous tissue :
 Neuron is the longest cell.
 Structure of neuron includes different parts as Dentrites, Cyton, Axon with myelinated
sheath, node of Ranvier and axon ending.

Morphology of Cockroach :
 1-3 inches long.
 Nocturnal omnivorous animal.
 Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
 Body is covered with chitinous exoskeleton with hard plates. Plates are called sclerites
(tergites and sternites ) connected by arthrodial membrane.
 Compound eyes, Antennae, bitting and chewing mouth parts are present.
 Mouth part consists of a labrum (upper lip), a pair of mandible, a pair of maxillae, a labium
(lower lip) and a tongue called hypopharynx.
 Throax consists of three parts - prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Each thorax has a
pair of legs.
Anatomy of Cockroach :
 Digestive system : It includes mouth, oesophagus, crop, gizzard, hepatic caecae, midgut, hind
gut, rectum and anus.

 Circulatory system : It has open blood vascular system. Blood (haemolymph) pumped into
space (haemocoel). Blood includes plasma and haemocytes. Heart is elongated muscular tube in
dorsal line. Heart opening is called ostia. Blood enters into the heart through ostia and pumped
anteriorly to the sinuses.

 Respiratory system : Tracheary system (network of trachea) are present. External opening is
called spiracles. Air passage includes Spiracles – Trachea – Tracheoles – Blood.

 Excretory system : Malphigian tubules collect uric acid in the body. Uricotelic animal. Fat
bodies, nephrocytes and Urecose glands also help in excretion.

 Nervous system : Ganglionated nervous system. 3 pair ganglia in thorax and 6 pair ganglia in
abdomen.

 Sense organs : Antennae, compound eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps and anal cerci. Compound
eye is made of 2000 ommatidium. Mosaic vision.

 Reproductive system :
 In male, it includes 4-6 Testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and ejaculatory duct.
 In female, it includes 2-6 ovaries, oviduct, vagina, genital chamber. Fertilized egg is present
in oothecae (9-10 oothecae). Development is paurometabolous. Devevelopment is through
nymphal stage. Nymph looks like adult and it grows by moulting about 13 times into adult.
 UNIT – 03
CHAPTER – 08 : CELL - THE UNIT OF LIFE

 All organisms are made of cells or aggregates of cells. Cells vary in their shape, size and functions.
Based on the presence or absence of a membrane bound nucleus and other organelles, cells can be
named as Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic.
 Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
 Antony Von Leeuwenhoek first observed and described a liver cell.
 Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus.

Cell theory :
 This theory was given by Schleiden and Schwann (later Virchow).
 All living organism are made of cells and their products.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Prokaryotic cell :
 It includes Bacteria, Blue-green algae, Mycoplasma, PPLP (Pleuro-Pneumonia Like Organisms.
 It has Glycocalyx, Cell wall, Plasma membrane.
 Based on staining property, these are gram positive and gram negative bacteria.
 It has Mesosome, Chromatophores (extension of plasma membrane).
 These are Motile/Non-motile.
 Flagellum has three parts as filament, hook and basal body.
 Pili and fimbriae are surface structure which do not play a role in motility but helps in attachment.
 It has ribosomes and inclusion bodies.
 Ribosomes are 15-20 nm in size. It has 2 sub-units as 50S and 30S which are unite together to form
70S. Ribosomes help in protein synthesis. Polysomes/polyribosomes on mRNA.
 It has inclusion bodies and reserve materials as Phosphate granules, Cyanophycean granules,
Glycogen granules, Gas vacuoles.

Eukaryotic cell :
 Protists, Fungi, Plant cell and animal cell.
 The structure of cell membrane is explained through fluid mosaic model by Singer & Nicholson
(1972). Bilipid layer of phospholipids with two types of membrane proteins called peripheral protein
and integral proteins with cholesterol, glycolipids and glycoproteins.

Cell wall :
 It gives shape, mechanical support, cell-to-cell interaction.
 It is made of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins (in plants) and cellulose, galactans, mannans, calcium
carbonate (in algae).
 Primary cell wall in young plant cell is capable of growing till cell matures.
 Secondary cell wall is formed on the inner side of the cell.
 Middle lamellae is made up of calcium pectate.
 The cell walls and middle lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata which connect the
cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
Endoplasmic Reticulum :
 There are two types of ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) as SER (Smooth ER) and RER (Rough ER).
 SER has no ribosomes on its surface, appears smooth which helps in lipid synthesis/steroids.
 RER has ribosomes on its surface, appears rough surface which helps in protein synthesis.

Golgi apparatus :
 First observed by Camillo Golgi.
 Packaging unit.
 Makes glycoprotein and glycolipids.

Lysosomes : Contain enzyme as hydrolases which helps in intracellular digestion.

Vacuoles :
 Tonoplast is vacuole membrane.
 Contractile vacuole for excretion and food vacuole for engulfing.

Mitochondria :
 Power house of the cell.
 Sites of aerobic respiration.
 Produce energy capsules ATP.
 Double membrane structure.
 Inner compartment is known as matrix.
 Inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called Cristae to increase the surface area.
 Matrix possesses single circular DNA, few RNA and ribosomes (70S).
Plastids :
 As Chloroplast, Chromoplast and Leucoplasts.
 Leucoplasts are categorised into Amyloplasts for storage of starch, Elaioplasts for storage of oil/fat
and Aleuroplasts for storage of proteins.
Ribosomes :
 Discovered by George Palade.
 Composed of RNA and proteins.
 Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S. ‘S’ stand for the sedimentation coefficient (Svedberg’s unit).
 Site of protein synthesis.
Cytoskeleton :
 Network of filaments proteinaceous structures in the cytoplasm.
 Made up of microtubules and microfilaments.
 Functions as mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.

Cilia and flagella :

 Core is called axoneme.
 It has 9 pairs of doublets of microtubules on peripheral and one pair in the centre i.e. (9+2) array
emerged from centriole like structure called the basal bodies.
Centrosome and Centrioles :
 Centrosome contains 2 centrioles.
 Each centriole has a cart wheel like organization with 9 evenly spaced microtubule and triplets
connected to central hub by radial spokes.
 Produces spindle apparatus during cell division.

Nucleus :
 Discovered by Robert brown in 1831.
 Chromatin named by Fleming.
 Nucleolus is the active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
 Nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin.
 Nuclear membrane has perinuclear space.
 Chromosome is composed of DNA and histone proteins.
 Centromere is the primary constriction which has disc is known as kinetochores.
 No nucleus in erythrocytes (RBC) of mammals and sieve tube cells in vascular plants.
 Based on the position of centromere, chromosomes are Metacentric, Sub-metacentric, Acrocentric
and Telocentric.

Microbodies : Minute vesicles containing various enzyme in plant and animal cell.
 UNIT – 03
CHAPTER – 09 : BIOMOLECULES

 Living cells are composed of both organic and inorganic components.

Analyse the chemical composition found in living organisms :

 For organic compounds :
 Living tissue (a vegetable or a piece of liver) grind in trichloroacetic acid to form slurry.
 Filter the slurry to obtain two types of fractions. One is called the filtrate which is acid-
soluble pool and the second is called the retentate which is acid-insoluble fraction.
 Scientists have found thousands of organic compounds in the acid-soluble pool.
 For inorganic compounds :
 Sample of tissue should be burnt to obtain ash and different kinds of inorganic compounds
were identified.

Types of biomolecules :
 Two types as Micro-molecules and Macro-molecules.
 Micro-molecules are known as monomers while Macro-molecules are known as polymers.

Primary and Secondary metabolites :

 These are biomolecules which are found in living cells as metabolites.
 Primary metabolites are those which have identifiable functions and play specific roles in normal
physiological processes. E.g.- Amino acids, nitrogenous bases, proteins and nucleic acid.
 Secondary metabolites are product of certain metabolic pathways from primary metabolites.
 Pigments – Anthocyanin, Carotenoids.
 Drugs – Vinblastin, Curcumin.
 Alkaloids – Morphine, Codeine.
 Essential oils – Lemon grass oil.
 Polymeric compounds – Rubber, Gum, Cellulose, Resins.

Bio-macromolecules :
 It is molecules with weight greater than 1000 daltons (Da) found in acid insoluble fraction. E.g.-
polysaccharides, nucleic acid, proteins and lipids.
 Polysaccharides :
 Long chain of polymers of monosaccharides. Two types of Homopolymer as cellulose, starch
(made up of only Glucose monomers) and Heteropolymer as chitin.
 Inulin is a polymer of fructose.
 Glycogen is a polymer of glucose in animal tissues.
 Monosaccharides are joined by Glycosidic bond in which right end is reducing and left end is
non-reducing.
 Starch forms helical secondary structures. Starch can hold Iodine molecules in helical portion
and form blue colour. But, Cellulose does not contain complex helices and cannot hold
iodine.
  Complex polysaccharides are found in Plant cell wall (cellulose), Paper (plant pulp), Cotton
and Fibre (cellulose), Exoskeleton of animals as chitin. Complex polysaccharides have as
building blocks, amino-sugars and chemically modified sugars like Glucosamine, N–acetyl
galactosamine.
 Nucleic acids :
 DNA which is a polynucleotide chain, double stranded (deoxyribose sugar) having
nitrogenous bases A, G, C and T.
 RNA is a single stranded polymer of ribonucleotides (ribose sugar) having nitrogenous bases
A, G, C and U.
 Nucleotides are made up of nitrogenous base, pentose sugar and phosphate group.
 Nucleoside is made up of nitrogenous base and pentose sugar.
 Nitrogenous bases are Adenine (A), Guanine(G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U).
 Phosphodiester bonds are covalent bond formed between nucleotides.
 Proteins :
 Polymer of amino acids (peptide bonds).
 Primary structure is linear chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds which is non-
functional.
 Secondary structure is α-helix or β-pleated structure with peptide and hydrogen bonds.
 Tertiary structure is long chain of coiled structure with peptide, hydrogen, disulphide and
ionic bonds which is functional structure of protein.
 Quaternary structure is the group of more than two tertiary structured proteins. E.g.-
Haemoglobin which is made up of two alpha and two beta chains.

Nature of bonds linking monomers in a polymer :

 Amino acids are linked by Peptide bonds.
 Monosaccharides are linked by Glycosidic bond.
 Nucleotides are linked by Phosphodiester bond between 3-Carbon of one nucleotide with 5-Carbon
of another. Each helix of DNA contains 10 base pairs with the length of 3.4 nm (34 A0).

Concept of Metabolism :
 Biomolecules have turn over because constantly changing from one form to another.
 Chemical reactions are called metabolism. Examples -
 Amino acids can be formed by the removal of amino group in a nucleotide base.
 Hydrolysis of disaccharide into 2 monosaccharides.
 Linked chemical reactions are called metabolic pathways because it is a catalysed reaction by
enzymes.

Metabolic pathways in living system :

 Anabolic pathways are the making or constructing big molecules from micro-molecules. E.g.-
Photosynthesis).
 Catabolic pathways are the breaking down of big molecules into smaller ones. E.g.-Respiration.
 For both Anabolic and Catabolic pathways, ATP is required (energy currency).
The living state :
 Blood glucose level should be 4.5-5.0mM.
 Hormones level are in nanograms/mL.
 System at equilibrium cannot perform work.
 System is non-equilibrium when living organisms work constantly.
 Hence, the living state is non-equilibrium steady state to be able to perform work.

Enzymes Vs Catalysts :
 Enzyme helps in chemical reactions.
 No enzyme is used in Inorganic reaction. E.g.- Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + 2H2O
 Enzyme is used in Organic reaction.
 Carbonic anhydrase is the fastest enzyme. 200 molecules/hr are formed without the use of enzyme
Carbonic anhydrase while 600,000 molecules/sec are formed with the use of enzyme.
 Activation energy is the energy needed to do work.

Nature of enzyme action :

Enzyme + Substrate ES complex Enzyme + Product

Enzyme Catalyst
1. It is produced by living cells and made of protein. 1. It is chemical substances and help in
chemical reactions.
2. It can work well at optimum temperature of 40 0C. 2. It can work even at 80-90 0C.
3. It reduces the activation energy. 3. It requires different level of energy.

Properties of Enzymes :
 All enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes. E.g.- Haemoglobin is a protein but not an
enzyme.
 Enzymes are specific with their substrates as their active sites are different for different substrates.
 Enzymes are of 2 types as Builders and Breakers.
 Enzyme does not get used up during the reaction as it does not change its shape. Hence, less
enzymes are required.
 Enzymes at low temperature become inactive while enzymes at high temperature denatures.

Denaturation : The enzyme changes its shape and the substrate cannot bind with the enzyme which
affect the tertiary structure of the protein.

Factors affecting enzyme activity :

 Effect of temperature : Temperature at which the enzyme gives its maximum rate of reaction is
known as optimum temperature (40 0C).
 Effect of pH : Different enzymes work at different pH. Example- Enzyme pepsin works at pH = 2
and enzyme amylase at pH = 7. It is called optimum pH.
 Substrate concentration : The concentration of substrate affects the enzyme activity.
 Enzyme inhibition : Enzyme action can be inhibited by other chemical molecules called inhibitors.
Competitive inhibition : Inhibitor chemical molecule resembles the structure of substrate and bind
with the active site of enzyme instead of substrate. Hence, there is no production of products. E.g.-
Inhibition of Succinic dehydrogenase by malonate (inhibitor) which resembles the substrate Succinate in
structure.

Classification and nomenclature of enzymes :

 Based on type of reaction they are classified into 6 classes –
1. Dehydrogenases/oxidoreductases : S reduced + S’ oxidized S oxidized + S’ reduced.
2. Transferases : S–G + S’ S + S’–G.
3. Hydrolases : Hydrolysis of ester, ether, peptide, glycosidic, C–C, C–halides, P–N bonds.
4. Lyases : Removal of group from substrates other than hydrolysis which helps in formation of
double bond. X Y
X–Y + C=C
C C
5. Isomerases : Inter-conversion of optical, geometrical or positional isomers.
6. Ligases : Linking two compounds. E.g.- Formation of bonds between C–O, C–S, C–N, P–O.

Co-factors :
 It is a non-proteinous part which makes the enzyme more active. The protein part of enzyme is
called Apoenzyme.
 There are 3 kinds of co-factors :
 Prosthetic group : Non-proteinous, organic compounds which is tightly bound with
apoenzyme. E.g.- Peroxidase, Catalase.
 Co-enzyme : Non-proteinous, organic compound and bound in transient form. E.g.- NAD,
NADP (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate).
 Metal ions : Form co-ordination bonds. E.g.- Fe, Zn.
 Holoenzyme = Apoenzyme + Co-factor.
 UNIT – 03
CHAPTER - 10 : CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Cell cycle :
 It is a series of events that takes place in a cell, leading to the formation of two daughter cells from a
single mother cell.
 Cell cycle is divided into two basic phases : Interphase and M-phase Phases of cell cycle.
 Interphase includes G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase and Go phase (quiescent stage).
 M-phase (mitosis phase) includes karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
 Karyokinesis (nuclear division) includes Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase while
Cytokinesis includes division of cytoplasm.

Interphase :
 Interphase involves a series of changes that prepares the cell for division. It involves the period of
cell growth and cell division in an orderly manner.
 It is divided into three phases :
 G1 phase : It involves growth of cell and preparation of DNA for replication.
 S phase : It involves DNA synthesis. The amount of DNA doubles but the chromosome
number remains the same.
 G2 phase : It involves protein synthesis and further growth of cell, which prepares it for
division.
 G0 phase (Quiescent phase) : It is the stage when metabolically active cell remains quiescent
for long period of time.

Mitosis :
 It is a process of cell division where chromosomes replicate and get equally distributed into two
daughter cells. Hence, it is also called equational division.
 The process of mitosis keeps the chromosome number equal in daughter as well as parental cell.
 Mitosis usually takes place in somatic cells.
 Mitosis involves four stages : Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.

 Prophase :
 It involves initiation and condensation of chromosomes.
 Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappears.
 Metaphase :
 Chromosomal material condenses to form compact chromosomes that get aligned in the
middle of nucleus at equatorial plate.
 Anaphase :
 Centromere splits and chromosomes move apart towards two opposite poles due to
shortening of spindle fibres.
 Telophase :
 Chromosomes finally reach their respective poles.
 Nuclear envelope assembles around each chromosome clusters.
 Nucleolus and other organelles reform.

Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis :

 Karyokinesis is the division of nucleus during mitosis or meiosis which is followed by cytokinesis.
 Cytokinesis involves the division of cytoplasm of a cell.
  Cytokinesis is achieved in animal cell by cleavage, which deepens and divides the cell into two.
 It is achieved in plant cell by cell plate formation.
 When karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis, a multinucleated condition arises. This is called
Syncytium.

Significance of mitosis :
 Results in formation of diploid genetically identical daughter cells.
 Growth of the body takes place by mitosis.
 Cell repair and replacement of worn out tissues.
 Maintenance of nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
 Vegetative reproduction in plants takes place by mitosis.

Meiosis :
 It is the process which involves the reduction in the amount of genetic material.
 It mainly occurs in germ cells.
 At the end of meiosis II, four haploid cells are formed.
 It is comprised of two successive nuclear and cell division with a single cycle of DNA replication.
 The phases of meiosis are divided into two groups as Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II.

Meiosis-I :
 Prophase-I : It comprises of 5 stages as Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
 Leptotene : Chromosomes start condensing.
 Zygotene : Pairing of chromosomes called synapsis occurs. A pair of synapsed homologous
chromosomes is called bivalent or tetrad.
 Pachytene : Exchange of genetic material (crossing over) between non-sister chromatids
occurs. Chiasmata formation.
 Diplotene : Bivalents formed during pachytene separate from each other (except at
chiasmata) due to dissolution of synaptonemal complex.
 Diakinesis : Terminalisation of chiasmata can be observed. By the end of this stage, the
nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope breaks.
 Metaphase-I : Bivalents (tetrad) get aligned along metaphase plate through spindle fibres.
 Anaphase-I : Homologous chromosomes separate while chromatids remain attached at their
centromere.
 Telophase-I : Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear around chromosome clusters at each pole.
 Inter-kinesis : It is the stage between two meiotic divisions.

Meiosis-II :
 Prophase-II : Chromosomes become compact. Nuclear membrane disappears.
 Metaphase-II : Chromosomes align at the equator. Kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to
spindle fibres at each pole.
 Anaphase-II : Chromatids separate by splitting of centromere. As a result, chromatids move
towards their respective poles in the cell.
 Telophase-II : Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reform around the chromosome clusters.
 Cytokinesis : After meiosis II, the process of cytokinesis results in the formation of four haploid
cells.

Significance of meiosis :
 It results in reduction of chromosome number by half in gametes, which again doubles during
fertilization. Therefore, it helps to conserve the chromosome number of species from generation to
generation.
  Crossing-over (occurring in pachytene stage of meiosis-I) is a source of genetic variation in sexually
reproducing organisms.
 The variation thus formed helps in evolution.

Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis :

Point MITOSIS MEIOSIS

No.
1 It occurs in Somatic cells. It occurs in Sex cells.
2 It gives 2 daughter cells. It gives 4 gametes.
3 Cells formed are diploid (2n). Cells formed are haploid (n).
4 During Metaphase, chromosomes are not During Metaphase-I, homologous chromosomes
lined in pair. are lined up in pairs.
5 During Prophase, no recombination takesDuring Prophase-I, recombination/crossing-over
place. occur between homologous chromosomes.
During Anaphase, centromere splits and During Anaphase-I, homologous chromosomes
6 chromatids move towards opposite [Link] and during Anaphase-II, centromere
splits and chromatids move towards opposite
poles.
7 It takes very short duration. It takes very long duration.
8 Only one division occurs and forms two Two divisions occur and form 4 haploid cells.
diploid daughter cells.
 UNIT – 04
CHAPTER - 11 : TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Means of Transport :
 Three means of transport in plants : Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion and Active Transport.

 Diffusion :
 Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration without semi-permeable
membrane.
 Slow process.
 No expenditure of energy.
 Diffusion depends upon: Concentration gradient, Permeability of the membrane, Temperature,
Pressure and Size of the substance.
 Facilitated Transport :
 In facilitated diffusion, the membrane proteins are involved. They provide a site for
hydrophilic molecules to pass through the membrane and no energy is required.
 Proteins involved in the process form channels which may always be opened or controlled.
Facilitated diffusion is very specific.
 Porins : Proteins that forms huge pores in the outer membranes of plastids, mitochondria etc.
They are different kinds.
 Aquaporins : Proteins that facilitate diffusion of water molecules.
 Transport can be of 3 types : Symport, Antiport and Uniport (independent movement of
molecules).
 When all proteins involved are saturated, it leads to maximum transport.
 Active transport :
 Requires special proteins which are very specific and sensitive to inhibitors.
 Requires energy to pump molecules against the concentration gradient.
 When all proteins involved are saturated, it leads to maximum transport.

Water Potential (ψw) :

 Greater the concentration of water in a system, greater is its kinetic energy and greater is the water
potential.
 It is measured in Pascal (Pa).
 If two systems are in contact, then there is movement of water from the solution with greater water
potential to lower water potential.

Solute potential (ψs) :

 Magnitude of lowering of water potential when solute is added to the water.

Pressure Potential (ψp) :

 Magnitude of increase of water potential when pressure (greater than atmospheric pressure) is
applied to pure water or a solution.
 Water potential of pure water is zero.
 Solute potential is always negative and water potential is always positive.
ψ w = ψs + ψp
Osmosis :
 Water diffuses from region of its higher concentration to its lower concentration through semi-
permeable membrane.
 Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane.
  Direction and rate of osmosis depends upon pressure gradient and concentration gradient.
 Osmotic pressure :
 External pressure applied to prevent the diffusion of water.
 It depends upon solute concentration.
 Numerically, osmotic pressure is equal to osmotic potential.
 Osmotic pressure has positive sign. Osmotic potential has negative sign.

Types of Solutions :
 Isotonic solution : Concentration of external solution is equal to Concentration in cytoplasm. There
is no net gain, hence No change in cell size.
 Hypotonic solution : Concentration in cytoplasm is greater than the Concentration of external
solution. So, water enters into the cells and cells swell.
 Hypertonic solution : Concentration of external solutions is greater than the concentration in
cytoplasm. Hence water moves from cells to external solution and cells shrink.

Plasmolysis :
 It occurs when cell is placed in hypertonic solution, because water moves out from cytoplasm and
vacuole. Hence Cell membrane shrinks away from the cell wall.
 As water moves in, cytoplasm builds up a pressure against the cell wall. This pressure is called
turgor pressure and cells enlarge.

Imbibition :
 Diffusion in which water is absorbed by solids, causing them to enormously increase in volume.
 Imbibition is along the concentration gradient and depends upon affinity between adsorbent and
liquid being adsorbed.
 Examples – Imbibition of water by seeds that causes seeding to emerge from soil, swelling of
wooden door during rainy season, swelling of raisin when soaked in water.

Long Distance Transport of Water :

 It occurs by three processes, Diffusion, Mass flow system and Translocation through conducting
vascular tissues.
 There are two types of conducting tissues namely Xylem and Phloem.
 Xylem : Transports water, salts, nitrogen and hormones. From roots to the other parts and it is
unidirectional.
 Phloem : Transports organic and inorganic solutes. It occurs from the source (leaves) to the sink
(storage part) and it is multidirectional.

Absorption of Water by Plants :

 Water is absorbed through roots by diffusion.
 Root hairs (slender, thin-walled extensions of root epidermal cells) increase the surface area for
absorption.
 Once absorbed by root hairs, water moves into deeper layers by two pathways − Apoplast Pathway
and Symplast Pathway.
 Apoplast Pathway : Movement occurs through the intercellular spaces or walls of the cells
without entering the cytoplasm. Movement is fast. Most of the water flow in roots occurs via
apoplast except at the casparian strip.
 Symplast pathway : Water enters the cell through the cell membrane and travels intracellularly
through plasmodesmata. Movement is slow. At the casparian strip region, water moves through
the symplast.
  Most of the water enters through apoplast pathway, endodermis has casparian strips which are made
of suberin, it is impervious to water. So, water enters through symplast pathway.
 There are two forces which are responsible for transporting the water up in a plant. They are root
pressure and transpiration pull.
 Root Pressure :
 Water molecules enter from soil to root hair, then to cortical cells and finally reach
xylem vessels.
 Positive pressure created inside the xylem when water transported along the
concentration gradients into the vascular system.
 Guttation : Loss of water in its liquid phase from special opening near tip of grass blades
and leaves of herbaceous plants.
 Transpiration pull :
 Transpiration is a process of loss of water in the form of water vapours from the surface
of leaves.
 Transpiration accounts for loss of 99% of water taken by the plant. Loss is mainly
through stomata.
 Pull of water as a result of tension created by transpiration is the major driving force of
water movement upwards in a plant.
 There are three physical properties of water which affect the ascent of xylem sap due to
transpiration pull.
Cohesion – Mutual attraction between water molecules.
Adhesion – Attraction of water molecules to polar surface.
Surface tension – Attraction of water molecules to each other in liquid phase more than
water molecules in gaseous phase.

Transpiration :
 It occurs manly through openings called stomata. Transpiration provides the transpirational pull
which is responsible for the upward movement of water in tall plants.
 Stomata :
 Open in the day and close during the night.
 Also contribute in the exchange of O2 and CO2.
 Opening and closing of stomata is influenced by the turgidity of the guard cells.
 Factors affecting transpiration :
 External factors : Temperature, Light, Humidity and Wind speed.
 Plant factors / Internal factors : Number of stomata, distribution of stomata, water status
in plants.
 Importance of Transpiration :
 Creates transpirational pull for transport.
 Supplies water for photosynthesis.
 Transports minerals from soil to all parts of a plant.
 Cools the surface of the leaves by evaporation.
 Keeps the cells turgid. Hence, maintains their shape.

Uptake of Mineral Nutrients :

 Minerals are absorbed from the soil by active transport. They cannot follow passive transport
because of two factors :
 They are charged. Hence, they cannot cross the cell membranes.
 Concentration of minerals in soil is lesser than the concentration of minerals in roots. Hence,
concentration gradient is not present.
  Certain proteins in the membranes of root hair cells actively pump ions from soil to cytoplasm of
epidermal cells.

Transport of Mineral Nutrients :

 Unloading of mineral ions occur at fine vein endings of the leaves through diffusion.
 Some minerals are also remobilised from old senescing parts N, P, K, S. Minerals forming structural
components (example Ca) are not remobilised.
 Phloem transports food from source to sink, but this source-sink relationship is reversible depending
upon the season. Therefore, phloem transport is bidirectional.

Mass flow Hypothesis :

 This is the well accepted mechanism used for translocation of sugars from the source to the sink.
 Glucose prepared at the source is converted into sucrose. Sucrose is moved to the companion cells,
and then to the living phloem sieve tube cells by active transport. This process of loading creates a
hypertonic condition in the phloem.
 Water in the adjacent xylem moves into the phloem by osmosis. Osmotic pressure builds phloem
sap.
 As hydrostatic pressure on the phloem sieve tube increases, pressure flow begins and sap moves
through the phloem to the sink and stored as complex carbohydrates (starch).
 UNIT – 04
CHAPTER - 12 : MINERAL NUTRITION

Hydroponics :
 It was given by Julius Von Sachs.
 Hydroponic is growing of plants in a defined nutrient solution in the absence of soil. It helps us to
study the effect of adding, removing or varying the concentration of any particular mineral element.
 Essential elements can be identified by this method and their deficiency symptoms can be noted.

Criteria for the essentiality of an element :

 Absolutely necessary for the completion of the life cycle of a plant, necessary for its growth and
reproduction.
 Its requirement is specific and not replaceable by any other element.
 Directly involved in the metabolism of the plant.

Categories of Essential Elements :

 Essential elements are 17.
 Basically categorised according to their requirements.
 Macronutrients : Present in large amounts in tissues (C, H, O, N, P, K, S, Mg, Ca).
 Micronutrients : Present in small amounts in tissues (Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, Zn, B, Cl, Ni).
 Functions performed in a plant :
 Components of biomolecules (C, H, O, N).
 Components of energy-related chemical compounds (Mg in chlorophyll, P in ATP).
 Activation / Inhibition of enzymes. Mo in enzyme nitrogenase.
 Elements that activates osmotic potential of cell. K in opening and closing of stomata.

Role of Micro and Macro Nutrients :

Nutrient Absorbed as Role

Nitrogen NO2-, NO3- and NH4+  Required by all metabolically active cells and
meristematic tissues.
 Constitutes cell membranes, proteins, all nucleic
Phosphorus H2PO4- and HPO42- acids and nucleotides.
 Required for ATP formation.
 Required in abundance by meristematic tissues,
buds, leaves, root tips etc.
Potassium K+  Maintains anion-cation balance in cells.
 Involved in opening and closing of stomata and
maintains turgidity of cells.
 Meristematic and differentiating tissues.
Calcium Ca2+  Formation of mitotic spindle, activates enzymes.
 Synthesis of middle lamella (Calcium pectate) of
cell wall during cell division.
 Activates enzymes of respiration and
2+
Magnesium Mg photosynthesis, involved in DNA and RNA
synthesis, constitutes ring structure of
chlorophyll.
Sulphur SO42-  Found in amino acid cysteine and methionine.
 Nutrient Absorbed as Role
 Constitutes proteins involved in electron
Iron Fe3+ transport system such as cytochromes and
ferredoxin.
Manganese Mn2+  Activates enzymes involved in photosynthesis,
respiration and nitrogen metabolism.
Zinc Zn2+  Synthesis of auxins and activates carboxylases
enzymes.
Copper Cu2+  Overall metabolism of plants and activates
enzymes involved in redox reactions.
Boron BO33- and B4O72-  Involved in pollen germination, in cell
elongation and differentiation.
Molybdenum MoO22+  Involved in nitrogen metabolism, enzymes like
nitrogenase and nitrate reductase.
Chlorine Cl−  Involved in water splitting reaction of
photosynthesis and determines solute
concentration.

Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements :

 If essential elements are below their Critical concentration (amount of nutrients required for normal
growth and development of plants), plants show certain morphological and observable characters.
Those characters are called as deficiency symptoms.

Deficiency symptoms :
 Chlorosis (Loss of Chlorophyll) : Leads to yellowing of leaves which is caused due to deficiency of
N, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo.
 Necrosis (Death of Tissue) : It is caused due to deficiency of Ca, Cu, K, Mg.
 Delayed flowering : It is caused due to deficiency of N, S, Mo.
 Inhibition of Cell Division : It is caused due to deficiency of N, K, S, Mo.

Toxicity of Micronutrients :
 Any mineral ion concentration that reduces the dry weight of tissues by 10% is considered toxic.
 Toxicity of one element may lead to deficiency of other elements since the former may inhibit the
uptake of latter.
 For example - Mn competes with Fe, Mg for uptake and also inhibits Ca translocation to shoot apex.
Therefore, Mn toxicity symptoms are actually same as deficiency symptoms of Fe, Mg and Ca.

Nitrogen Cycle :
 Nitrogen fixation : The process of conversion of nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3).
 Ammonification : The process of decomposition of organic nitrogen of plants and animals into
ammonia.
 Nitrification :
 The ammonia so formed may volatilise and re-enter the atmosphere.
 Some of the ammonia may be converted into nitrate by soil bacteria.
Nitrosomonas / Nitrococcus
 2NH3 + 3O2 2NO2- + 2H+ + 2H2O
Nitrobacter
2NO2- + O2 2NO3-
 These are the steps involved in nitrification. The nitrate so formed can be easily absorbed by
the plants and transported to leaves. In leaves, nitrate is reduced to ammonia to form the
amine group of amino acids.
 Denitrification : Process of reduction of the nitrate present in soil to nitrogen which are
arried out by bacteria like Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus.

Biological Nitrogen Fixation :

 Reduction of nitrogen to ammonia by living organisms is called Biological Nitrogen Fixation.
 Certain prokaryotes (bacteria) are able to fix nitrogen because the enzyme nitrogenase is present
exclusively in them.
Nitrogenase
N≡N NH3
 Nitrogen-fixing microbes can be classified as follows :
 Free living : Aerobic (Azotobacter), Anaerobic (Rhodospirillum), Cyanobacteria (Nostoc,
Anabaena).
 Symbiotic : with leguminous plants (Rhizobium), with non-leguminous plants (Frankia).
 It needs three biological components :
 A reducing agent to transfer hydrogen atom to dinitrogen (N ≡ N).
 ATP to provide energy.
 Enzyme system, Nitrogenase, Mo-Fe protein and leghaemoglobin.
 Leg-haemoglobin : It is a pink colour pigment similar to haemogolobin of vertebrates and functions
as an oxygen scavanger and protects nitrogenase from oxygen.
N2 + 8e- + 8H+ + 16ATP → 2NH3 + H2 + 16ADP + 16Pi

Nodule Formation :
 Root hair comes in contact with Rhizobium. It becomes curved and deformed due to the chemical
secretion.
 Plant forms an infection thread, grows inside and delivers bacteria to the cortical tissue.
 Bacteria produce cytokinin and auxin which is produced by the plant to stimulate cell division and
enlarge to form nodules.
 Nodules form contact with vascular tissues and get food.
 Formation of root nodules and nitrogen fixation occur under the control of nod genes of legumes and
nod, nif and fix genes of bacteria.

Synthesis of amino acids :

 Ammonia formed by nitrogen fixation is used for the synthesis of amino acids.
 There are 2 processes by which amino acids are synthesized.
 Reductive amination :
 NH4+ reacts with α-ketoglutaric acid and forms glutamic acid.
 It is catalysed by glutamate dehydrogenase enzyme.
 Transamination :
 Amino group of one amino acid is transferred to keto group of α-keto acid.
 Glutamic acid is the main amino acid which transfers its amino group (-NH2) to form 7 other
amino acids by the enzyme transaminase.
 Amides :
 By the replacement of OH- of the amino acid by NH2 radical.
 Asparagine and glutamine are amines formed from aspartic acid and glutamic acid In the
presence of enzyme asparagines synthetase and glutamine synthetase.
 UNIT – 04
CHAPTER - 13 : PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

Photosynthesis :
 Photosynthesis is a Physico-chemical process, uses light energy to synthesis organic compounds
(sugar).
 Importance of photosynthesis : Primary source of food and Release O2 to atmosphere.

Early Discoveries :
 Joseph Priestly (Candle with bell jar and mouse experiment) : He concluded that air is necessary for
the growth of a plant. He discovered the fact that plants restore oxygen in the air.
 Jan Ingenhousz (Experiment with aquatic plant in light and dark) : He concluded that sunlight is
essential for plant processes that purify the air.
 Julius Von Sachs : Green parts of plant make glucose and store as starch.
 [Link] (Spilt light using prism into 7 colours) : Green algae Cladophora placed in a
suspension of aerobic bacteria. Bacteria were used to detect the sites of O2 evolutions.
 Cornelius van Niel : He did experiment with purple and green bacteria and demonstrated that
photosynthesis is a light dependent process with hydrogen from H2O reduces CO2 to carbohydrates.
He concluded that oxygen comes from H2O but not from CO2. Finally, the correct equation for
photosynthesis was discovered.
Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Site of Photosynthesis :
 Green leaves, green stems and floral parts (sepal).
 Chloroplast is found in mesophyll cells of leaves.
 In chloroplast, the membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy and also for the
synthesis of ATP and NADPH where stroma has enzymes for the reduction of CO2 in to
carbohydrates (sugars).

Pigments involved in Photosynthesis :

 Four types of pigments may be present in leaves : Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyll-b, Xanthophyll and
Carotenoids.
 An absorption spectrum is the graph plotted against the fraction of light absorbed by the pigment.
 An action spectrum is the rate of a physiological activity plotted against the wavelength of light.
 Photosystems are pigments that are organized in the thylakoid membrane into two different
photosystems (PS-I & PS-II).
 Each photosystem has one specific chlorophyll-a and many other accessory pigments bound by
proteins.
 Chlorophyll-a forms the reaction centre (actual reaction takes place) other pigments form the light
harvesting complex (LHC) called antennae.
 PS-I reaction centre is P700 (Chlorophyll-a absorbs light at 700 nm).
 PS-II reaction centre is P680 (Chlorophyll-a absorbs light at 680 nm).
Light Reaction (Photochemical Phase) :
 This phase directly depends on light. The pigments absorb light energy and produce ATP.
 It includes :
 Light absorption.
 Water splitting.
 Oxygen release.
 Formation of ATP and NADPH (which is used in the biosynthetic phase).
 Pigment molecules bound to the proteins form LHC (light harvesting complexes). LHC are located
within two photosystems as PS-I and PS-II.
 Each photosystem has two parts :
 Reaction centre : Consisting of chlorophyll-a molecule.
 Antennae : Consisting of accessory pigments which increase the efficiency of
photosynthesis by absorbing different wavelengths of light.
 Reaction centre is different in both photosystems :
 PS-I (P700) : Chlorophyll-a has absorption peak at 700 nm.
 PS-II (P680) : Chlorophyll-a has absorption peak at 680 nm.

Photo-Phosphorylation :
 The process of formation of ATP in chloroplast in the presence of sunlight.
 Photo-phosphorylation is of two types : Non-cyclic photo-phosphorylation and Cyclic photo-
phosphorylation.

Non-Cyclic Photo-Phosphorylation :
 PS-II absorbs 680 nm wavelength of red light causing electrons to become excited and these
electrons are then accepted by an electron acceptor which sends them to an electron transport
system.
 Electron transport system transfers the electrons to PS-I.
 Electrons in PS-I are simultaneously excited on receiving a wavelength of 700 nm.
 From the electron acceptor, electrons are transferred to the molecule of NADP+.
 Addition of these electrons reduces the NADP+ to NADPH + H+.
 Since the electrons lost by PS-II do not come back to it. So, this process of formation of ATP is
called non-cyclic photo-phosphorylation.

Cyclic Photo-Phosphorylation :
 In this scheme, only PS-I is functional. Hence, the electrons are circulated within the photosystem.
 This results in a cyclic flow of electrons.
 This scheme could possibly be occurring in stroma lamellae because it lacks both PS-II and NADP
reductase enzyme.
 This cyclic flow results only in the synthesis of ATP but not of NADPH + H+.

Splitting of water :
 Water splitting complex is associated with PS-II.
 Manganese, Chlorine etc. play an important role.
  The light dependent splitting of water is called photolysis of water.
2H2O → 4H+ + O2 + 4e-
 Electrons formed are used for replacing the electrons lost from P680.
 P680 absorbs light and becomes as a strong oxidizing agent and splits a molecule of water to release
oxygen. Oxygen is liberated as a by-product of photosynthesis.
 Protons are used for the formation of reducing power NADP+ to NADPH + H+.

Differences between Non-cyclic and Cyclic Photophosphorylation :

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation Cyclic Photophosphorylation
1. Photolysis of water takes place. 1. No photolysis of water occurs.
2. Both PS-I and PS-II are involved. 2. Only PS-I is involved.
3. Electrons are not cycled. 3. The electrons released by PS-I come back to
PS-I itself.
4. Both ATP and NADPH are produced. 4. Only ATP is formed.
5. Oxygen is liberated. 5. Oxygen is not liberated.

Chemiosmotic Hypothesis :
 It is the mechanism of ATP synthesis in thylakoid of chloroplast.
 When electrons are transported through the electron transport system (ETS) and protons accumulate
inside the thylakoid membrane due to photolysis of water.
 Now electrons are passed through PS and protons are transported across the membrane.
 Chemiosmosis requires :
 A thylakoid membrane.
 A proton pump.
 A proton gradient.
 ATP synthase (ATPase) enzyme.

Dark Reaction (Biosynthetic Phase) :

 In this stage, ATP and NADPH are used for synthesising the food (Glucose).
 This stage is also called the dark phase as it is independent of light.
 It takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts.
 In some plants, the first product of CO2 fixation is a 3-carbon compound called 3-Phosphoglyceric
acid (3-PGA). These plants are said to adopt the C3 pathway.
 In other plants, the first CO2 fixation product is a 4-carbon compound called Oxaloacetic acid. These
plants are said to adopt the C4 pathway.

Calvin Cycle (C3 Cycle) :

 The path of carbon in the dark reaction was traced by Melvin Calvin using radioactive carbon (14C).
 The primary acceptor of CO2 was found to be a 5-carbon ketose sugar called Ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP). RuBP is used in a cyclic manner (regenerated) and a sugar is synthesised.
 Three phases of Calvin cycle : Carboxylation, Reduction and Regeneration of RuBP.
  Carboxylation :
 Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate combines with CO2 and fixes it to a stable organic intermediate 3-
cabon compound called 3-Phosphoglycerate (2 molecules). 3-PGA is the first stable product
of this cycle.
 Reaction catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO (RuBP Carboxylase-Oxygenase).
 Reduction :
 Two molecules, each of ATP and NADPH are required for fixing one molecule of CO2.
 This stage contains a series of reactions.
 Glucose is formed as a result of this series of reactions.
 Regeneration :
 RuBP regenerates to enable the cycle to continue uninterrupted.
 One ATP molecule is required.
 For the formation of one molecule of glucose, six molecules of CO2 need to be fixed. Hence, six
cycles are required.
 ATP required :
 For fixing 1 molecule of CO2 = 3 (2 for reduction and 1 for regeneration).
 For fixing 6 molecules of CO2 = 3 × 6 = 18 ATP.
 NADPH required :
 For fixing 1 molecule of CO2 = 2 (for reduction).
 For fixing 6 molecules of CO2 = 2 × 6 = 12 NADPH.
 Thus, the synthesis of 1 molecule of glucose requires 18 ATP and 12 NADPH.

C4 Pathway (Hatch and Slack Pathway) :

 Occurs in plants like maize, sugarcane (plants adapted to dry tropical regions). The leaves of C4
plants have Kranz anatomy. These plants show two types of photosynthetic cells - mesophyll cells
and bundle sheath cells. Chloroplasts are dimorphic i.e. those have mesophyll cells are granal while
bundle sheath cells are agranal.
 C4 plants can tolerate high temperature and high light intensity which show greater productivity of
biomass and lack photorespiration.
 Primary CO2 acceptor is Phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) which is a 3-carbon molecule.
 PEP Carboxylase fixes CO2 in the mesophyll cells. It forms the 4-carbon compound Oxaloacetic
acid (OAA) and then other 4-carbon compounds malic acid.
 These compounds are transported to the bundle sheath cells and C4 acid breaks down to form C3 acid
and CO2 and then carbon dioxide enters the C3 cycle.
 The formed C3 acid is again transported to the mesophyll cells and regenerated back into PEP.
 C3 cycle cannot directly occur in the mesophyll cells of C4 plants because of the lack of the enzyme
RuBisCO.
 RuBisCO is found in abundance in the bundle sheath cells of C4 plants.

Photorespiration :
 It is a process in which there is no formation of ATP or NADPH but there is utilization of ATP with
release of CO2. It is also considered a wasteful process.
 Photorespiration is responsible for the difference between C3 and C4 plants.
  At high temperature and high oxygen concentration in C3 plants, RuBP Carboxylase function as
RuBP Oxygenase.
 RuBP oxidized into Phosphoglycerate (3C) and Phosphoglycolate (2C).
 75% of carbon lost during oxygenation of RuBP.
 There is loss of photosynthetically fixed carbon and no energy rich compounds are formed. So,
photorespiration is a wasteful process.

Differences between C3 and C4 Plants :

C3 Plants C4 Plants
1. Photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll cells. 1. Photosynthesis occurs both in mesophyll and
bundle sheath cells.
2. The carbon dioxide acceptor is RuBisCO. 2. The carbon dioxide accepter is PEP
Carboxylase.
3. Kranz anatomy is absent. 3. Kranz anatomy is present.
4. The first stable compound formed is 4. The first stable compound is 4-carbon
3-carbon compound called compound called Oxaloacetic acid (OAA).
3-Phospho Glyceric Acid (3-PGA).
5. The optimum temperature is 20-250C. 5. The optimum temperature is 35-440C.
6. Photorespiratory loss is high. 6. Photorespiration does not take place.

Factors affecting rate of Photosynthesis :

 Blackmans law of limiting factors : When a physiological process is controlled by a number of
factors, the rate of reaction depends on the lowest factor. So, the factor which is the least (limiting)
will determine the rate of photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis is influenced by internal (plant) factors and external factors.
 Light :
 Quality and intensity of light.
 Wavelength of light between 400 nm 700 nm is called photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR). High intensity of light destruct chlorophylls.
 Temperature :
 High temperature denatures enzymes of biosynthetic phase and low temperature inactivates.
 Carbon dioxide concentration :
 In C3 plants upto 500 µlL-1 and in C4 plants upto 360 µlL-1.
 Availability of water :
 Less water leads to water stress, stoma closes, less carbon dioxide, reduce leaf expansion and
less photosynthetic area.
 UNIT – 04
CHAPTER - 14 : RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

Cellular Respiration :
 It is the process of oxidation/breakdown of food materials within the cell to release energy.
Respiratory substrate to be oxidised during respiration is usually glucose but these can also be
proteins, fats or organic acids.
 In plants respiration, gas exchange occurs through stomata and lenticels.
 Overall cellular respiration is :
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (36 ATP)

Difference between types of respiration :

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
1. It occurs in the presence of oxygen. 1. It occurs in the absence of oxygen.
2. Respiratory substrate (glucose) is completely 2. Partially oxidised.
oxidised.
3. Products are CO2, H2O and 36 ATP. 3. Products are ethyl alcohol/lactic acid, CO2 and
2 ATP.
4. Energy is released in large quantities. 4. Lesser quantity of energy.
5. Cytoplasm and Mitochondria are the sites of 5. Only cytoplasm is the site of break down.
break down.

Mechanism of respiration :
 Glycolysis : It is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
 Citric acid cycle / Krebs’ cycle : Aerobic respiration in mitochondria.
 Electron Transport System : In the inner membrane of mitochondria.
 Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration starts with Glycolysis.
 In aerobic respiration, Glycolysis is followed by Citric acid cycle and ETS (both occur in
mitochondria).
 In anaerobic respiration, Glycolysis is followed by formation of ethyl alcohol / lactic acid in the
cytoplasm.

Fermentation : Incomplete oxidation of pyruvic acid under anaerobic respiration forms lactic acid /
ethyl alcohol. It occurs in bacteria, yeast and striated muscles.

Glycolysis :
 It is the process of breaking down of glucose to pyruvic acid.
 It was given by Embden, Meyerhof and Parnas.
 A chain of 10 reactions converts glucose into pyruvate.
 Net ATP produced = 4 (produced) − 2 (consumed) = 2 ATP.
  The produced pyruvate may undergo :
 Lactic acid fermentation.
 Alcoholic fermentation.
 Aerobic respiration (Krebs’ Cycle).
In bacterial fermentation :
 Pyruvic acid → Lactic acid.
 Enzyme involved are Lactate dehydrogenase.
 While doing severe exercise similar reaction occurs in animal muscles in anaerobic conditions.
In yeast fermentation :
 Pyruvic acid → Ethanol + CO2.
 Enzymes involved are Pyruvic acid decarboxylase, Alcohol dehydrogenas.
 Only 7% of energy of glucose is released during fermentation.
 Yeasts poison themselves to death when alcohol concentration reaches about 13%.
Aerobic Respiration :
 Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A :
Mg2+
Pyruvic acid + CoA + NAD Acetyl CoA + CO2 + NADH + H+
Pyruvate dehydrogenase

 Citric acid Cycle / Tricarboxylic acid Cycle / Krebs’ Cycle :

 It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
 It is the process of complete oxidation of pyruvate by stepwise removal of all hydrogen
atoms which leaves three molecules of CO2.
  Overall equation :
Mitochondrial Matrix
Pyruvic acid + 4NAD + FAD + 2H2O + ADP + Pi 3CO2 + 4NADH + 4H+ + FADH2 + ATP

 Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative phosphorylation :

 It takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
 It is the process of synthesis of ATP from FADH2 and NADH + H+.
 FADH2 and NADH + H+ are oxidised to release the energy which is stored inside the
mitochondria in the form of ATP.
 Electrons are passed from one carrier to another and finally to oxygen, resulting in the
formation of water.
  Oxidation of 1 NADH + H+ produces 3 ATP.
 Oxidation of 1 FADH2 produces 2 ATP.

 Oxidative Phosphorylation :

 Respiratory Balance Sheet :

Glucose + 6O2 + 36ADP + 36Pi → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP

Amphibolic Pathway : Involved in both anabolism and catabolism.

Respiratory Quotient (RQ) :
 It is the ratio of the volume of CO2 evolved to the volume of O2 consumed during respiration.
 RQ = 1 (When carbohydrate is used as substrate).
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
 RQ is less than 1 for fats.
2 C51H98O6 + 145 O2 → 102 CO2 + 98 H2O + Energy
RQ = 102 CO2 / 145 O2 = 0.7
 RQ is 0.9 for proteins.
 RQ is more than 1 for organic acids.
 RQ is infinite in case of anaerobic respiration because CO2 is evolved but O2 is not consumed.
 UNIT – 04
CHAPTER - 15 : PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth :
 It is a characteristic of living beings in which an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ
or its parts occur or an increase in the size of a cell.

Types of Growth Rate :

 Growth rate can be defined as the increase in growth per unit time.
 Plants show two types of growth - Arithmetic and Geometric (according to the increase shown by
the growth rate).
 Arithmetic growth : Only one daughter cell continues to divide while others differentiate or mature.
Example – Root elongation at a constant rate.
 Geometric Growth : Initial growth is slow (lag phase), followed by a rapid increase in growth
(log/exponential phase), and followed by a phase where growth slows down (stationary phase).
Example – All cells, tissues and organs show this type of growth.

Conditions for Growth :

 It includes water, oxygen, nutrients and temperature.
 Differentiation : In this process, cells derived from root apical and shoot apical meristems and
cambium differentiate and mature to perform specific functions.
 Dedifferentiation : Process in which living differentiated cells regain their capacity to divide.
 Redifferentiation : Process in which differentiated cells that have lost their ability to divide are
reformed from dedifferentiated cells and have the ability to perform specific functions.

Development :
 Development : Changes in the life cycle.
 Plasticity : Different kinds of structure in response to environment or phases of life. E.g.-
Heteropylly in cotton and coriander. In these plants, leaves have different shapes based on the phase
of life cycle as well as the habitat.
 Development can also be termed as growth followed by differentiation.
 Development is controlled by intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors.
 Intrinsic : Genetic factors and plant growth regulators.
 Extrinsic : Light, temperature, water, oxygen etc.

Plant Growth Regulators / Phytohormones :

 Classification based on their nature of action :
 Plant growth promoters : Auxins, Gibberellins and Cytokinins.
 Plant growth inhibitors : Absissic acid (ABA).
 Ethylene may fit in either of the two groups but is largely an inhibitor.
 Types of phytohormones : Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Ethylene and Abscisic acid.
 Auxins :
 Discovery : Auxins were discovered by Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin.
 Isolation : They were isolated from tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings by [Link] as IAA
and IBA.
 Effects : Initiate rooting in stem cuttings, plant propagation. Promote flowering, prevent fruit
and leaf drop. Promote abscission of older mature leaves.
 Uses : Induce parthenocarpy, Widely used as herbicides (2,4–D). To kill dicotyledonous
weeds. Prepare weed free lawns. Controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell division.
  Gibberellins :
 Discovery : E. Kurosawa identified gibberellins present in a fungal pathogen Gibberella
fujikuroi.
 Isolation : Infected rice seedlings when treated with sterile filtrates of fungus.
 Effects : Gibberellic acids are acidic. Increase in length, cause fruits to elongate and improve
its shape. Delay senescence, extend the market period. GA3 used to speed up malting process
in brewing.
 Uses : Spraying sugarcane crop with this. Increases length of stem. Fastens maturity period.
Promotes bolting.
 Cytokinins :
 Discovery : Skoog and Miller.
 Isolation : Crystallized it promoting active substance named it kinetin from coconut milk,
corn-kernels.
 Effects : They are synthesized where rapid cell division takes place. Produce new leaves,
chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation.
 Uses : Help overcome apical dominance. Promote nutrient mobilization which helps in the
delay of leaf senescence.
 Ethylene (gaseous hormone) :
 Discovery : Cousins confirmed the release of a volatile substance from ripened oranges that
hastened the ripening of stored un ripened bananas.
 Effects : Promotes senescence and abscission. Highly effective in fruit ripening. Enhances
the respiration rate. Breaks seed and bud dormancy. Initiates germination in peanut seeds.
Sprouting potato tubers, promotes root growth root hair formation.
 Uses : Used to initiate flowering, for synchronizing fruit, induces flowering, regulates
physiological processes. Hastens fruit ripening, accelerates abscission and Promotes female
flowers.
 Abscisic Acid (ABA) :
 Discovery : Researchers.
 Isolation : Three kinds of inhibitors as Inhibitor-B, Abscission-II & Dormin.
 Effects : Regulates abscission dormancy. ABA stimulates the closure of stomata. Increases
tolerance, seed development. Maturation, dormancy, withstand desiccation.
 Uses : There are no. of events in a plant. Where more than one PGR interact to affect that
event. Example - Dormancy in seeds / buds abscission, senescence, apical dominance.

Photoperiodism :
 It is the response of plants to periods of day / night.
 Some plants require periodic exposure to light to induce flowering. Duration of dark period is
equally important for flowering.
 Long Day Plants : Plants that require exposure to light for a period exceeding critical duration to
induce flowering.
 Short Day Plants : Plants that require exposure to light for a period less than this critical period to
induce flowering.
 Day Neutral Plants : Duration and induction of flowering.

Vernalization :
 It is the phenomenon of dependence of flowering on exposure to low temperature.
 Example − Biennial plants. These are monocarpic plants that flower in first season and then die in
second season.
 Some examples are sugar beet, cabbage, carrot etc.
 UNIT – 05
CHAPTER – 16 : DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
 All the living organisms require energy to do various functions of life. They get energy from the
food. Food is also needed for growth and development of the body. Nutrition is defined as the
substance from which an organism derives its energy to do work and other materials for its growth,
development and maintenance of life.

Digestion : The breaking down of complex and insoluble organic substances such as carbohydrates,
proteins and fats into simpler and soluble substances like glucose, amino acids and fatty acids respectively
so that they can be easily absorbed into the body is known as digestion. This is a hydrolytic process and is
carried out by various enzymes.

Digestive system :
Alimentary canal is a tube present in all higher animals starting from mouth and reaching up to anus.
Various glands located on its wall produce digestive juices that help in the process of digestion. Liver and
pancreas produce the digestive juices. The digested food is also absorbed into the alimentary canal and
undigested and indigestible food is passed out of the body through anus.

Mammalian Alimentary Canal : In human, the total length of alimentary canal is about 21 feet and
consists of the following parts :
 Mouth : Mouth leads into a buccal cavity. The opening of the mouth is provided with lips. At the
floor of the buccal cavity a muscular tongue is present. It helps in the ingestion, mastication and
swallowing of food. It has got taste buds on its surface.
 Most of the mammals possess teeth on both the jaws. They are present in the cavity or socket of
gums (thecodont dentition). The number and types of teeth vary in mammals.
 In man, there are 32 teeth of four different types namely incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
This type of dentition is known as heterodont dentition. Their number can be represented by the
dental formula i.e. Half upper jaw (ICPM)/Half lower jaw = 2123/2123 = 32.
 The incisor teeth are chisel shaped and have sharp cutting edges.
 Canines are dagger shaped and pierce the food. They are very large and well developed in
predatory animals.
 Premolars and molars are broad and strong crushing teeth.
 Thus, the incisors are used for biting; the canines for tearing the food; premolars and molars for
grinding the food.
 Food is chewed and mixed with saliva in the mouth with the help of the teeth, tongue and jaw
movements.

 Salivary glands : There are three pairs of salivary glands namely parotids, submaxillary
(submandibular) and sublingual glands. Their secretion is collectively known as saliva which is
poured into the buccal cavity. Saliva usually contains enzymes and mucin. The enzyme present in
saliva is known as ptyalin that helps in the digestion of carbohydrates while mucin helps to lubricate
the food for swallowing.

 Oesophagus : The mouth leads to a funnel shaped pharynx which communicates with a long
muscular tube called oesophagus.

 Stomach : The oesophagus opens into a muscular sac like structure called as stomach. In man, it is
J-shaped and occupies the left side of the abdomen. The stomach opens into the small intestine.
  The stomach has many glands on its wall. Stomach wall produces gastric juice which chiefly
contains HCl, mucin and two protein digesting enzymes – rennin and pepsin.
 The muscles of the stomach wall churn and mix the food with gastric juice.

 Small intestine : Stomach through its pyloric region opens into small intestine. It is differentiated
into three regions – duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
 Duodenum is U-shaped and gets the common bile duct and pancreatic duct from the gall bladder
and pancreas. Jejunum is longer and more coiled. Ileum is the last part of small intestine and
opens into the large intestine. Its wall has numerous long, finger like projections called villi
which enhance absorption.
 Small intestine is the main region where digestion and absorption of food occurs. It has large
number of tubular glands that produce the intestinal juice containing a number of enzymes which
digest various types of food.
 Digestion of different nutrients is completed in the small intestine by the action of pancreatic
juice, intestinal juice and bile juice. The end products of digestion are then absorbed from the
small intestine.

 Large intestine : The small intestine opens into the large intestine. It is comparatively much shorter
and wider than the small intestine. It does not have villi.
 It is also differentiated into three regions – caecum, colon and rectum.
 Caecum is a small pouch like structure and its main part is vermiform appendix. However,
caecum is very well developed in herbivorous animals like horse and ass.
 The colon is longest and has four parts – ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon
and pelvic colon. The pelvic colon opens into the rectum.
 Rectum is the last part of large intestine.
 Both in colon and rectum most of the water is reabsorbed back while the undigested food is
removed from the body as faecal matter through anus. This is known as Egestion.

Glands associated with alimentary canal :

 Pancreas : It is located in between the loops of duodenum. It is the second largest gland of the body.
It secretes pancreatic juice that contains large number of digestive enzymes for digesting starch,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. The pancreatic juice is released into the pancreatic duct which
joins with the common bile duct.

 Liver : It is the largest gland of the body lying immediately below the diaphragm in the right upper
part of abdomen. The cells of the liver (hepatic cells) produce bile juice that contains bile pigments
and bile salts.
 Bile salts help in the digestion and absorption of fats.
 Bile juice does not contain any enzyme. Bile juice flows out of the liver through hepatic ducts
forming the common bile duct that opens into the duodenum when the food is present in the
duodenum.
 When there is no food in the duodenum then bile juice is stored in the gall bladder. The gall
bladder is a small elongated, muscular sac below the liver. When the food comes into duodenum,
it contracts to release the bile juice.

Digestion of Carbohydrates : Carbohydrates are of three types – polysaccharides, disaccharides and

monosaccharides. During the process of digestion both polysaccharides and disaccharides, they are broken
down to monosaccharides and absorbed into the body.
 Some of these complex carbohydrates are starch and cellulose present in cereal grains, potato, fruits
and tubers. Sucrose present in cane sugar while lactose present in milk.
  Enzymes that act on carbohydrates are collectively known as carbohydrases.
 In the mouth cavity, salivary amylase acts on starch and convert it into maltose, isomaltose and small
dextrins (disaccharides).

Salivary Amylase
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Dextrin

 Chewing and mastication of food increases the action of salivary amylase on starch by increasing the
surface area of food on which the enzyme acts. About 30 percent of starch present in food is
hydrolysed in the mouth.
 The action of salivary amylase sometime continues in the stomach but HCl present in the gastric
juice destroys the entire enzyme.
 Pancreatic juice and intestinal juice also contain carbohydrates digesting enzymes. Pancreatic juice
contains pancreatic amylase that acts on starch to digest it into maltose, isomaltose and dextrin.
Intestinal juice contains number of carbohydrases like maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase.

Pancreatic Amylase
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Dextrin

 Maltase and isomaltase act on maltose, isomaltose and dextrins to convert into glucose.
Maltase & Isomaltase
Maltose + Isomaltose + Dextrin Glucose

 Sucrase acts on sucrose to convert it into glucose and fructose.

Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

 Lactase acts on lactose to convert it into glucose and the galactose.

Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose

 Only human being can digest lactose present in the milk. But with advancement of age, they cannot
digest milk due to production of less amount of lactase. In them, lactose remains undigested and gets
fermented in the intestine producing gases and acids. This results in intestinal disorder and diarrhoea.
So, these persons must consume curd or yoghurt (sweetened curd) as lactose is fermented to lactic
acid in them. This will not pose any digestive problem to them.
 Many of the herbivorous animals can digest cellulose by the micro-organisms (bacteria and
protozoa) present in their alimentary canal. These microbes ferment cellulose into short chain fatty
acids such as acetic acid and propionic acid. These acids are then absorbed and utilized by the
animal. This is an example of symbiotic digestion. Microbes may be present in the rumen and
reticulum part of stomach (cow and buffaloes) or in the large intestine (horse and donkeys).

Digestion of proteins : Proteins are complex organic compounds made up of single units called amino
acids. In the process of digestion, proteins are broken down to amino acids. Enzymes that hydrolyze protein
are collectively known as proteases or peptidases. Many of these enzymes are secreted in their inactive form
or proenzymes. These inactive enzymes are converted to their active form only at the site of action.
  Protein digestion starts in the stomach. The gastric glands of stomach produce a light coloured and
transparent gastric juice. It contains hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
 The H+ ions present in HCl converts pepsinogen into pepsin. The presence of HCl makes the
medium highly acidic so that pepsin can act on proteins to convert them into peptones. HCl also
helps to kill bacteria and other harmful organisms that may be present along with the food.
 Gastric juice of Calf contains another milk coagulating protease called rennin. It is secreted as
inactive pro-rennin. In the presence of HCl, the inactive pro-rennin is converted into their active
form i.e. rennin. Rennin acts on the casein protein of milk and converts it into paracasein. In the
presence of calcium ions, it forms calcium paracaseinate (curdling of milk). Adult cows or human
infants do not produce rennin.
 Both pancreatic juice and intestinal juice are poured into small intestine. Pancreatic juice contains
trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, carboxypeptidases, lipases, amylases, DNAases and RNAases.
 All enzymes of pancreatic juice can act only in the alkaline medium. The change in the medium of
food from acidic to alkaline is done by the bile juice. Therefore, bile juice acts on the food before the
action of pancreatic juice.
 In the intestinal lumen, pancreatic and intestinal juices mix together. Then a protease of intestinal
juice called Enteropeptidase or Enterokinase acts in co-ordination with pancreatic proteases. This
enterokinase converts inactive trypsinogen into active trypsin.
 In predatory animals, trypsins can hydrolyse fibrinogen of blood into fibrin leading to blood
coagulation. But it is unable to bring about coagulation of milk.
 The inactive Chymotrypsinogen is activated to chymotrypsin by trypsin. Chymotrypsins can
hydrolyse casein into paracasein and then coagulates to form calcium paracaseinate. But it acts in the
alkaline medium. Chymotrypsin acts on other proteins and converts them into peptides.
 Carboxypeptidase hydrolyses the terminal carboxyl groups from peptide bonds to release the last
amino acids from the peptides which make the peptide shorter.
 The intestinal juice contains aminopeptidases, dipeptidases and enterokinase or enteropeptidase. Out
of these enterokinase activates the trypsinogen. Aminopeptidase hydrolyses the terminal amino
group from peptide bonds to release the last amino acid from the peptides which make the peptide
shorter. Dipeptidase acts on dipeptides to release the individual amino acids.

Digestion of fats : Fat digestion starts only when the food reaches the small intestine by the action of
bile juice from liver.
 Bile juice contains bile salts which break the bigger molecules of fat globules into smaller droplets
by reducing the surface tension of fat droplets. This process is known as emulsification of fats.
 Lipase is the enzyme that acts on emulsified fats. It is present both in the pancreatic juice and
intestinal juice. Lipase converts emulsified fats into diglycerides and monoglycerides releasing fatty
acids at each step. At the end of digestion, all fats are converted into fatty acids, glycerol and
monoglycerides.
Absorption : During the process of digestion proteins are changed to amino acids; carbohydrates to
glucose, fructose and galactose; fats to fatty acids, glycerol and monoglycerides. These end products of
digestion are finally absorbed in small intestine. So, absorption can be defined as a process by which
nutrient molecules are taken into the cells of the body. For this purpose, intestine has vast surface area of
absorption by the presence of numerous villi. Further, this area is increased by microvilli present on the free
surface of epithelial cells.

Passive absorption : When the nutrients are absorbed by simple diffusion then it is known as passive
absorption. Various amino acids and monosaccharides diffuse into the blood capillaries of villi. These
molecules are small and water soluble. All the amino acids and monosaccharides are not absorbed in this
way.
  Water is absorbed from the intestine to the intestinal cells and finally to the blood by the process of
osmosis. This occurs when the solute concentration in the blood is higher (hypertonic). Thus,
whenever any solute is absorbed from the intestine, it also results in the absorption of water.

Active absorption : This process occurs against the concentration gradient i.e. nutrients may be more in
intestinal cells than in the lumen of intestine. It requires the expenditure of energy i.e. ATP. Various
nutrients like amino acids, glucose, galactose, Na+ ions can be absorbed by active transport. After their
passive absorption, they are completely absorbed by active transport. For the active absorption of Na+ ions,
a mechanism of sodium pump operates in the cell membranes.

Role of bile juice in the absorption of fats : As the fatty acids and glycerol are insoluble in water,
the intestine cannot directly absorb them. So, they cannot reach the blood stream directly. Fatty acids and
glycerol are passed into lymph capillaries of the villi called lacteals. Digested fats are first incorporated into
micelles (small, spherical droplets) with the help of bile salts and phospholipids in the intestinal lumen. In
the lacteals, fats are re-synthesised into very small fat molecules called chylomicrons. An obstruction in the
bile duct may prevent the entry of bile juice into the small intestine (obstructive jaundice). As a result
unabsorbed fats are removed from the body along with the faecal matter.

Balanced diet : We need varieties of food to maintain normal functioning of our body. So, all the
systems are well maintained.
 A diet which contains adequate amount of all the essential nutrients is known as balanced diet. It
varies according to age and occupation.
 A balanced diet should have the following three qualities :
 It must be rich in various essential nutrients like vitamins, minerals and some amino acids.
 It should provide enough raw materials needed for the growth and development; repair and
replacement of cells, tissues and organs of the body.
 It should provide the necessary energy required by the body.

Disorders of Digestive System :

1. Jaundice : The liver is affected. Skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposition of bile pigment.
2. Vomiting : It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth and controlled by the vomiting
centre in the medulla oblongata.
3. Diarrhoea : Abnormal bowel movement and the faecal discharge with more liquidity which leads to
dehydration.
4. Constipation : The faeces are retained within the rectum due to irregular bowel movement.
5. Indigestion : Food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness due to inadequate enzyme
secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over eating and spicy food.
 UNIT – 05
CHAPTER – 17 : BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

 Every living cell requires continuous expenditure of energy for various life processes like growth,
development and multiplication. This energy is derived from the oxidation of organic compounds.
The biological oxidation of these compounds constitutes the process of respiration.
 Respiration is the biochemical oxidation of organic compounds like glucose to yield energy.

Organs for respiratory exchange in various animals :

 The body organisation is very simple in Amoeba and Paramecium, so gases can diffuse in and out
from the general body surface. The air diffuses across the membrane from the side where its partial
pressure is more to the side where its partial pressure is less.
 There are no special organs for respiration in Hydra as the body organisation is very simple. The
cells of the body of Hydra are more or less directly exposed to the environment. Dissolved oxygen
enters into the cells of Hydra through the general body surface while there is less oxygen
concentration within the cells. Carbon dioxide produced after respiration also comes out in a similar
way. This process is termed as diffusion.
 There are no special respiratory organs in earthworms and leeches but the exchange of gases occurs
through the skin (cutaneous respiration). The skin is always kept moist by the secretions of mucous
glands and is richly supplied with blood capillaries. Oxygen from the atmosphere dissolves into
mucus and diffuses in. Then, it is transported to the body tissues by hemoglobin of the blood.
Hemoglobin is dissolved in plasma and not present in the corpuscles unlike other animals.
 Gas exchange occurs through a tracheal system in insects because the integument has become
impermeable to gases to reduce the water loss. Tracheas are fine tubes that open to the outside by
spiracles. Each trachea branches into tracheoles that again branch extensively in the tissues and
finally end into air sacs. Inspiration and expiration occur through the spiracles. When the abdominal
muscles relax, the air is drawn into the spiracles, trachea and tracheoles. Then it diffuses through the
body fluids to reach the cells. When the abdominal muscles contract, the air is remove out through
the tracheal system via the spiracles. Thus, expiration is an active process while inspiration is
passive in insects.
 In the marine annelid Nereis, respiration occurs by the whole body surface but more specifically by
thin, flattened lobes of parapodia which possess extensive capillary network. They are richly
supplied with blood capillaries and are highly permeable to respiratory gases.
 Aquatic animals like prawns, fishes and tadpoles of frog, respire with the help of gills. Gills are
richly supplied with blood and can readily absorb dissolved oxygen from water. The surface of the
gills is increased by the presence of gill plates. Each gill plate has many flat and parallel membranes
like gill lamellae. Water moves over these gills in single direction only. The oxygen absorbed by the
gills from the water is taken by blood and carbon dioxide is given out into the water.
 In amphibians like frogs and toads, cutaneous respiration takes place across their moist and highly
vascular skin particularly during hibernation. However, they mainly respire through the lungs and
the moist mucus membrane of the buccal cavity. Toads have less cutaneous respiration than frogs.

Human Respiratory System :

 All mammals have lungs for the purpose of respiration. This is known as pulmonary respiration. The
mammalian respiratory system consists of the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and lungs.
  Nasal cavity : It is a large cavity lying dorsal to the mouth and is lined by mucous secreting
epithelium. The nasal cavity opens outside through a pair of external nostrils or nares. Bones and
cartilages support the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity is divided into two parts by a nasal septum. The
cavity opens inside into pharynx through two internal nostrils. Air passing through the nasal cavity is
filtered (from dust particles and foreign substances) and enters into the pharynx. The air also gets
warmed and moistened in this chamber. It is important to note that air can also be inhaled through
mouth directly but this is not advisable because the air will not be filtered, warmed and moistened.
This gradually will harm the respiratory system.
 Nasopharynx : It is a chamber situated behind the nasal cavity. At the level of soft palate, it
becomes continuous with the mouth cavity or oral pharynx. It also receives the openings of
eustachian tubes on its lateral sides and connected to the middle ear.
 Larynx : It is a chamber situated in the region of neck. It is supported by four cartilages – Thyroid,
Cricoid, Arytenoids and Epiglottis.
 Thyroid is the largest and in the form of a broad ring incomplete dorsally.
 Cricoid is a complete ring lying at the base of thyroid.
 A pair of arytenoids lying above the thyroid but in front of cricoid.
 Epiglottis situated behind the tongue that serves to cover the entrance to the trachea so that
food particles may not enter into it.
 Larynx is also known as voice box since it helps in the production of sound.

 Trachea : It is a tube starting from larynx running through the neck and the thoracic cavity. The
trachea runs through the neck in front of the oesophagus. The trachea or windpipe is about 12 cm
long and divided into two bronchi in the thoracic region.
 Bronchi and bronchioles : The two bronchi enter into right and left lungs of either side. Inside
the lungs they further branch into many smaller bronchioles with a diameter of about 1 mm. These
bronchioles further divide into terminal and then into respiratory bronchioles. Each respiratory
bronchiole divides into a number of alveolar ducts that further divide into atria which swell up into
air sacs or alveoli.
 Lungs : A pair of conical shaped lungs is situated in the double walled sacs called pleural cavities.
They are spongy and richly supplied with blood vessels and capillaries. They have about 300-400
millions of alveoli through which exchange of gases occur. Lungs have various bronchioles ending
into alveoli where exchange of gases occurs. The alveoli are thin walled pouches which have
epithelial linings supported by basement membrane.

Mechanism of breathing or pulmonary respiration :

 Respiration involves the following steps :
 Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and carbon dioxide rich
air released out.
 Diffusion of gases of oxygen and carbon dioxide across alveolar membrane.
 Transport of gases by the blood.
 Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and tissues.
 Utilisation of oxygen by the cells for catabolic reactions and release of carbon dioxide.

 Mechanism of Breathing :
 Inspiration : During contraction of external intercostal muscles the pulling of ribs takes place in
upwards and outwards. Lateral thoracic walls also move outwards and upwards. At the same
time the diaphragm becomes flattened as it moves down towards the abdomen. This results in the
increase in the volume of thoracic cavity thus lowering the pressure in the lungs. Due to this air
moves from outside to inside. Hence, inspiration is brought about by contraction of the
diaphragm and external intercostal muscles known as inspiratory muscles.
  Expiration : During relaxation of external intercostal muscles the ribs return back to their
original position i.e. inwards and backwards. Due to this the diaphragm becomes dome shaped
again and lateral thoracic walls also move inwards and downwards. It causes the decreases in the
volume of the thoracic cavity and increasing the pressure inside the lungs. So, the air from the
lungs rushes out through the respiratory passage bringing about expiration or exhalation.
Normally, a person breathes about 12-16 times/minute. However, this breathing rate is higher at
the time of muscular exercise and in small children. In forceful expiration, a different group of
intercostal muscles and some abdominal muscles contract to reduce the volume of the thorax
more than that in ordinary expiration. So, more air is expelled out. Such muscles are known as
expiratory muscles.

Pulmonary air volumes :

 Air flows into and out of the lungs because of the pressure gradient. Spirometer is an instrument
used to measure the amount of air exchanged during breathing. Some terms regarding pulmonary air
volumes are as follows :
 Tidal volume : It is the volume of air that is breathed in and breathed out while sitting at rest
(effortless respiration) or “quiet breathing”. It is about 500 ml in an adult person.
 Vital capacity : It is the volume of air that can be maximum expelled out after a maximum
inspiratory effort. It is about 4,500 ml in males and 3,000 ml in females. The higher the vital
capacity, the greater will be the capacity for increasing the ventilation of lungs for exchange of
gases. It is more in athletes and mountain dwellers.
 Residual volume : It is the volume of air that remains inside the lungs after a maximum forced
exhalation. It is about 1100 ml.
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) : It is the volume of air that can be taken in by forced
inspiration over and above the normal inspiration or tidal volume. It is about 2,000 ml to 3,500 ml.
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) : It is the volume of air that can still be given out by
forced expiration over and above the normal inspiration or tidal volume. It is about 1,000 ml.
 Total lung capacity : It is the volume of air in the lungs after a maximum inhalation effort. It is
equivalent to vital capacity plus residual volume. It is about 5,000 to 6,000 ml in adult males.

Pulmonary exchange of gases :

 The inspired air contains about 21 percent oxygen, 0.04 percent carbon dioxide, 78.6 percent
nitrogen and small amounts of other gases and atmospheric moisture.
 In the inspired air, the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) is 158 mm of Hg and that of carbon dioxide
(pCO2) is 0.3 mm of Hg.
 The lungs and alveoli also contain some air even after expiration. But this air has more of carbon
dioxide and less of oxygen than the inspired air. So, when this air mixes with the inspired air the
partial pressure of oxygen in alveolar air now becomes 100 mm of Hg and that of carbon dioxide
becomes 40 mm of Hg. However, the percentage of oxygen now becomes 13.1% and that of carbon
dioxide 5.3%.
 The pulmonary artery contains deoxygenated blood and has pO2 much less (40 mm of Hg) than that
of alveolar pO2. So, oxygen from the alveolar air diffuses into the blood capillaries (oxygenation).
This oxygenated blood is collected from alveoli of lungs by the pulmonary veins and has pO2 95 mm
of Hg and at this partial pressure, the oxygenated blood has 19.8 percent oxygen.
 The deoxygenated blood in the pulmonary artery has pCO2 46 mm of Hg and pCO2 of alveolar air is
40 mm of Hg. So, the blood while passing through the alveoli of lungs also unloads carbon dioxide.
The pulmonary vein carrying oxygenated blood and has carbon dioxide at the partial pressure of 40
mm of Hg. At these partial pressures, the carbon dioxide contents of the blood decreases from 52.7
percent to 49 percent.
Gas transport in blood :
 Oxygen transport : The hemoglobin pigment of blood mainly transports oxygen. From alveoli
of lungs, oxygen can readily diffuse into erythrocytes and combines loosely with hemoglobin (Hb)
to form a reversible compound oxyhemoglobin (HbO2).
 Combining of oxygen with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin is a physical process. There
is no change in the valency of iron atom i.e. ferrous in oxyhemoglobin as well as in
hemoglobin. This reaction is an oxygenation process and not oxidation.
 When fully oxygenated, hemoglobin has about 97 percent of oxygen. Hemoglobin is dark red
in colour whereas oxyhemoglobin is bright red in colour.
 The partial pressure of oxygen is less inside the tissues which causes dissociation of
oxyhemoglobin into oxygen and hemoglobin.
 The pO2 is much lower and pCO2 is much higher in active tissues than in passive tissues. So,
much of oxygen is released from oxyhemoglobin in active tissues.
 High tension of oxygen favours the formation of oxyhemoglobin while low tension of
oxygen favours its dissociation.
 However, very little amount of oxygen is found in the blood plasma. Each decilitre of blood
releases upto 4.6 ml of oxygen in the tissues (4.4 ml from oxyhemoglobin and 0.17 ml from
the dissolved oxygen in the plasma).

 Carbon dioxide transport : Carbon dioxide is produced in the tissues as an end product of
tissue respiration. For its elimination, it gets dissolved in tissue fluid and passes into the blood.
 In the tissues, 100 ml of blood receives about 3.7 ml of carbon dioxide. It is transported both
by the plasma and hemoglobin of blood.
 From the tissues, carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood plasma and forms carbonic acid
(H2CO3) in the presence of an enzyme carbonic anhydrase. The carbonic acid forms
bicarbonates inside the erythrocytes for their transportation.
Carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
H2CO3- H+ + HCO3- (bicarbonate)
 If all the carbon dioxide produced by the tissues is carried by blood plasma in this way, then
pH of the blood will be lowered to about 4.5. This would immediately cause death. So, only
about 10% of the CO2 produced by the tissue is actually transported as carbonic acid.
 About 20% of the total CO2 produced is transported by the hemoglobin of blood as
carbaminohemoglobin.
CO2 + Hb.NH2 [Link]
 About 70 % of the total CO2 produced is transported as bicarbonate ions of the blood.
Bicarbonates are formed both in the erythrocytes and in the plasma of blood.
 In erythrocytes, CO2 from the plasma enters the erythrocytes and combines with water to
form carbonic acid in the presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic acid soon
dissociates to form H+ and HCO3- ions.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
 Hence, carbon dioxide is carried in the blood in three major forms :
 Bicarbonates in plasma and erythrocytes.
 Carbaminohemoglobin in erythrocytes.
 Small amounts of dissolved carbon dioxide in plasma.
 On reaching the lungs, blood is oxygenated. Oxyhemoglobin is a stronger acid than
deoxyhemoglobin. So, it donates H+ ion which joins bicarbonate (HCO3-) to form carbonic
acid and this carbonic acid is cleaved into water and carbon dioxide by an enzyme carbonic
anhydrase. Oxygenation of hemoglobin releases carbon dioxide from carbaminohemoglobin.
By this way, every decilitre of blood releases about 3.7 ml of carbon dioxide in the lungs.
Then, this carbon dioxide is removed from the lungs by exhalation.
Gas exchange in tissues :
 In the tissues, gases are exchanged by diffusion (as in the lungs). In tissues, as the partial pressure of
oxygen is very low (about 40 mm Hg) and due to this, the oxygen gets unloaded here. When the
blood leaves the tissues it has pO2 of 40 mm Hg. However, for carbon dioxide it is just the reverse.
The blood entering into tissues has pCO2 of 40 mm Hg while pCO2 of tissues has 46 mm Hg. So,
some of carbon dioxide from tissues gets loaded into the blood.

Disorders of Respiratory System :

 Asthma : Difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
 Emphysema : Alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory surface is decreased. It causes
due to cigarette smoking.
 Occupational Respiratory Disorders : Long exposure to the dust of industries like stone breaking,
etc causes an inflammation on lung tissues and leads to lung damage.

Distinguish between :
 Inspiratory muscles and Expiratory muscles :
 Inspiratory muscles are a group of intercostal muscles. The contraction and relaxation of
muscles bring about inspiration and expiration respectively.
 Expiratory muscles are a group of different intercostal muscles and some abdominal muscles
which contract to reduce the thoracic cavity more than that in ordinary expiration as in
forceful respiration.
 Tracheoles and Bronchioles :
 Tracheoles are the finer branches of tracheal tubes present in insects that ramify into the
tissues.
 Bronchioles are the finer branches of bronchus that branch further to open into alveoli of
lungs in mammals.
 Carbaminohemoglobin and Oxyhemoglobin :
 Carbaminohemoglobin is a reversible compound formed when hemoglobin combines with
carbon dioxide.
 Oxyhemoglobin is a reversible compound formed when hemoglobin combines with oxygen.
 In Carbon monoxide poisoning, hemoglobin combines irreversibly with CO to form
carboxyhemoglobin.
 Inspired air and Alveolar air :
 Inspired air is the air taken inside the lungs during inspiration. It contains about 21% oxygen
and 0.03% carbon dioxide.
 Inspired air mixes up with the air already present inside the lungs which has more of carbon
dioxide and less of oxygen called alveolar air and it has 13.1% oxygen and 5.3% carbon
dioxide.

Explain why the following things happen :

 Far more oxygen is released from oxyhemoglobin in a more active tissue than in a less active
one : The dissociation of oxyhemoglobin to oxygen and deoxyhemoglobin depends upon the partial
pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the tissues. In a more active tissue, the pO2 is lower and
pCO2 is higher as compared to that of a less active tissue.
 Oxygenation of blood promotes the release of carbon dioxide from the blood in the lungs : The
oxygenation of blood in the lungs depends on the partial pressures of oxygen in the pulmonary artery
and in the alveolar air. Further, the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin is enhanced with the fall in partial
pressures of carbon dioxide that results from the elimination of carbon dioxide from the blood into
the lungs. In the lung alveoli, hemoglobin is exposed to high pO2 and less pCO2.
 Oxygen leaves the blood from tissue capillaries but carbon dioxide enters the blood in tissue
capillaries : Inside the tissue capillaries, there is more of pCO2 and less of pO2. The blood coming to
tissues has more of pO2 and less of pCO2. So, oxygen is unloaded from the blood and carbon dioxide
is loaded to the blood in the tissue capillaries.
 Erythrocytes can carry out anaerobic metabolism only : Erythrocytes can carry out anaerobic
metabolism only because they lack mitochondria.
 Gaseous exchanges continue in the lungs without interruption during expiration : Gaseous
exchanges continue in the lungs uninterrupted because some air is always present inside the lung
alveoli even during expiration.
 Contraction of inspiratory muscles causes inspiration while relaxation causes expiration :
Contraction of inspiratory muscles increases the volume of pleural cavities while expiration is
brought about passively by the relaxation of those muscles. As the muscles relax, the diaphragm
moves up towards the thorax and the intercostal muscles move the lateral thoracic walls inwards and
downwards. This decreases the volume of pleural cavities and the air rushes out.
 Oxygen enters the blood from the alveolar air but carbon dioxide leaves the blood to enter the
alveolar air : Inside the alveoli of lungs, there is more of pO2 and less of pCO2. The blood coming
to lung alveoli has more of pCO2 and less of pO2. So, oxygen is loaded to the blood and carbon
dioxide is unloaded from the blood in the alveoli of lungs.
 UNIT – 05
CHAPTER – 18 : BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

 All parts of the body require nourishment and oxygen. The metabolic wastes need to be removed
from the body. So, there is a need to transport various substances like digested food materials,
hormones, metabolic wastes, enzymes, various gases (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide) etc. from one
part of the body to other. These functions are carried out by an extracellular fluid which flows
throughout the body. This flow is known as circulation and this transport of substances is done by a
system called circulatory system.

Functions of the circulatory system :

 It transports nutrients from their sites of absorption to different tissues and organs for storage,
oxidation or synthesis of tissue components.
 It also carries waste products of metabolism from different tissues to the organs meant for their
excretion from the body.
 It transports respiratory gases between the respiratory organs and the tissues.
 It carries metabolic intermediates from one tissue to another for their further metabolism. For
example, blood carries lactic acid from muscles to the liver for its oxidation.
 It also transports informational molecules such as hormones from their sites of origin to the tissues.
 It uniformly distributes water, H+, chemical substances to all over the body.

Blood Vascular System :

 Higher animals have a well-developed circulatory system so that transport of substances in the body
can be done very effectively. In them, the circulatory system consists of a central pumping organ
called as heart and various blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries).
 Arteries conduct the blood from the heart to other tissues. Veins bring blood from other tissues to the
heart. Some of the invertebrates and all vertebrates possess this system.
 The circulatory system was first discovered and demonstrated by William Harvey.
 The blood vascular system may be of two types – the open and the closed circulatory systems.

Open circulatory system :

 In many advanced invertebrates (prawns, insects and molluscs), the blood does not remain confined
to blood vessels but it flows freely through the body cavity and channels called lacunae and sinuses
in the tissues.
 The body cavity is known as haemocoel and the blood is haemolymph.
 In insects, the tissues are in direct contact with the blood.
 Haemolymph circulates in the whole body due to the contractile activity of heart.

Closed circulatory system :

 In closed circulatory system the blood flows through proper blood vessels named arteries, veins and
blood capillaries.
 Arteries within the tissues divide into arterioles which then branch further to form capillaries.
Capillaries then unite to form venules which come out of the tissues and veins.
  Arteries have thick, elastic and muscular walls which are made up of three concentric layers (Tunica
externa, Tunica media and Tunica interna). All these layers have got smooth or involuntary muscles.
 Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles alter the diameter of arteries and thus regulate the
flow of blood through them.
 Capillaries are extremely fine thin blood vessels. The walls of capillaries are made of a single layer
of endothelial cells. The muscles and elastic fibres are absent in them. These capillaries are highly
permeable to water and small macromolecules. Various nutrients, respiratory gases, metabolites and
other substances are exchanged between the blood and tissues through these capillaries.
 Structurally, veins resemble arteries except the three layers that are very thin and more elastic. In the
veins, the muscles and elastic connective tissues are poorly developed but the collagen fibres of the
outer layer are very well developed.
 In most of the veins, the middle coat is extremely thin with practically no muscles. In many veins,
semilunar valves are present in their lumen. These valves allow the flow of the blood only in one
direction i.e. towards the heart.

Distinguish between Arteries and Veins :

Arteries Veins
1. Blood flows away from the heart. 1. Blood flows towards the heart.
2. Blood flows with jerks and with great 2. Blood flows smoothly and with less pressure.
pressure.
3. They always carry oxygenated blood except 3. They always carry deoxygenated blood except
the pulmonary artery. the pulmonary vein.
4. Lumen of artery is small. 4. Lumen of vein is large.
5. Valves are absent. 5. Semilunar valves are present to prevent the
back flow of blood.
6. They are deep seated. 6. They are usually superficial.
7. Their walls are elastic, thick and muscular. 7. Their walls are non-elastic, thin and fibrous.
8. Non-collapsible. 8. Collapsible.

The heart :
 The heart is the central pumping organ of the blood vascular system. It is a hollow muscular
structure and is made up of cardiac muscles. It works throughout the life rhythmically without
getting tired. It is enclosed in a double membranous sac called pericardium which is filled with
pericardial fluid.
 Mainly there are two chambers in a heart – Auricle or atrium that receives the deoxygenated blood
from various parts of the body and a Ventricle that distributes the oxygenated blood to the body.
 The number of heart chambers varies in different animals.
 In fishes, the heart is only two chambered – one auricle and one ventricle. Both these chambers
contain deoxygenated blood.
 In amphibians, the auricle is divided into right and left auricles. The blood after oxygenation from
lungs is returned back to left auricle. Right auricle receives deoxygenated blood from various parts
of the body. However, in the ventricle there is mixing up of deoxygenated and oxygenated blood.
  In reptiles (except crocodiles), the division of the ventricle also starts but it is not complete. So, the
heart is incompletely four chambered. However, there are two auricles (left and right auricles). In
them, the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept separate. But in the ventricle, this separation
is not perfect.
 Crocodiles, birds and mammals have a complete four-chambered heart. In them, the ventricle septum
is complete so that there is no mixing up of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood at all.
 A structure called sinus venosus is present in the hearts of fishes, amphibians and reptiles. It receives
deoxygenated blood from anterior and posterior vena cava and then that blood is poured into the
heart. There is no sinus venosus in mammals.

Human Heart :
 The mammalian heart including man is a hollow, cone-shaped, muscular structure that lies in the
thoracic cavity above the diaphragm and in between the two lungs.
 It is about the size of a fist measuring about 12 cm in length and 9 cm in breadth.
 It weighs about 300 grams. It is a four chambered organ – two atria or auricles and two ventricles.
 Deoxygenated blood is received into right auricle by superior vena cava (from anterior region) and
inferior vena cava (from posterior region) of the body. These vena cavae opens directly into right
auricle as there is no sinus venosus.
 Right auricle also gets blood from coronary veins (from the heart muscles itself).
 The right and left auricles are separated by inter-auricular septum. Similarly, right and left ventricles
are also separated by inter-ventricular septum.
 Deoxygenated blood is then passed from the right auricle to the right ventricle through the
atrioventricular aperture guarded by tricuspid valve (having three flaps). The blood is then pumped
into lungs for oxygenation via pulmonary artery.
 After oxygenation, the blood is brought back into left auricle via four pulmonary veins. From left
auricle, blood (now oxygenated) goes to left ventricle through atrioventricular aperture and this
opening is regulated by bicuspid (having two flaps) or mitral valve.
 The left ventricle has also got chordae tendinae and papillary muscles which prevent the valves (both
bicuspid and tricuspid) from being pushed into auricles at the time of ventricular contraction. Thus,
the walls of left ventricle are thicker than the walls of right ventricle.
 The oxygenated blood from left ventricle is then distributed to all parts of the body with the help of
aorta.
 The openings of the aorta and other major arteries are guarded by semilunar valves that prevent the
back flow of blood.

Course of Circulation through Mammalian Heart :

 During a heart beat, there is contraction and relaxation of auricles and ventricles in a specific
sequence. The contraction phase is known as systole while relaxation phase is known as diastole.
Various series of events that occur during a heart beat is known as cardiac cycle.
 When both the auricles and ventricles are in relaxed or diastolic phase then it is referred as joint
diastole. During this phase, the blood flows into the auricles from the superior vena cava and inferior
vena cava. The blood also flows from the auricles to their respective ventricles through the
atrioventricular valve. There is no flow of blood from the ventricles to the aorta and its main arteries
as the semilunar valves remain closed in this phase.
  At the end of joint diastole, the next heart beat starts with the contraction of atria (atrial systole). In
this phase, it now forces most of its blood into the ventricle which is still in the diastolic phase.
 During auricular systole, the blood cannot pass back into the superior and inferior vena cava because
they are compressed by the auricular contraction and their openings to the auricles are blocked.
Thus, auricles act as main vessel to collect and pump the venous blood into the ventricles. Thus, at
the end of auricular systole, the auricles get empty.
 After the atrial systole is over, the auricular muscles relax and it enters into auricular diastolic phase.
 During auricular diastole, it again gets filled up with the venous blood coming from the superior and
inferior vena cava.
 Along with the auricular diastole, the ventricular systole starts. This results in an increased pressure
of blood in the ventricle and it rises more than the pressure of blood in the auricle which helps in
closing of atrioventricular valves and thus the back flow of blood is prevented.
 The closure of AV-valve at the beginning of ventricular systole produces a sound “lubb” and is
known as the first heart sound.
 Initially, when the ventricle starts contracting, the pressure of blood within it is lower than the
pressure of blood within the aorta and so the semilunar valves do not open. Therefore, the ventricle
contracts as a closed chamber.
 As the ventricular systole progresses more, the pressure of blood within the ventricle increases more
than that of aorta as a result the semilunar valves now open and blood flows (with a speed) into the
aorta and its main branches. The back flow of blood in the auricles is prevented as the AV-valves
remain closed.
 Now at the end of ventricular systole, ventricular diastole starts.
 As the auricles are still continuing with their diastole, so all the four chambers are now in diastole
known as joint diastole.
 In the ventricular diastolic phase, the pressure of blood in the ventricles falls below the pressure of
blood in the aorta, so the semilunar valves get closed to prevent the back flow of blood from the
aorta to the ventricles.
 The closure of semilunar valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole produces a sound “dup” and
is known as the second heart sound.
 After the closure of the semilunar valves, the ventricles become closed chambers again.
 As the ventricular pressure is more than the atrial pressure, so the AV-valves remain closed.
 However, as the ventricular diastole continues, the pressure of blood in the ventricles falls below the
pressure of blood in the auricles. At this point, the AV-valves open and blood starts flowing again
from the relaxed auricles to the relaxed ventricles.
 Now when the joint diastole is over, the auricular systole starts and the blood is pumped into the
ventricles.

Heart Rate and Pulse :

 In the resting condition, human heart beats at the rate of about 70 times per minute. But, the heart
beat rate increases during exercise, fever and emotions like anger and fear.
 During each heart beat, the blood is pumped from the ventricles of the heart into the aorta to be
distributed to all parts of the body. This happens during the ventricular systole and is repeated every
0.8 seconds.
  The blood from aorta then goes to other arteries of the body parts causes a rhythmic contraction in
the aorta and its main arteries. It can be felt as regular jerks or pulse in the regions where arteries are
present superficially like wrist, neck and temples. This is known as arterial pulse.
 The pulse rate is same as that of heart beat rate. The heart beat rate differs from species to species. In
general, the smaller the animal, greater the heart beat. Hence, larger animals have lower heart rates.
For example, an elephant has a normal heart beat rate of about 25 times per minute whereas mouse
has a normal heart beat rate of several hundred per minute.

Automatic rhythmicity of the heart :

 The mammalian heart is a myogenic heart i.e. the heart beat originate from a muscle (but it is
regulated by nerves).
 In the right atrium near the region where superior vena cava opens, a specialised muscle called sino-
auricular node (SA-node) is present from where the heart beat originates. It is also called as pace
maker and is richly supplied with blood capillaries.
 A wave of contraction (systole) originates from SA-node and spreads over to the whole heart.
 At the junction of right atrium and right ventricle, a tissue called auriculo-ventricular node (AV-
node) is present that picks up the wave of contraction propagated by SA-node through bundle of His.
 Branches of the bundle of His spread over the ventricle forming the Purkinje system.
 The wave of contraction spreads over the ventricle through AV-node and its Purkinje system.
 The heart is supplied with Vagus (parasympathetic) and sympathetic nerve fibres. The Vagus nerve
is inhibitory and when stimulated it slows down the heart beat while the sympathetic nerve is
acceleratory and when stimulated it fastens the heart beat. This happens because these nerves release
chemicals (hormones) when stimulated.

Circulation :
 In vertebrates, the heart pumps blood into a closed circulatory system. The left ventricle ejects blood
into the aorta which gives off arteries to tissues and organs (except lungs) then the blood is returned
from these tissues and organs through two veins (superior and inferior vena cava) to the right atrium.
This is known as the systemic circulation.
 The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk which divides into pulmonary arteries
going to the lungs then blood is returned to the left atrium from the lungs through the pulmonary
veins. This is called the pulmonary circulation.
 In some cases, before the blood can finally return to the heart, a vein returning blood from a system
of capillaries divides again into a second capillary system in the tissues. Such type of vein is called
as portal vein and it constitutes a portal system along with the capillary system to which it supplies
blood.
 Veins after collecting deoxygenated blood from the organs normally pour the blood into right
auricle. But sometimes, they pour their blood into some other organ by the portal veins before the
heart. The blood from that organ is then collected and poured into the heart. For example, a hepatic
portal vein returns blood from the intestine and breaks into a portal system of capillaries in the liver.
This helps in the absorption of nutrients from the small intestine to reach first into the liver via the
hepatic portal vein. The cells of the liver can take up these nutrients.
 Similarly, the blood coming from hypothalamus may be poured into anterior pituitary by a
hypophysial portal vein. This portal system enables the hormones of hypothalamus to reach the
anterior pituitary.
Arterial Blood Pressure :
 The pumping action of the heart maintains a pressure of blood in the arteries. This is called Arterial
blood pressure. It helps to pump blood at a high velocity along the arteries in the closed circulatory
system. The blood pressure is far lower in the open circulatory system.

Blood Flow in Veins :

 The blood pressure is low in veins because the blood flows through narrow arterioles and capillaries
to enter wider veins. At many places in the body, this blood pressure is not sufficient to drive the
blood through the veins back to the heart. Veins have thinner walls than arteries and are more easily
compressed. There are also many valves inside the veins. These valves permit the flow of blood in
the veins towards the heart and prevent blood flow in the reverse direction.
 Contraction of muscles and changes of body posture compresses the veins to move the blood inside
them. During these both cases, blood moves towards the heart only because the venous valves
prevent the blood flow in the opposite direction. This is a major process for venous blood flow. For
example, if a person stands immobile for a long time, the blood flow in the leg veins remains
suspended. This may lead to an accumulation of fluid in his leg tissues and a consequent swelling of
his feet. If he walks for some time, the swelling subsides as blood begins to circulate again in the
veins.

Lymph and Tissue Fluid :

 It occurs in the spaces in between the cells of a tissue and is called as interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
The exchange of any material (solid, liquid or gas) that occurs between the blood and the tissue cells
always takes place through this fluid. Under the pressure of blood in the capillaries, some of the
water and desired solutes are filtered out from the blood plasma into the tissue spaces to form the
tissue fluid. The composition of this tissue fluid is very similar to the plasma except having much
less protein. Proteins are less because some of the proteins are not filtered out from the capillary
walls (impermeable).
 Some of the tissue fluid enters tiny channels called lymph vessels and the fluid collected in them is
called lymph and this system is known as lymphatic system. These lymph vessels unite to form
larger lymph vessels which ultimately drain into two large lymph vessels called thoracic duct and the
right lymphatic duct. These open into veins returning the lymph finally into venous blood and so in
the general circulatory system. This movement of lymph is mainly due to the squeezing action of the
surrounding muscles. So, the lymphatic system is slow and uncertain.
 Exercise increases the rate of lymph circulation. Generally, the rate of lymph formation is equal to
the rate of its return to the blood stream but sometimes, the formation rate of lymph exceeds the rate
of its return to blood. The increased volume of fluid around the cells then creates a swelling called
dropsy or oedema.

Functions of Lymph :
 It serves to return interstitial fluid into blood.
 The plasma proteins macromolecules synthesized by the liver cells cannot pass into the blood vessels
but can diffuse into the lymph vessels through their wall and they come to the blood through lymph.
 It also carries absorbed fats and lipids from the small intestine to the blood in the form of
chylomicron droplets.
Disorders of Circulatory System :
 High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) : It is the term for blood pressure that is higher than normal
of 120/80. In the instrument, ‘120 mm of Hg’ is Systolic (pumping) pressure and ‘80 mm of Hg’ is
Diastolic (resting) pressure. If repeated check which shows 140/90 and higher shows Hypertension.
It may lead to heart diseases and also affect vital organs like brain and kidney.
 Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) : It is also known as Atherosclerosis. It is due to damage in the
blood vessels of heart tissues. Basically, it is due to the deposition excess of Calcium, Fat,
Cholesterol and Fibrous tissues which makes the lumen of arteries narrower.
 Angina : It is also known as ‘Angina pectoris’. Its symptom is acute chest pain which is due to less
oxygen supply to heart.
 Heart Failure : It is the state when heart is not pumping blood effectively to other organs of the
body.
 UNIT – 05
CHAPTER – 19 : EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION
 All plants and animals produce harmful substances due to a number of metabolic activities occurring
in their body tissues. Carbon dioxide produced during respiration is removed by lungs. Ammonia is
the chief nitrogenous waste produced as a result of metabolism of proteins and amino acids. This is a
highly toxic substance to the body tissues and is eliminated as such by aquatic animals. While on
land, ammonia combines with carbon dioxide to form a less toxic substance called urea which
eliminated from the body. Thus, the process of excretion can be defined as the elimination of waste
products from the body which otherwise are toxic if retained within the system. The organs that are
involved in this process constitute the excretory system.

Nitrogen Excretion : The elimination of nitrogenous waste products is a major function of the excretory
system. The nitrogenous product varies from species to species. Most of the nitrogenous wastes are formed
due to the catabolism of proteins. Normally, according to the species, proteins are catabolised into ammonia,
urea or uric acid.

Ammonotelism : Ammonotelic organisms are those which eliminate their nitrogenous metabolic wastes
mainly as ammonia. Ammonia is constantly produced in the organisms by the deamination of amino acids
and it is highly toxic if retained in the system. So, it must be immediately removed from the body as soon as
it is formed. Elimination of ammonia requires large amounts of water. This can be done only in aquatic
forms of life. In aquatic animals (like aquatic invertebrates, bony fishes and aquatic amphibians etc.), it is
quickly eliminated in the surrounding water because it is highly soluble.

Ureotelism : Ureotelic organisms are those which eliminate their nitrogenous metabolic wastes mainly as
urea. Urea is formed in the liver by combining ammonia with carbon dioxide and is comparatively less toxic
than ammonia. The synthesis of urea from ammonia requires the expenditure of energy. The elimination of
urea requires less water. It is the main product of excretion in man and all other mammals – aquatic
mammals (like whales and seals), desert mammals (such as camel and kangaroo), cartilaginous fishes (such
as sharks and sting rays), terrestrial and semiaquatic amphibians (like toads and frogs). Some animals can
concentrate the amount of urea present in their urine. Man can concentrate urea in the urine more than
hundred times its concentration in the blood. Earthworms excrete ammonia when sufficient water is present
but eliminate urea when the conditions are dry. Tadpoles eliminate nitrogenous wastes as ammonia but the
adult frog mainly eliminates urea.

Uricotelism : Uricotelic organisms are those which eliminate their nitrogenous metabolic wastes mainly as
uric acid. Uric acid is the least toxic nitrogenous waste product and requires very less water for its
elimination. Therefore, uric acid is formed only in those animals which have limited supply of water. In the
cloaca of reptiles and birds, uric acid accumulates and is further concentrated there. It passes out of the body
as whitish semi-solid substance. Uric acid is also eliminated by insects. In man and other primate mammals,
urine contains a little of uric acid in addition to urea.

Excretory System : The excretory system consists of organs and tissues participating in the removal of
waste products. Some of these excretory organs constitute the urinary system which forms and eliminates
urine and helps mainly in the excretion of nitrogenous waste products, water and some mineral salts. Apart
from this urinary system, they have some accessory excretory organs and tissues such as the skin, lungs and
liver. The mode of excretion varies in different kinds of animals.

Excretory Organs of Invertebrates : The organs of excretion and osmoregulation vary greatly in different
groups of animals. Protozoans like Amoeba and Paramecium have got contractile vacuoles for
osmoregulation. In sponges, the metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body by the canal system. In
Hydra, cells release waste products into the coelenteron from which it goes out through the hypostomal
opening. In Planarians and other Platyhelminthes, there are special cells called flame cells that perform the
function of excretion. In Annelids (like Nereis, Earthworm etc.), have got nephridia as the organs of
excretion. Prawns have got green glands that serve as excretory system for them. All insects, millipedes,
spiders and scorpions have fine thread like tubules called malpighian tubules at the junction of midgut and
hindgut. These tubules lie freely in the body cavity and can filter metabolic wastes from the hemolymph.
These malpighian tubules are 60-80 in number and are arranged in 6-8 bundles. Each tubule is a fine hollow
tube, about 16 mm long and is lined by glandular epithelium. The epithelium collects the nitrogenous wastes
like uric acid from the hemolymph in which the tubules are bathed. The excretory wastes are then poured
into the hindgut from where they are thrown outside the body. Most of the water of the excretory materials
are reabsorbed into the rectum. Scorpions also have coxal glands as the organs of excretion.

Vertebrate Urinary System : In vertebrates, kidneys are the urine forming organs. In the case mammals,
the urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.

Organs of excretion in man : The excretory organs in man consist of the following parts –
 Kidneys :
 They are a pair of bean shaped structures lying in the abdomen, one on each side of the
vertebral column below the diaphragm. The left kidney is placed a little higher than the right
kidney. Human kidney is about 10 cm in length, 5 cm in breadth and 9 cm in thickness. The
outer surface of the kidney is convex while the inner surface is concave. In the concave
depression, there is an opening called hilum through which blood vessels (renal artery and
renal veins), nerves, lymphatic ducts and ureters enter or leave the kidney. The hilum (inside
the kidney) expands into a funnel shaped area called renal pelvis.
 Two distinct regions can be seen in the kidney – an outer granular portion called the renal
cortex and an inner medulla. In the cortex, malpighian bodies are present which filter the
waste products from the blood. The medulla portion contains the collecting ducts of nephrons
and thus passes the urine to the pelvis of the kidney. Conical pyramid shaped masses of
medulla project into the pelvis and are called as medullary pyramids. They form the major
calyces and minor calyces.
 Ureters : From each kidney arises a thin muscular tube called ureter. It emerges out from the hilum
of each kidney. It is about 30 cm in length. Urine enters the ureter from the renal pelvis and is passed
down the ureters. These two tubes bring the urine downwards and open into urinary bladder.
 Urinary bladder : It is a single sac like structure in which urine is stored for some time before it is
voided out. It is present in the pelvic region of the body. Both bladder and ureters are lined by
transitional epithelium which may be considerably stretched and do not get torned out even when
bladder and ureters are completely filled with urine.
 Urethra : The urinary bladder opens to the outside through a tube called as urethra. It arises from
the neck of the bladder and conducts urine to the outside of the body. In females, this tube is about
 4cm long and serves as a passage for urine only while in males, it measures about 20 cm and
functions as a common passage for urine and spermatic fluid. A muscular sphincter keeps the urethra
closed except during voiding of urine.
 Micturition is a process for elimination of the formed urine from the urinary bladder from time to
time. It is controlled by the nervous mechanism. Micturition may be voluntarily inhibited for a
prolonged interval until the bladder pressure rises too high. On the contrary, micturition may also be
voluntarily initiated even before sufficient urine has collected in the bladder.

Accessory Excretory Organs : The urinary system is the main excretory organ. Apart from this, some
other organs and tissues like the skin, lungs and liver function as accessory excretory organs.

Excretory role of skin / integument :

 In aquatic animals, integument is more permeable to nitrogenous wastes than in terrestrial animals.
Ammonia is mainly excreted out into the surrounding water by diffusion through the skin. Terrestrial
animals can prevent the loss of water through skin mainly in deserts. Mammalian skin (including
man) has two types of glands for secreting two fluids (sebum from sebaceous glands and sweat from
sweat glands) on its surface.
 Sweat is an aqueous fluid contains sodium chloride, lactic acid, urea, amino acids and glucose. It
excretes mainly water and sodium chloride along with small amounts of urea and lactic acid.
 Sebum is a wax like secretion which eliminates some lipids such as waxes, sterols, other
hydrocarbons and fatty acids on the skin.

Excretory role of lungs : They help to eliminate the waste products of respiration (carbon dioxide from the
body). Along with carbon dioxide, some water in the form of vapour is also eliminated from the body.

Excretory role of liver : The liver plays an important role in the excretion of cholesterol, bile pigments
inactivated products of steroid hormones, some vitamins and drugs. The bile pigments are produced by the
degradation of hemoglobin, some vitamins and drugs. The bile pigments are produced by the degradation of
hemoglobin of the dead red blood cells in the liver. Through the bile ducts, the bile pigments are passed into
the intestine and are eliminated along with the faecal matter.

Urinary elimination of waste Products in Man : Kidneys excrete nitrogenous waste products in the form
urine. Hence, kidneys secrete urine continuously in their nephrons.

Nephrons :
 Nephrons are the functional units of kidneys. Each kidney is made up of numerous delicate
uriniferous tubules or nephrons. Nephrons are held together by a little connective tissue in which
blood vessels, nerves and lymph vessels are also present. There are about 1.2 million nephrons in
each kidney of man.
 Each nephron consists of two main parts - Malphigian body or renal corpuscle and Secretory tubule.
 Malphigian body or renal corpuscle : It has a cup shaped depression called Bowman’s capsule
into which tufts of capillaries called glomerulus are present. An afferent renal arteriole enters the
capsule which divide into capillaries forming glomerulus and leaves as efferent renal arteriole.
Efferent renal arteriole then supplies blood to the remaining part of tubule and join to renal vein.
Blood is filtered in the Malphigian body.
  Secretory tubule : It starts after malphigian body and is divisible into three distinct regions –
Proximal convoluted tubule(PCT), Loop of Henle and Distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
 Proximal convoluted tubule(PCT) : It starts immediately after bowman’s capsule makes a
few coils in the cortex and proceed towards medulla of kidney.
 Loop of Henle : Tubules make a U-turn in the medulla forming loop of Henle (descending
loop and ascending loop).
 Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) : It starts after loop of Henle and joins the collecting
tubule. These collecting ducts unite with each other in the medulla to form the larger duct
called the duct of Bellini. These run through the renal pyramids and open into renal pelvis. In
these tubules, various substances from the nephric filtrates are reabsorbed back. There is a
rich supply of blood vessels to the kidneys. It is estimated that total length of blood vessels in
the kidneys of man is about 160 kilimetres. A network of vessels which is parallel to the loop
of Henle called vasa recta.

Composition of Urine :
 Urine is transparent, pale yellow in colour, aquous fluid which is usually acidic in nature. The pale
yellow colour of the urine is mainly dependent upon the presence of a pigment urochrome. This
colour also varies with the quantity and concentration of the urine voided. In fever, it becomes dark-
yellow or brownish in colour. Quantity of urine formed in 24 hours in an adult normal individual
varies from 1000 ml to 1800 ml. Normally, it depends upon water intake, diet, environmental
temperature, mental state and physiological state of the person.
 During summer months when the body is exposed to warmth, skin perspires freely because
cutaneous blood vessels are dilated whereas the abdominal and renal blood vessels are constricted
causing less volume of urine. During winter months, cutaneous blood vessels are constricted and
elimination of water through perspiration is ceased but the abdominal and renal blood vessels are
dilated resulting in the increased flow of urine. Thus, perspiration has got inverse relation with the
formation of urine.
 Substances that increases the formation of urine are termed as diuretics. Tea, coffee and alcoholic
beverages have got diuretic effects.
 The normal specific gravity of urine varies between 1.003 and 1.040. The odour of the normal urine
is slightly aromatic and is due to the presence of large number of volatile organic substances
particularly the bad smelling substance urinod. When allowed to stand for some time, the urine
smells of ammonia due to the bacterial decomposition of urea to ammonia.
 Urea is the main nitrogenous constituent of human urine. Besides urea, it contains other nitrogenous
substances like ammonia, uric acid, creatinine and hippuric acid. Sodium chloride is the principal
mineral salt in urine. Small amount of inorganic salts like chlorides, sulphates and phosphates of
potassium, calcium and magnesium are also present. Non-nitrogenous organic substances include
small amounts of vitamin-C, oxalic acid and phenolic substances. Glucose is normally negligible in
amount. Proteins, bile salts, bile pigments, glucose and ketone bodies occur in urine in various
pathological conditions.

Formation of Urine : Urine is formed in the nephron by the following three processes –
 Glomerular filtration or ultrafiltration : Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries found in the Bowman’s
capsule of the nephron. In glomerulus, there are fine filter pores (millipore filters) that separate the
red blood cells from the plasma. The blood that enters into the glomerulus is under a very high
 pressure from the afferent renal arteriole. It has got urea, glucose, various salts and proteins of
plasma and large quantities of water. The lining of Bowman’s capsule has a single layer of flat
epithelial cells through which blood is filtered into the lumen of the tubule. The filtrate formed in the
tubule is known as glomerular or nephric filtrate and contains urea, large amounts of water, glucose,
amino acids and various minerals. Ultrafiltration in the glomerulus is a passive process. Nephric
filtrate does not have blood proteins (big sized molecules are not filtered through the lining of the
Bowman’s capsule). It is estimated that the effective filtration pressure by which the blood is filtered
is about 10 mm of Hg and at this pressure, 125 ml of nephric filtrate is formed in the two kidneys
after every minute. It is also estimated that about one fifth of the total volume of blood plasma
flowing through the kidneys is filtered out as glomerular filtrate. The filtration occurs across the
membrane made of the glomerular capillary wall and the inner membrane of the Bowman’s capsule.
The pores of this filtering membrane are impermeable to large molecules or particles. Large particles
like blood cells and protein macromolecules do not normally enter into the glomerular filtrate. But,
smaller molecules like glucose, urea, creatinine, amino acids and mineral salts are filtered into the
Bowman’s capsule in concentrations more or less similar to their respective concentrations in the
plasma. Therefore, the filtrate almost resembles the protein free plasma in composition and osmotic
pressure.
 Tubular reabsorption : This occurs by two ways i.e. active and passive reabsorption. The
important substances like glucose, amino acids are reabsorped actively. This active reabsorption is
rapid and continues even when the concentration of the substance is far lower in the glomerular
filtrate than in the blood. Some other substances are reabosrbed from the tubules slowly by the
physical process of diffusion. This passive reabsorption occurs only when their concentrations in the
glomerular filtrate exceed their respective concentrations in the blood. Hence, these substances
(urea, ammonia, creatinine and ketone bodies) can never be totally reabosrbed from the urine.
 In proximal portion of convoluted tubule (PCT), most of the water re-enters into the blood
capillaries. About 80% of the water is reabsorbed here. Glucose, amino acids and vitamin-C
are also reabsorbed back here. But, this is an active reabsorption while the absorption of
water is purely passive. About 70% of Na+ ions, 75% of K+ ions and large amounts of Ca2+
ions are also reabsorbed here by the active transport mechanism.
 In descending loop of Henle (DCT), about 5% of water comes out due to osmosis because of
high osmotic pressure of the medullary extracellular fluid. Sodium ions enter into the tubules
and it increases the hypertonicity of the nephric filtrate. In ascending loop of Henle, sodium
and potassium ions are reabsorbed actively and also some amounts of Cl- ions. There is no
reabsorption of water as its walls are thick and impermeable to water. So, the filtrate now
becomes hypotonic as compared to the plasma when it flows through this part of the nephron.
In distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct, there is active reabsorption of sodium
ions from the filtrate. The process of diffusion also reabsorbs some Cl- ions. Large amount of
water is also reabsorbed. This makes the nephric filtrate isotonic. This isotonic fluid enters
into the collecting tubule and here, it is more concentrated due to the further reabsorption of
water.
 Tubular secretion : In addition to reabsorption, the renal tubules also secrete many substances (like
urea, creatinine, uric acid, para-amino hippuric acid etc.) into their lumen. Most of the K+ ions
eliminated in the mammalian urine are secreted by the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and the
collecting ducts in exchange to the reabsorption of Na+ ions. These substances are then removed
from the body along with urine. This tubular secretion is much significance in marine fishes and
 desert amphibians because these animals possess no glomerulus in their nephrons. They form urine
by secreting solutes such as urea, creatinine and mineral ions into their tubules. Tubular secretion is
less importance in mammals. Thus, urine is formed in the nephron by a combination of glomerular
filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.

Osmoregulation by Kidney :
 The kidneys maintain the water and osmotic concentration of the blood. This phenomenon is known
as osmoregulation. In aquatic animals like freshwater fishes or when the animal is taking large
amount of water, the urine passed out of the body is even more dilute than the plasma of blood.
Thus, they eliminate hypotonic urine in order to get rid of excess of water. Most of the vertebrates
including mammals can pass out hypotonic urine. In them, first the isotonic glomerular filtrate is
formed in the Bowman’s capsule and then from that filtrate, some solutes are reabsorbed by the
tubules of the nephron. Therefore, the urine passed out of the body becomes hypotonic. It helps to
raise the osmotic concentration of the blood to normal.
 In those animals living in scarcity of water, urine passed out of the body is hypertonic to the plasma
of blood. This reduces the water loss from the body. Mammals and birds can excrete hypertonic
urine which is more concentrated than their blood plasma. In them, first an isotonic glomerular
filtrate is formed in the Bowman’s capsule and then from that filtrate most of the water is reabsorbed
by the tubules of nephron. However, some of the solutes are also reabsorbed but this is not
proportionate to the amount of water reabsorbed. Therefore, the urine passed out of the body
becomes hypertonic. It is a very effective mechanism to reduce the loss of urinary water.
 Normally in summer months when most of the water is lost from the body during perspiration, the
urine passed out is hypertonic while in winter months as there is no perspiration, the urine passed out
is hypotonic. Largely, the movement of Na+ ions, Cl- ions and water regulates the fluid volume and
osmolarity in the kidney. When the protein free fluid is filtered into the Bowman’s capsule from the
blood, it has the same osmotic concentration as the blood plasma of the capillaries surrounding
uriniferous tubule. In PCT, Na+ ion gets actively reabsorbed and Cl- ion gets reabsorbed passively as
it is attracted to the positive charge of Na+ ion.
 The concentration of urine is mainly dependent upon two factors - loop of Henle and the presence
vasa recta in the kidneys.
 Loop of Henle : The greater the ability of an animal to excrete hypertonic urine, the longer
are its loop of Henle.
 Vasa recta : These vessels occur as loops surrounding the loop of Henle. The blood flows in
opposite directions in the two limbs of each vasa recta. The blood flowing in descending limb
comes close to the blood flowing in ascending limb. This is known as counter-current system
and is mainly responsible for making the urine hypertonic.
 The two limbs of loop of Henle also constitute the counter-current system. The nephric filtrate flows
in opposite directions in the descending and ascending loops of Henle. Na+ and Cl- ions are
reabsorbed from the ascending limb into the surrounding vasa recta. Moreover, water cannot flow
out of this limb as it is impermeable to water. Thus in ascending limb, urine becomes hypotonic.
But, the walls of descending limb are permeable to both water and salts. Thus, the reabsorbed Na+
ion enters into the descending limb and the water moves out. It makes the urine hypertonic.
Role of ADH in forming hypertonic urine :
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin is released from the posterior lobe of pituitary. It acts on
the distal convoluted tubules (DCT) and collecting ducts of the nephron and increases their
permeability to water. If the water contents in the body is more than needed, it inhibits the secretion
of ADH. As a result, DCT and other collecting tubules remain less permeable to water. So, water is
not reabsorbed but the active reabsorption of Na+ ion continues from the filtrate. Thus, the filtrate
becomes more and more dilute and hypotonic urine passes out of the kidney.
 If the water contents in the body is low, it stimulates the secretion of ADH that acts on the walls of
DCT and other collecting tubules and make them more permeable to water. Further, the surrounding
tissue is hypertonic due to active reabsorption of Na+ ions into it and also due to the retention of Na+
ions and urea by the counter-current system of vasa recta. So, water is progressively reabsorbed from
the filtrate while flowing through DCT and collecting tubules. Hence, the urine passing out becomes
hypertonic.
 Thus, the kidney helps in osmoregulation by eliminating either hypotonic or hypertonic urine
according to the need of the body.

Functions of kidney :
 It excretes waste products specially formed due to protein metabolism. These waste products are
ammonia, urea and uric acid.
 It helps to maintain water balance of the body and thereby plasma volume.
 It helps to maintain the normal pH of the blood and other fluids of the body.
 It helps to maintain the optimum concentration of certain constituents of blood by the process of
selective reabsorption in the kidney tubules.
 It eliminates drugs and various toxic substances from the body.
 It helps to maintain the osmotic pressure in blood and tissues.

Disorders of the Excretory System :

 Uremia : Malfunctioning of kidneys due to accumulation of urea in blood. It is very harmful and
leads to renal failure. For such kind of patients, we go for Hemodialysis where blood is drained from
a convenient artery is pumped into a dialyzing unit after adding an anticoagulant like Heparin.
Hemodialysis contains a coiled cellophone tube surrounded by a dialyzing fluid having the same
composition as that of plasma except the nitrogenous wastes. The porous cellophane membrane of
the tube allows the passage of molecules based on concentration gradient. The cleared blood is
pumped back to the body through a vein after adding anti-heparin to it.
 Renal failure : A functioning kidney is used in transplantation from a donor of closely relative.
 Renal calculi : Stone or insoluble mass of crystallized salts (generally Calcium oxalate) is formed in
the kidney.
 Glomerulonephritis : Inflammation of glomeruli in the kidney.
 UNIT – 05
CHAPTER – 20 : LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
 All living organisms show a characteristic phenomenon of either moving their whole body from one
place to another place (locomotion or locomotory movement) or only a part of the body while the
whole body remains fixed to a place (movement or non-locomotory movement). Various acts of the
body like walking, running, crawling, jumping, flying, swimming etc. are known as locomotory
movements. The locomotion helps the organism to shift its entire body from one place to another.
Generally, the animals show locomotory movements in search of food, mate and shelter. It also helps
the animals to run from the adverse environmental conditions and to move away from the predators.

 Movements of limbs, appendages, head and trunk serve to change the posture of the body and
maintain equilibrium against the gravity. For example :
 Taking of food inside the body involves the movements of tongue, jaws, snout, limbs in man.
 Movements of external ear and eyeballs help to perceive the informations from the outside
environments.
 Movements of alimentary canal help to pass the food down.
 Movements of heart circulate the blood in the body.
 Lungs are ventilated by the movements of thoracic muscles and diaphragm etc.

 Besides such locomotion and movements of the body, multicellular organisms can also move their
individual cells like the movements seen in unicellular organisms. Some of the white blood cells and
macrophages which are phagocytic in nature, move through the tissues by amoeboid movements to
reach the places of infection. Ciliary movements occur in the upper respiratory tract, fallopian tubes
and vasa efferentia of testes. A mammalian sperm moves into the female reproductive tract by the
flagellar movements. In sponges, flagellar movements of some cells occur to maintain the water
current in them.

 Most of the multicellular animals have muscle fibres for locomotion, limb movements as well as
movements of internal organs. In all higher animals (vertebrates), there are mainly two systems that
bring about movement and locomotion of the body. These two systems are skeletal system and
muscular system that work in co-ordination with each other. The force generated by muscle
contraction is utilised to move bones of the skeleton like levers. This results in movements of limbs
and appendages. So, the muscles working with the skeletal system are called skeletal muscles.

Movements in some invertebrates : There are also many invertebrates like jellyfish, earthworm and leech
which are devoid of skeletons but possess muscles for their movements.
 Movements in Hydra : Hydra lacks a well-developed muscular system. They have two types of
contractile cells on its body wall (epithelial muscular cells in the outer layer of the body wall and the
nutritive muscular cells in the inner layer). Contractions and relaxations of these cells shorten and
elongate their processes. Various types of movements seen in Hydra are looping, somersaulting,
climbing, shortening and elongation etc.
 Movements in Annelids : Earthworms and leeches have muscle fibres of the body wall that help
these animals to crawl on land. These muscle fibres are of two types – longitudinal muscle fibres and
circular muscle fibres. In earthworms, the locomotion of the body is brought about by alternate
contraction of circular and longitudinal muscles causing waves of thinning and thickening to pass
backwards. It involves partly a pushing of the anterior end and partly of the posterior end. The
coelomic fluid gives turgidity as it acts as a hydraulic skeleton making the body wall tough. The
worm moves at the rate of about 25 cm/minute.
  Movements in Starfish : Starfishes have got a water vascular system that help them in their
locomotion. Each arm of the starfish has two rows of tube feet underneath. Water enters into these
tube feet by the muscular contractions and this moves the animal over the surface of the substratum
in water. Starfishes are bottom dwellers found in sea waters only.
 Movements in higher vertebrates : In higher animals, movements and locomotion depend on the
association of skeletal muscles with the skeletal system. The skeletal system consists of a specialised
rigid connective tissue called bones. This skeletal system consists of many parts and each part is
made of one or more bones.
 According to the shape and size, bones may be long (thigh bone and the upper arm bone), flat
(breast bone and the shoulder girdle bone) or irregular (bones of the vertebral column). The
skeletal system consists of 206 bones in man. Some major parts of human skeleton consist of
the following numbers of bone – skull or cranium (8), face (14), ear ossicles (6), Hyoid
apparatus (1), each forelimb (30), each hind limb (30), vertebrae (26), sternum (1), ribs (24),
pelvic girdles (2), pectoral girdles (4).

Functions of skeletal system :

 It provides a kind of framework for the body.
 It provides shape and posture to the body.
 It provides protection to some of the inner delicate organs like brain, spinal cord and lungs.
 It gives rigid surface for the attachment of muscles with the help of tendons.
 It helps in locomotion.
 The bone marrow serves as the centre for the production of red blood cells and white blood cells.
 The movements of ribs and sternum help in breathing.
 In the ear, the sound vibrations are conveyed from the tympanum to the internal ear by a set of three
bones as in man.
 It helps the body to be an integrated unit.
 It serves to store various ions like calcium and phosphate which are then released into the body at the
time of need. These minerals perform various functions of the body.

Joints : The junctions where two or more bones articulate with each other are known as joints. These joints
allow the movement of bones in different ways. According to the mobility, they are of the following types :
 Fixed or immovable or fibrous joints : At these joints, the bones are held firmly together and
movements are not allowed in between them. At these joints, a dense and tough inextensible white
fibrous tissue is present. For example, sutures that join the various bones of the skull.
 Slightly movable or cartilaginous joints : At these joints, a dense disc of white fibrocartilage is
present that joins the opposite surfaces of the articulating bones. It allows only a little movement like
bending and rotation. These joints are seen in between the vertebrae.
 Freely movable or synovial joints : In this type of joint, there is a fluid filled synovial cavity in
between the movably articulated bones. The fluid is called as synovial fluid. A synovial membrane
covers this fluid filled synovial cavity forming the capsule. The articulating bones are provided with
cartilage caps. Ligaments are also present to hold the bones. It is of the following types :
 Ball and socket joint : In this, one of the bones forms a globular head while the other forms
a cup like socket into which head fits in. It allows a free movement in all directions. E.g.-
shoulder girdle and hip girdle joints. Such joints may stretch (extend), fold (flex) and rotate
the limb of the body. This may allow the movement of the limb towards the body or away
from the body.
  Hinge joint : Here, the two bones are fitted like the hinge of a door so as to allow ‘to and
fro’ movements in one direction only. These joints are provided with strong ligaments. It is
seen in elbow joint, knee joint and joints between phalanges of fingers and toes.
 Pivot joint : In this type of joint, one bone is fixed while the other moves freely over it. The
movement is confined to a rotation around a longitudinal axis through the centre of the pivot.
E.g.- Movement of the skull over the odontoid processes of the first neck vertebra.
 Gliding joint : It is a biaxial joint. The articulating bones which can glide one above the
other. It is seen in wrist bones that can glide over forearm bones. In zygapophysis, vertebrae
can glide one above the other. Some of the bones in the palm or in the sole of foot.
 Ellipsoid joints : They permit movements of articulating bones around two axes. Such joints
are formed between the toe bones and some bones in the sole of foot.
 Movements are produced at joints by contractions of skeletal muscles inserted into the articulating
bones. Flexible connective tissue bands called ligaments stabilise the joints by holding the
articulating bones together.

Movements of Skeletal Muscles : The skeletal muscles are made of striated muscle fibres and are under
voluntary control. According to the type of movements, skeletal muscles can be classified as under :
 Flexor : A muscle that bends one part upon another. E.g.- Leg upon thigh.
 Extensor : The muscles responsible for straightening out a part of the body are termed extensor
muscles. E.g.- Muscles concerned with the extension of foot.
 Adductor : The muscle that is concerned with the movement of a part of the body towards the
midline of the body is called the adductor muscle.
 Abductor : The muscle which moves a part of the body away from the midline of the body is
termed as abductor muscle.
 Pronator : A muscle that brings about the rotation of body parts. For example, the rotation of fore
arm to turn the palm downward or backward.
 Supinator : It helps to rotate the fore arm and thus make the palm face upward or forward.

Antagonistic muscles : When the two muscles contract to bring out opposite movements at the same place
then they are called as antagonistic muscles. For example, bicep muscle present in the arm is a flexor for the
elbow joint and the triceps muscle is its antagonistic muscle which acts as an extensor for that joints. During
flexion movements, the biceps contracts and triceps relaxes while during extension movements, biceps
relaxes and triceps contracts.

Threshold stimulus :
 The skeletal muscle has got large number of muscle fibres. Each of these muscle fibres is supplied
with a motor nerve fibre. When the muscle contracts or shortens in length, it is due to the shortening
of the individual muscle fibres. A muscle always contracts in response to a given stimulus and then it
relaxes back to its original position. The stimulus to the nerve supplying the muscle can be thermal,
electrical, mechanical or chemical in nature. There should always be some minimum strength of
stimulus that will make the muscle respond or contract. This is known as threshold value of the
stimulus. If the given stimulus is less than this threshold limit, the muscle fibres will not respond at
all. Further, on stimulation, each muscle fibre contracts to its full. If the strength of stimulus is below
the threshold value then the muscle fibres will not respond.
  If we increase the strength of stimulus beyond the threshold value, the muscle fibres will contract but
the level of contraction is same as that for the threshold value. That means if the strength of stimulus
is increased, the level of muscle contraction for the individual muscle fibre will be the same. This
shows that either the muscle will contract to a given stimulus or it will not contract at all. This is
known as all-or-none law. However, this force of contraction may depend upon other factors like
changes in temperature, pH or slight stretching of the fibre. But, under all such changed conditions,
increasing the strength of stimulus cannot increase the force of contraction. This all-or-none law is
also followed by smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and the nerve fibres.

Muscle twitch and Tetanus :

 When an electrical stimulus is given to a nerve supplying a muscle, the muscle fibres contract. This
contraction of a single muscle fibre is known as muscle twitch. In this, the muscle fibre contracts
after an initial latent period and then it relaxes back.
 When a muscle is given series of stimuli continuously then it shows muscular tetani. In this, the
second stimulus is given even before the muscle has relaxed from first and the third stimulus is given
even before the muscle has relaxed from the second and so on. Such a response of the muscle is
known as tetanus.

Mechanism of muscle contraction :

 A voluntary muscle fibre consists of numerous myofibrils which have their units as sarcomeres.
Each myofibril is covered by the cisternae and tubules of sarcoplasmic reticulum at the I-band and at
the junction of A-band and I-band by a T-tubule that communicates with the exterior of cell. A
sarcomere consists of a half light band and a half dark band i.e. the distance between two Z-
membranes. It also has primary and secondary filaments. The primary filaments are made up of a
protein called myosin while secondary filaments are of actin.
 As the stimulus is given to the muscle, the secondary filaments slide over to the primary filaments
thus shortening the length of the light band or I-band. It is important to note that the length of dark
band or A-band does not change. The actual site where sliding of the filaments occur is known as
cross bridges. Thus, in response to a stimulus, the overall length of the sarcomere and the myofibril
decreases. A muscle never expands to a stimulus but always contracts in its length.

Chemical changes in muscle contraction :

 ATP is the immediate source of energy for muscle contraction. Hence, hydrolysis process occurs in
the contracting muscle to convert ATP to ADP with the release of inorganic phosphate and energy
by myosin ATPase :
ATPase
ATP + H2O ADP + Pi
 This energy released is used up in muscular contraction. For restoration of ATP, body muscles have
also got another compound called Creatine phosphate (CP). This is also an energy rich compound. It
helps in the conversion of ADP to ATP again immediately. This happens at the end of muscular
contraction.
ADP + CP ATP + Creatine
 Creatine (C) formed during muscular contraction is again reconverted to Creatine phosphate by the
utilisation of ATP generated by carbohydrate oxidation.
ATP + C ADP + CP
  During muscle contraction, carbohydrates are metabolized through glycolysis in the muscle to
produce ATP. This results in the formation of lactic acid from carbohydrates. During recovery after
contraction, lactic acid is oxidized aerobically to produce carbon dioxide, water and giving more
energy.

Fatigue : Under heavy strain of muscular work one feels fatigue. The muscular fatigue may be defined as
inability of muscular contraction after the prolonged stimulation. The fatigue occurs due to depletion of
glycogen, oxygen and ATP as well as accumulation of lactic acid. Under deficiency of oxygen, the lactic
acid is not reconverted into glycogen and is not oxidised to form water and CO2 then this lactic acid gets
accumulated. When we allow resting for some time, the fatigue is removed and the muscle can contract
again.

Distinguish between Red muscle fibres and White muscle fibres : Birds and mammals consist of two
types of skeletal or striated muscle fibres i.e. red muscle fibres or slow fibres and white muscle fibres or fast
fibres. A comparison of these two types of muscle fibres is given below :

Red muscle fibres White muscle fibres

1. Thinner in size. 1. Thicker in size.
2. These are dark red in colour due to the presence of 2. They are lighter in colour due to the lack of
myoglobin (red haemoprotein). Myoglobin can bind myoglobin (red haemoprotein).
with oxygen to form oxymyoglobin and thus stores
oxygen. Oxymyoglobin can release oxygen during
muscular contraction.
3. They have a slow rate of contraction. 3. They have a fast rate of contraction.
4. These muscle fibres are rich in mitochondria. 4. These muscle fibres are poor in mitochondria.
5. These fibres can carry out lot of aerobic 5. These fibres mainly depend upon anaerobic
metabolism and so, aerobic contraction of the metabolism (glycolysis only) and so, anaerobic
muscles without accumulating much of lactic acid. contraction of the muscles thus accumulating lot of
They can thus contract for a longer time without lactic acid leading to muscular fatigue.
muscular fatigue.
6. These muscle fibres can do sustained but slower 6. These muscle fibres can do fast work for a short
work for a long time. period only.
Examples : Extensor muscles on the back of human Examples : Muscles of the eye ball, flight muscles of
body, flight muscles of some birds like kites etc. some birds like sparrow etc.
 UNIT – 05
CHAPTER – 21 : NEURAL CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION
 In man and other vertebrates, the physiological functions are co-ordinated by both the nervous and
endocrine systems.
 The system that receives the stimulus transmits it to other parts of the body and the corresponding
effect shown is known as a Nervous System. The nervous system performs three basic functions –
receives stimuli through sensory neurons from internal and external environment and passes to the
brain where the input stimuli is processed and then response is given back to the body parts through
motor neurons.

Nervous system in Invertebrates :

 In primitive invertebrates like Sponges lack neurons.
 In Hydra, all neurons are linked to one another forming a nerve net called plexus between the outer
epidermis and inner gastrodermis.
 In Planaria, two nerve cords that converge to form a rudimentary brain.
 In Earthworm, it has a single ventral nerve cord and paired segmental ganglia. The ganglia give rise
to the segmental nerves to the tissues.

Nervous System of Cockroach :

 It consists of brain, ventral nerve cord and ganglia.
 Nerves arise from ganglia.
 The brain or supraoesophageal ganglion is made of three fused ganglia of the head and present above
the oesophagus.
 The ventral nerve cord is composed of ten ganglia.
 The first one lies just below the oesophagus and is known as Suboesophageal ganglion which is
connected with brain by a pair of Circumoesophageal (Circumpharyngeal) Commissures.
 The thoracic ganglia are three and six abdominal ganglia of which the last one is larger than the
others.

Nervous System of Human : The human nervous system consists of the following two major parts :
 Central Nervous System (CNS) : It Comprises of Brain and Spinal cord. It is the site of
information processing unit.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) : The nerves which arise from the CNS (brain and spinal cord).
 (i) Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary) : It consists of sensory (afferent) neurons which
transmit impulse from the receptors to the CNS and the motor (efferent) neurons which
transmit response from the CNS to the effector (skeletal muscles).
 (ii) Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary) : It stimulates the glands and the other
muscles of the body and responsible for the involuntary actions.
 (iii) Neuroendocrine System : It consists of a network of endocrine glands and their
hormonal production which is controlled by CNS.
 Nuclei : The cluster (group) of neurons in CNS.
 Ganglia : The cluster (group) of neurons in PNS.
 Nerve tracts : The bundles of nerve fibres in CNS.
 Nerves : A bundles of nerve fibres in the PNS.

A typical Nerve :
 A typical nerve has a tough outer covering called Epineurium. Inside the epineurium, axons of nerve
cells form bundles called fascicle. Each fascicle is wrapped with a layer called perineurium.
 Multipolar nerve cells have many short dendrites and one long axon. E.g.- In cerebral cortex.
  A bipolar nerve cell has a long axon extending on either side of the cell body. E.g.- In retina.
 Pseudounipolar nerve cells have cell body in a side branch of the main axon. E.g.- Cells of dorsal
root ganglion.

Conduction of Nerve impulse across neurons :

 Resting potential : The permeability of plasma membrane to K+ ions is greater than its permeability
to Na+ ions. So, the surface of axon carries a positive charge relative to its interior. This electrical
potential difference across the plasma membrane is called resting potential and it ranges from -40mV
to -90mV.
 Action potential : When a threshold stimulus is applied on the axon membrane then depolarization
is caused by a rapid change in membrane permeability. The membrane becomes more permeable to
Na+ than to K+ ions. The interior becomes electropositive and the ECF (extra cellular fluid) becomes
electronegative. The depolarization spreads and producing a local current which induces the nearby
passive Na+ channels to open and to depolarize the nearby site.
 Repolarisation : After about 0.5 minutes, permeability to K+ ion increases because the build-up of
positive charge inside the cell which opens the voltage gated K+ channels. Movement of K+ ions
outward, down their concentration gradient and then re-establishes the charge differences that
existed before the stimulus occurred. The exodus of K+ ions lowers the number of positive ions
within the cell and the potential falls back towards the resting potential.

Synapse : The functional junction between two neurons i.e. the axon of a neuron and the dendrite of another
neuron.

Types of synapse : There are mainly two types of synapses based on the nature of transfer of information
across the synapse.
 Electrical synapses : In electrical synapses, the cells are separated by a gap of 0.2nm synaptic cleft.
So, an action potential can sufficiently depolarize the post-synaptic membrane.
 Chemical synapses : In chemical synapses, synaptic cleft gap is greater and neurotransmitter
substance responsible for the transmission of nerve impulse across the synapse.

Conduction of Nerve impulse across synapse : In a synapse, there is a narrow fluid-filled gap of 10-20 nm
called synaptic cleft. The nerve terminal has a bulbous expansion called synaptic knob or synaptic button. In
the cytoplasm of the synaptic knob, numerous tiny membrane-bound synaptic vesicles are present. These
synaptic vesicles contain as many as 10,000 molecules of the neurotransmitter. When a nerve impulse
reaches the pre-synaptic membrane, open the voltage-gated calcium channels which is concentrated in the
synapse. Calcium ions from the fluid in the synapse diffuse into the synaptic button and stimulate the
vesicles to move to the terminal membrane which fuses with it and then rupture to release the
neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitters quickly diffuse to the other side of the gap which combine with
specific receptor molecules of the other nerve cell and cause sparking a second electrical current then
passing its signal.

Structure of Human Brain : Human brain is covered by a tough tissue covering called meninges. The
three layers of meninges are the outer most dura-mater, middle arachnoid membrane and inner pia-mater. A
deep cleft called longitudinal fissure divides the brain into two halves or the cerebrum into right and left
hemispheres.

Cerebral Cortex :
 The outer surface of Cerebrum is 2-6 mm thick known as Cerebral Cortex. It consists of grey matter
(spindle and satellite neurons cell bodies).
 The surface of cerebral cortex is increased by numerous infoldings/convolutions called Sulci (small
groove), Fissure (large groove) and Gyri (swollen area between adjacent sulci/fissure). Two thirds of
the surface of the cerebral cortex is hidden in the sulci and fissure.
  Beneath the cerebral cortex, a large number of myelinated axons of cerebral cortex neurons form
white matter.
 Cerebral cortex is the region of various activities and has 3 areas namely Sensory, Motor and
Associative.

Cerebellum :
 It is the second largest part of brain. It is also known as ‘little cerebrum’ and present below the
cerebrum.
 It is also made up of two cerebellar hemispheres and has grey matter outside as 3 layers.
 Outer layer consists of cell bodies.
 Middle layer consists of large flask-shaped complex neurons called Purkinje cells.
 Three pairs of bundles of myelinated nerve fibres called Cerebellar peduncles from the
communication pathways between the Cerebellum and other parts of the CNS.
 Superior Cerebellar peduncles – connect the cerebellum to the midbrain.
 Middle Cerebellar peduncles – have connection with Pons of hind brain.
 Inferior Cerebellar peduncles – communicate with medulla oblongata and spinal cord.
 Cerebellum is a large reflex centre and control involuntary actions and rapid muscular activities like
running, talking, typing, etc. and maintains posture.

Nuclei : Collection of different kinds of neurons in brain.

Basal ganglia : Collection of subcortical nuclei in the fore brain (below the cortex).

Corpus striatum : It is the largest nucleus in the subcortical nuclei which helps planning and execution of
stereotyped movements.

Thalamus : It is a region present at the centre of the forebrain and wrapped by cerebrum. All sensory
information first pass through the thalamus. So, it receives, determines their source, evaluates their
importance and interprets those sensory signals and then channels them to the appropriate cerebral cortex
region.

Hypothalamus : It is present beneath the thalamus. It weighs around 4 gm and is highly vascularized. It
contains the nerve centres for temperature regulation, hunger, thirst, heart-beat, respiration regulation and
emotions (like anger, love, cool, etc.). It has connection with pituitary gland. Hence, also controls growth
and sexual behaviour.

Limbic system :
 It is a part which connects cerebrum and the brain stem. It sends signals to brain and body parts to
regulate our behaviour.
 Amygdala : It is located above the hypothalamus and influences behaviour and activities. So
that, they are appropriate for meeting the body’s internal needs. These include feeding,
sexual interest and emotional reactions such as anger. Hence, it is responsible for controlling
our moods.
 Hippocampus : It is the swollen lower lip of the limbic fork. It involves with learning,
recognition and memory. It also converts short term memory to long term memory. Hence, it
plays a vital role in learning.
 Septum : It is a part of hypothalamus which has centre for sexual arousal.
 The midbrain contains 4 little lobes called Corpora quadrigemina. It has a pair of Superior colliculi
which controls visual reflexes (to fix and focus on an object) and a pair of Inferior colliculi which
controls auditory reflexes (locates and detects the source of a sound).
Brain Stem : The area between thalamus and spinal cord is known as brain stem and it forms the region of
hind brain.
 Pons : It forms the floor of the brain stem which links cerebral cortex and cerebellum.
 Medulla oblongata : It is the posterior most part which connects the spinal cord and various parts of
the brain. This medulla oblongata continues into the spinal cord. This brain stem controls various
reflexes like breathing, salivation, chewing, coughing, sneezing, etc.
 Reticular formation : It connects thalamus with major nerves of spinal cord and is the gatekeeper
of consciousness.

Ventricles of the brain and cerebrospinal fluid :

 There are four cavities in the brain called the two lateral ventricles, the third ventricle and the fourth
ventricle.
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills the ventricles and the sub-arachnoid space.
 Cerebrospinal fluid has the following functions :
 It contributes to homeostasis.
 It protects the brain and spinal cord as a shock-absorbing medium.
 It gives buoyancy to the brain and reduces the pressure at the base.
 It helps in nutrition and excretion of the neurons.
 It transports the hormones to various areas of the brain.

Spinal cord : 42-45 cm long and 2 cm in thick (in mid thoracic region) which is longer and larger in lower
cervical and lumbar regions. It grows till 4-5 yrs. It acts like a link between brain and various parts of the
body.

Structure of Spinal cord : In a cross section, spinal cord consists of butterfly shaped grey matter in the
centre which contains cell bodies, dendrites and synapse. This grey matter has dorsal, ventral and lateral
horns. This grey matter is surrounded by the white matter made of myelinated axons.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM :

 Cranial nerves :
 12 pairs in which 10 pairs originate from brain stem. There are 3 types of CN - sensory
nerves (sensory fibres), mixed nerves (has both) and motor nerves (motor fibres).
 I & II are sensory.
 III & IV originate from mid brain.
 1/3 of the total cranial nerves i.e. V-VIII originate from pons.
 V cranial nerve (Trigeminal nerve) is the largest and branches into 3 pairs which goes to jaw,
scalp and face.
 1/3 of the total cranial nerves i.e. IX-XII originate from medulla.
 X cranial nerve (Vagus) controls and regulates the functions of thoracic and abdominal
organs.
 Spinal Nerves :
 All the spinal nerves are mixed nerves.
 Each spinal nerve has two roots - a dorsal sensory and a ventral motor root.
 At the middle of each dorsal root, there is a swelling called dorsal root ganglion which
contains sensory neurons.
 The motor neurons for the ventral root are present in the grey matter of spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) : It functions independently and has two output systems - sympathetic
and para-sympathetic systems.
 Sympathetic nervous system Para-sympathetic nervous system
1. The pre-ganglionic fibres arise from the thoracic 1. The pre-ganglionic fibres arise from mid brain and
and lumbar segments of spinal cord. Hence, these sacral segments of spinal cord. Hence, these are
are called thoraco-lumbar outflow. called cranio-sacral outflow.

2. The pre-ganglionic fibres are short and the post- 2. The pre-ganglionic fibres are long and the post-
ganglionic fibres are long. ganglionic fibres are short.

3. The autonomic ganglia are interconnected and 3. The autonomic ganglia occur individually in the
occur as two lateral chains, one on either side of the visceral organs / tissues concerned.
spinal cord.

4. The post-ganglionic fibres secrete nor-adrenaline 4. The post-ganglionic fibres secrete acetylcholine at
at their synapses. their synapse.

Reflex Action : Reflex actions are very rapid, involuntary automatic and stereotyped behaviour in which
some stimulus evokes a specific, short-lived response at the unconscious level. There are more than two
hundred reflexes which follow the sequence from stimulus to reflex along a neural pathway called reflex
arc.

Components and pathway of reflex arc :

Receptor Afferent neuron Intermediate neuron Efferent neuron Effector

SENSE ORGANS :
 Structure of Human Eye : Each eye ball consists of three concentric layers - the outermost sclera,
middle choroids and innermost retina. The sclera in the front forms the transparent cornea with more
curved surface to refract light towards the retina. The posterior part of the sclera is tough and elastic
and contains collagen fibres. The middle choroid is highly vascular and pigmented that prevents
internally reflected light within the eye. Just behind the junction between cornea and sclera, the
choroid becomes thicker and has smooth muscles in it which form the ciliary body. The iris extends
from the ciliary body in front of the lens. The iris contains radial and circular muscles that control
the dilation or constriction of pupil. The lens is suspended from the ciliary body by suspensory
ligaments. The lens and the suspensory ligaments divide the cavity of the eye ball into an anterior
and a posterior chamber. The anterior chamber is filled with an aqueous clear fluid called aqueous
humor and the posterior chamber has a gelatinous material called vitreous humor. The innermost
layer of retina is composed of several layers of cells. The photoreceptor layer contains rods and
cones. The intermediate layer of retina has bipolar neurons which synapse with retinal ganglion cells
and their axons bundle to form optic nerve. A tiny circular area called yellow spot or macula lutea
that acts as filter over fovea where the vision is the sharpest. The place where the optic nerve
emerges from the retina is the blind spot. The image produced by the lens of eye on the retina is
inverted but the brain interprets the image in the right way.

 Structure of Human Ear : Human ear consists of three parts - the external ear, middle ear and
internal ear. The external ear consists of a sound gathering trumpet called auricle and the external
auditory canal. The auditory canal is lined by a mesh of hair and ceruminous glands. The cerumin
and the hair prevent entry of unwanted particles and infection. The tympanic membrane separates
the middle ear from the external ear. The middle ear is an air-filled chamber which is connected to
pharynx by Eustachian tube. The middle ear lodges three small bones called as ear-ossicles (malleus,
incus and stapes). They act as a lever system and increase the force of vibration to transmit it to the
endolymph in the inner ear. The middle ear communicates with the internal ear through the oval
window. The inner ear has bony labyrinth and inside which a membranous labyrinth is floating in
 the perilymph. The labyrinth has three parts as the semi-circular canals, vestibule and cochlea. The
cochlea is a shell-like part composed of three fluid-filled canals (vestibular canal, median canal and
tympanic canal) separated by two membranes i.e. Reissner’s membrane and the basilar membrane.
Receptors for hearing are tiny sensory hair cells that line the basilar membrane and they are covered
by tectorial membrane. These three structures (sensory hair cells, basilar membrane and tectorial
membrane) constitute to form the organ of Corti. The sensory hair cells are stimulated by the
vibrations of endolymph that set off nerve impulses to the auditory nerve. The vestibular system
(semi-circular canals, utricle and saccule) helps to maintain balance of the body i.e. orientation,
acceleration and rotation to this system.

 Organ of Smell : Nose is the organ of smell sensation (olfaction) and contains olfactory epithelium.
The olfactory epithelium has three types of cells - Olfactory bipolar neurons, Supporting columnar
epithelium and Bowman’s glands. Each receptor cell bears twenty or many tiny sensory cilia /
olfactory hairs that extends to the mucus. The mucus absorbs the odoriferous substances that
stimulate the receptors. Bundles of non-myelinated axons of the olfactory receptors unite to form
olfactory nerve.

 Organ of Taste : Tongue is the organ of taste sensation (gestation). There are four basic types of
taste namely sweet, sour, salty and bitter which are detected in distinct regions on the tongue. The
tongue detects taste through tiny organs called taste buds. Each taste bud contains about 50 gustatory
receptor cells. A single gustatory receptor cell is exposed to the external surface through an opening
called taste pore. Though each receptor is more responsive to a particular substance and a broad
range of chemicals can stimulate it. The brain integrates the differential inputs from various taste
buds into a complex flavours.
 UNIT – 05
CHAPTER – 22 : CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION AND INTEGRATION
 Internal Environment of animal body is maintained in a steady state by Autonomic Nervous System
and Endocrine System.
 Glands are secretory organs.
 There are two types of glands - Exocrine glands and Endocrine glands.
 Exocrine glands are also called ductess glands which secretes enzymes.
 Endocrine glands are also called ductless glands which secretes hormones.
 Hormones are chemical regulators / messengers / information molecules.

Chemical nature of Hormones : Hormones are organic substances of varying complexity fall into two
major classes - Steroid Hormone and Amino acid Hormone.

Characteristics of Hormone :
 Acts on target organs / tissues.
 Specific in their action.
 Secretes in trace amount.

Functions of Hormones :
 Metabolic activities.
 Homeostasis.
 Morphogenic activities.
 Mental activities.
 Growth, maturation and regeneration.
 Secondary sexual characters and reproductive activities.
 Control the other endocrine glands.

Endocrine glands in man :

 Pituitary gland is present in head region.
 Thyroid glands are present in neck region.
 Parathyroid gland is embedded in thyroid gland.
 Adrenals glands are present on upper end of kidney.
 Thymus gland is present on either side of trachea.
 Gonads are present in or below pelvic cavity.
 Gastric glands are present in the wall of stomach & intestine.
 Pineal gland is present in the dorsal side of brain.
 The hypothalamus is a region of the brain that controls an immense number of bodily functions.
 The pituitary gland is also known as the hypophysis which is a roundish organ that lies immediately
beneath the hypothalamus. It composed of two distinctive parts as the anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis) & the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis).

Characteristics of hormones :
 Hormones have more or less a specific role. The spectrum of action varies with the hormone. Some
are highly selective while others are more generalized.
 Hormones are produced from a tissue or an organ and then they act on different tissues or organs i.e.
they have a target organ to act or their activity is at a remote rate.
 Hormones can be easily transported via blood. They are poured into venous blood.
 They are active in minute concentrations only a few picogram (10-12 g) or a few microgram (10-6 g).
The number of hormone molecules per unit target tissue is definite.
  A hormone in its primary action affects one or a limited number of reactions and does not influence
directly all other metabolic activities of the cell.

Differentiate hormones and enzymes :

Hormones Enzymes
1. They are produced from glands without any ducts 1. They are produced from glands having ducts
(endocrine glands). (exocrine glands).

2. Chemically, they can be either proteins, steroids 2. Chemically, they are all protein polypeptides in
or biogenic amines. nature.

3. They are used up during a metabolic reaction. 3. They remain unchanged at the end of reaction
(catalyst).

4. They are produced in an organ other than they 4. They are produced in an organ where they
perform their function i.e. they have a target organ. perform their function.

5. They are easily transported through blood. 5. They are not transported through blood.

Mammalian endocrine system : The mammalian endocrine system consists of the following organs and
tissues – Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, four parathyroid glands, two adrenal glands, two
testes (male) or two ovaries (female), thymus gland, pineal gland, islets of Langerhans and hormonal tissues
on gastrointestinal tract. The hypothalamus is a nervous system of the brain which is also integrated with the
endocrine system and secretes hormones.

Hypothalamo-pituitary Axis :
 Hypothalamus as an endocrine gland : Hypothalamus is a part of the brain and consists of several
masses of grey matter called hypothalamic nuclei. In fact, it forms the floor of the third cerebral
ventricle of the brain. Neurons of the hypothalamic nuclei control the activity of pituitary gland. The
hypothalamus is connected to the anterior lobe of pituitary by hypophyseal portal vessels. The
hypothalamic nuclei or neurosecretory cells secrete several hormones called neurohormones that
reach the anterior pituitary by hypophyseal portal vessels. These neurohormones control the
secretions of the hormones from the anterior pituitary. These neurohormones are given below :

Hormones from Hypothalamus Functions

1. Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH) 1. Stimulates the secretion of growth hormone.
2. Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH) 2. Inhibits the secretion of Growth hormone.
3. Thyrotrophic Releasing Hormone (TRH) 3. Stimulates release of thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH).
4. Adrenocorticotropic Releasing hormone (ACTH- 4. Stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotropic
RH) Hormone (ACTH).
5. Gonadotropin releasing Hormone (GnRH) 5. Stimulates the release of Follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH).
6. Prolactin Releasing Hormone (PRH) 6. Stimulates the release of prolactin.
7. Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) 7. Inhibits the release of prolactin.
8. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone Releasing 8. Stimulates the secretion of melanocyte stimulating
Hormone (MRH) hormone (MSH).
9. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone Inhibiting 9. Inhibits the secretion of melanocyte stimulating
hormone (MIH) hormone.
Pituitary as an endocrine gland : Pituitary is a small body (about the size of a gram) located on the ventral
side of the diencephalon region of the brain. The pituitary hangs below the hypothalamus by a stalk called
as infundibulum. The pituitary has three different parts as anterior lobe or adenohypophysis, intermediate
lobe and posterior lobe or neurohypophysis. The adenohypophysis is compact and highly vascular. It is
connected to the hypothalamus by hypophyseal portal vessels. The neurohypophysis is connected to the
hypothalamus by nerve fibres.

The anterior lobe of pituitary releases six hormones (all are proteinous in nature) that control the activities
of various other endocrine glands also. They are given below :
 Growth hormone or Somatotrophic hormone (GH or STH) :
 It is secreted by the somatotrophic cells of anterior pituitary.
 Regulates general body growth, muscles and viscera growth.
 Increases the length of bones.
 Control carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism.
 May counteract insulin to raise blood glucose levels etc.
 Its deficiency (hypoactivity) causes dwarfism in youngs and acromicria in adults (rarely)
while its excessive secretion (hyperactivity) causes gigantism in youngs and acromegaly in
adults.
 Adrenocortico-trophic hormone (ACTH) :
 It is secreted by the corticotrophic cells of anterior pituitary.
 Controls the growth and secretion of adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids (cortisol,
cortisone etc.).
 However, the secretion of mineralocorticoids by adrenal medulla is stimulated to a much less
degree.
 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or Thyrotrophic hormone or Thyrotropin :
 It is secreted by the thyrotrophic cells of anterior pituitary.
 Controls the growth and activity of the thyroid gland.
 It acts on thyroid gland to release its hormone as thyroxine.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) :
 It is also secreted by gonadotrophic cells of anterior pituitary.
 Increases the number and size (maturation) of graafian follicles in the ovaries in females.
 Stimulates spermatogenesis in males.
 Luteinising hormone (LH) or interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) :
 It is also secreted by gonadotrophic cells.
 In females, it completes the development of graafian follicles to its secretory stage and brings
about ovulation along with FSH. It causes appearance, growth and maintenance of corpus
luteum. It stimulates the secretion of progesterone from the ovaries.
 In males, it stimulates the development and functional activity of interstitial cells to produce
testosterone.
 Prolactin or Lactogenic hormone or Luteotrophic hormone (LTH) :
 It helps in the growth of mammary glands during pregnancy.
 Initiates the secretion of milk after child birth.

The posterior lobe of pituitary releases the following two peptide hormones. Both these hormones are
synthesized in the hypothalamus and are carried to the posterior pituitary along with nerve fibres where they
are stored. From posterior pituitary, they are released into the blood.
 Vasopressin or Pitressin or Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) :
 It is released from posterior pituitary in response to stress and dehydration.
 It increases the reabsorption of water in the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting
tubules of kidney.
 
Deficiency of ADH in the body increases the urine flow causing diabetes insipidus. It also
raises blood pressure by constricting the peripheral blood vessels.
 Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus occurs when the kidney is unable to respond to antidiuretic
hormone.
 The major sign of either type of diabetes insipidus is excessive urine production.
 Oxytocin or Pitocin :
 It is an important uterus contracting hormone at the time of child birth.
 It also acts on mammary glands and helps in the expulsion of milk at the time of suckling. It
is also known as ‘milk-ejection hormone’ and ‘birth hormone’.
 It decreases the blood pressure by dilating the peripheral blood vessels (opposite to that of
vasopressin).

Feed back inhibition of hormones : Hypothalamus produces thyrotropin releasing factor (TRF) that acts
on anterior pituitary to release thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). This TSH then acts on thyroid to release
its hormone as thyroxine. If the level of thyroxine in the blood is more then it will inhibit the hypothalamus
to produce TRF and due to this, less of TSH and thyroxine. If thyroxine level is less, hypothalamus
produces more TRF. Hypothalamus may also be inhibited or activated by the levels of TSH. This is known
as feed-back inhibition.

Thyroid Gland :
 Thyroid hormones are derivatives of the tyrosine (amino acid) bound covalently to iodine.
 The two principal thyroid hormones are thyroxine (known affectionately as T4 or L-3,5,3',5'-
tetraiodothyronine) and triiodothyronine (T3 or L-3,5,3'-triiodothyronine).
 Thyroid epithelial cells (the cells responsible for synthesis of thyroid hormones) are arranged in
spheres called thyroid follicles. Follicles are filled with colloid (a proteinaceous depot of thyroid
hormone precursor).
 Thyroid gland is found on the ventral side in the neck region of the body. At the base of larynx, it
has two lateral lobes one on either side of trachea. Cells lining the thyroid follicles secrete two
thyroid hormones as thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Both are iodinated forms of an amino acid
called thyronine and stored in the form of semifluid material (colloid) in the lumen of follicles.
Whenever necessary, the hormones are released from the colloid to the blood.
 Functions :
 Thyroid hormones increase the metabolic rate of the body, enhance heat production and
maintain BMR.
 They also promote growth of body tissues i.e. both physical growth and development of
mental faculties are stimulated.
 They stimulate tissue differentiation. Hence, promote metamorphosis of tadpoles into adult
frogs.
 Disorders due to thyroid hormone imbalances :
 Excessive secretion of thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism) results in exophthalmic goitre or
Grave’s disease. It is accompanied by the bulging of the eye ball. It is associated with high
metabolic rate, heart beat and blood pressure rises, restlessness, tremors, nervousness, rise in
body temperature etc.
 Less secretion of thyroid hormone (hypothyroidism) results in myxedema/myxoedema in
adult and cretinism (feeble mindedness) in children. The patient of myxedema suffers from
low metabolic rate, slow heart rate, low body temperature and reproductive failure.
Administration of thyroid hormones cures the symptoms.
 For the synthesis of thyroid hormone (thyroxine), an important inorganic ion called iodine is
needed in the body. Hence, the dietary deficiency of iodine causes goitre in which thyroid
gland enlarges in an effort to produce more thyroxine.
 
Failure of thyroid hormone secretion in children slows body growth and mental development
and reduces metabolic rate. The child becomes stunted and mentally retarded. The body
temperature, heart rate and blood pressure are lower than normal. The patient is pot-bellied
and pigeon chested and has a protruding tongue. This disease is known as cretinism.
 Thyroid gland disorders :
 Hypothyroidism is due to failure of thyroid gland / hyposecretion of TRH, TSH or both
(Inadequate dietary iodine).
 Symptoms of hypothyroidism are low metabolic activity and poor tolerance of cold.
 Hypothyroidism in children causes cretinism. The symptoms of cretinism are poor skeleton
growth, dwarfism, mentally retarded, dry skin, thick tongue, lethargy, respiratory problems,
constipation, neonatal jaundice etc.
 Hypothyroidism in adult causes myxoedema (facial tissues to swell and look fluffy).
 Hyperthyroidism causes Grave’s disease (exophthalmic goitre). An immune disease in which
auto-antibodies bind and activate the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor, leading to
continual stimulation of thyroid hormone synthesis (Oedema behind eyes i.e. exophthalmos
which is more often in females).

Parathyroid Glands :
 They are four pea sized organs, clinging to the rear surface of thyroid but are independent of thyroid
structurally and functionally. This gland secretes parathormone (PTH) whose functions are as
follows :
 It regulates the calcium and phosphate balance between blood and other tissues.
 It inhibits synthesis of collagen by osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts.
 It helps in absorption of calcium from the intestine and reabsorption by kidneys.
 Disorders in Parathyroid glands :
 Hypoparathyroidism : It leads to deficiency of plasma calcium. Nerve and muscle action
potentials rise leading to muscle twitches, spasm, etc. and the condition is called
hypocalcemia or parathyroid tetany.
 Hyperparathyroidism : It causes demineralization of bones leading to their easy fracture
and deformation. It may lead to Osteitis fibrosa cystica (OFC).

Adrenal or Suprarenal Glands :

 There are two adrenal glands, one on the top of each kidney. Adrenal gland has an outer portion
called adrenal cortex and an inner portion called adrenal medulla. Both these parts differ in the
nature of hormone produced and also with respect to their functions.
 Adrenal cortex : This part of adrenal gland is very important for the animal and its removal or
destruction will kill the animal. It produces mainly three groups of steroid hormones namely
glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and sex-corticoids.
 Glucocorticoids regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. They also
increase the blood glucose level. E.g.- cortisone, cortisol and corticosterone. The secretion of
glucocorticoid hormones is regulated by ACTH from anterior pituitary.
 Mineralocorticoids are produced from the outermost cellular layer of the adrenal cortex. The
main hormone in mammals and birds is aldosterone that reduces the sodium loss from the
body in urine, sweat, saliva etc. by its active reabsorption from those fluids. It also increases
the excretion of potassium (in an exchange with the absorption of sodium), retain water in the
body along with sodium. Thus, it regulates the ionic and water balance of the body. The
secretion of aldosterone is stimulated by three factors : (a) a fall in the sodium ions in the
plasma of blood. (b) a rise in the potassium ions in the plasma of blood. (c) a fall in the
volume of blood itself.
 Gonadocorticoids stimulate the development of secondary sexual characters in males.
  Adrenal medulla : It helps the body to prepare for stress or any emergency conditions. This part of
adrenal is not so vital for the survival of the organism and so, its removal will not cause death. It
produces two hormones called as adrenaline or epinephrine and nor-adrenaline or nor-epinephrine.
Both these hormones act on tissues and organs that are supplied by sympathetic fibres and produce
similar effects. Thus, adrenal medulla and sympathetic system function as a closed integrated unit
and is known as sympathetico-adrenal system.

Pancreas :
 The pancreas comprises both exocrine and endocrine parts. The endocrine part of pancreas forms
many small clusters of cells (small patches of cells) called the islets of Langerhans.
 Pancreatic islets house contains three major cell types and each of which produces a different
endocrine product :
 Alpha cells (α-cells) secrete the hormone glucagon.
 Beta cells (β-cells) produce insulin.
 Delta cells (δ-cells) secrete the hormone somatostatin.
 Insulin : It is proteinous hormone produced by β-cells of islets of Langerhans. It regulates the
amount of glucose in the blood by converting excess of glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis) which
can be stored in the liver and muscles. Lack of insulin results in excess glucose in blood
(hyperglycemia) and it starts appearing in urine. This disease is known as diabetes mellitus.
 Functions of Insulin :
 It increases the utilization of glucose in the tissues and facilitates the storage of glucose as
glycogen in the liver and muscles. As a consequence, insulin lowers the blood glucose level
in the body.
 It increases the synthesis of fats in the adipose tissues from fatty acids and also from glucose.
 It reduces the breakdown and oxidation of fats.
 It promotes protein synthesis from amino acids in the body tissues.
 It also reduces the breakdown of proteins in the body. Thus, insulin can be regarded as an
anabolic hormone.
 Insulin Disorders :
 Hyperglycaemia :
High blood Glucose level Breakdown of muscle tissue Loss of weight Tiredness.
 Hypoglycaemia :
Low blood Glucose level Hunger Sweating Irritability Double vision.

 Glucagon : It is also proteinous hormone produced by α-cells of islets of Langerhans. It also

regulates the amount of glucose in the blood by converting glycogen back to glucose whenever
required. Thus, its effect is opposite to that of insulin.
 Somatostatin : It inhibits / regulates the secretion of glucagon and insulin.

Pineal Gland : The pineal gland or epiphysis synthesizes and secretes melatonin. Melatonin is a structurally
simple hormone that communicates information about environmental lighting to various parts of the body. It
is attached to the roof of third ventricle in the rear part of brain. It functions as a biological clock and a
neurosensory transducer which helps in converting of the neural information.

Thymus : It secretes thymosin, thymic factor and thymopoietin. It stimulates the entire immune system and
hence it is called as ‘throne of immunity’. It stimulates the spleen and other organs which have stopped
functioning to function again. Its secretion decreases with advancing age and entirely ceases by about 50
years.
Endocrine functions of Gonads :
 The male gonad is testes and female gonad is ovary. Gonads produce reproductive cells and secrete
hormones which control reproductive organs. These hormones are called as sex hormones. They
start to secrete from the age of puberty or sexual maturity.
 In female :
 Ovarian follicle secretes Estrogen which helps in development of female sexual
characteristics and regulate the menstrual cycle.
 Corpus luteum secrete Progesterone and Estrogen which help in implantation, maintaining
pregnancy and lactation.
 Relaxin relaxes pubic symphysis to dilate uterine cervix.
 Inhibin / Actin helps in inhibition / activation of FSH and GnRH production.
 Human Chorionic Gonadotropin is secreted from placenta which stimulates the release of
progesterone from the corpus luteum and maintains it.
 Human placental lactogen is secreted from placenta which stimulates the mammary growth.
 In Male :
 Testes secrete hormone Testosterone which helps in development of male sexual
characteristics and stimulation of spermatogenesis.
 Inhibin / actin helps in activation / inhibition of LH and FSH production.
 Gonad disorders :
 Hyposecretion of testes causes Eunuchoidism. Symptoms are small size of Prostate gland,
seminal vesicles and penis which causes infertility i.e. no secondary sexual characters.
 Hypersecretion of estrogen in male causes Gynaecomastia. Symptoms are development of
breast tissues in males during puberty.
 Hyposecretion of ovaries causes infertility. Symptoms are poor development of secondary
sexual characters.
Hormone from Heart : The atrial wall of our heart secretes atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) when the blood
volume and pressure in the atria increase.
Horomone from Kidney : The cells of juxtaglomerular apparatus produce a peptide hormone called
erythropoietin. It stimulates the formation of erythrocytes (RBCs).
Hormones from Gastro-intestinal Tract :
 Gastrin : It is secreted by the mucosa of pyloric stomach and duodenum. It controls the secretion of
gastric juice by the gastric glands.
 Secretin : It acts on the exocrine region of pancreas and stimulates the secretion of water and
bicarbonate ions.
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) : It is secreted by the intestinal mucosa. It acts on pancreas to secrete
pancreatic enzymes. It also acts on gall bladder to release bile juice into duodenum.
 Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) : It is secreted by the mucosa of duodenum. It inhibits gastric
secretion and mobility.
Molecular action of Hormones :
 Steroid Hormones : The lipid soluble hormones can enter the cell through the bilayer of
phospholipids and interact with intra cellular receptors to regulate gene expression.
 Peptide Hormones : The water soluble hormones interact with a surface receptor. For example,
insulin hormone has a surface receptor which is a hetero-tetrameric protein consisting of four
subunits. Of these two alpha subunits protrude from the surface of the cell and bind insulin and two
beta subunits span the membrane and protrude into the cytoplasm. The following are the five steps in
the hormone action :
 Binding to the receptor.
 Use of second messengers (the mediators).
 Amplification of signal.
 Antagonistic effect.
 Synergistic effect.